Science and education in Russia in the second half of the 18th century. Organization of public education in the second half of the 18th century

As in previous centuries, the main subject, the main active creative element in the field of culture were representatives of the ruling class of the nobility. Crushed by exploitation, the downtrodden and ignorant peasantry had neither the means, nor the strength, nor the time, nor the conditions for obtaining an education, for activities in the field of science, literature, and art. Therefore, it is quite clear that here we will talk about achievements, mainly in the field of noble culture.

At the same time, the needs and consequences of the socio-economic development of the country were placed before science, education, socio-political thought, and so on. tasks that went beyond the needs of the nobility. In the 18th century, this introduced people from the urban bourgeoisie, merchants, white clergy, state and economic peasants to active work in some areas of culture. Since the time of Peter I, education in Russia has taken on an increasingly clear secular character, an increasingly definite practical orientation. At the same time, the traditional form of “literacy education” was still the most widespread and widespread. We are talking about teaching the reading of the Book of Hours and the Psalter by deacons and other clergymen.

2.1 Educational reform of Catherine II

The period of the highest development of schooling in Russia in the 18th century. turned out to be the reign of Catherine II (1762-1796). Catherine showed a special interest in the problems of upbringing and education. The ideas of the European Renaissance and Enlightenment were of particular interest to the Russian Empress. Having conceived the reform of the school system, Catherine turned to D. Diderot, who drew up the "Plan of the University for Russia". The priority of school policy in the second half of the XVIII century. was the satisfaction of the cultural and educational needs of the nobility. The nobility preferred to learn secular manners, enjoy the theater and other arts. Significant progress was made by special military educational institutions - the Land and Naval Cadet Corps. The development of education in Russia in the second half of the 18th century was influenced by the enlightened absolutism of Catherine II, which determined not only the growth of the network of educational institutions, but also the priority of the class principle in their recruitment. Catherine II carefully studied the experience of organizing education in the leading countries of Western Europe and the most important pedagogical ideas of her time. For example, in Russia of the 18th century, the works of Jan Amos Comenius, Fenelon, and Locke's Thoughts on Education were well known. Hence, a new formulation of the tasks of the school: not only to teach, but also to educate. The humanitarian ideal, which originated in the Renaissance, was taken as the basis: it proceeded "out of respect for the rights and freedom of the individual" and eliminated "from pedagogy everything that is in the nature of violence or coercion" (PN Milyukov). On the other hand, Catherine's educational concept required the maximum isolation of children from the family and their transfer into the hands of a teacher. However, already in the 80s. the focus was once again shifted from education to education. The Prussian and Austrian education systems were taken as a basis. It was supposed to establish three types of general education schools - small, medium and main. They taught general subjects: reading, writing, knowledge of numbers, catechism, sacred history, the beginnings of Russian grammar (small school). In the middle one, an explanation of the Gospel, Russian grammar with spelling exercises, general and Russian history, and a brief geography of Russia were added. In the main - a detailed course in geography and history, mathematical geography, grammar with exercises in business writing, the foundations of geometry, mechanics, physics, natural history and civil architecture. The class-lesson system of Comenius was introduced, attempts were made to use visualization, in the upper grades it was even recommended to evoke independent work of thought in students. But basically, didactics was reduced to memorizing texts from a textbook. The relationship between the teacher and the students was built in accordance with the views of Catherine: for example, any punishment was strictly prohibited. In 1764, in Moscow, on Solyanka, a state-owned "Educational Home for Foundlings and Homeless Children" was opened - the first Moscow specialized institution for orphans. This institution was supposed to receive the bulk of its funds from charitable collections. The Empress herself donated 100,000 rubles for the laying of the building and allocated 50,000 annual revenues from her funds, urging her subjects to follow her example. Education took place according to the method of the famous teacher I.I. Betsky, who sought through closed educational institutions to create a "new breed of people" - educated and hardworking.

By the middle of the XVIII century. The general level of education in Russia was low. In the orders of deputies to the Legislative Commission of 1767-1768, where for the first time considerations were publicly expressed on education, little benefit was noted from the schools established in Russia in the time of Peter the Great. However, "education" is becoming fashionable among the nobility.

Home education is widely developed in the families of landowners. But most often it was superficial and consisted only in the desire to master the “French elegance”.

There was virtually no elementary school in the country. Literacy schools continued to be the main form of education for the tax-paying population. They were created by private individuals (“masters of letters”, as a rule, priests). Teaching in them was conducted mainly according to the Book of Hours and the Psalter, but some secular textbooks were used, for example, “Arithmetic” by L.F. Magnitsky.

In the second half of the XVIII century. A network of closed estate educational institutions was created, intended primarily for the children of the nobility. In addition to the well-known Land Gentry Corps, the Corps of Pages was founded in the late 50s, preparing the nobles for court service.

In 1764, the "Educational Society for Noble Maidens" was founded in St. Petersburg at the Smolny Monastery (Smolny Institute) with a department for girls from the bourgeois class.

The development of the class school consolidated the dominant position of the nobility in the main areas of administrative and military activity, turned education into one of its class privileges. However, closed educational establishments left a noticeable mark in the history of Russian culture. Many famous cultural figures were educated there.

From the second half of the XVIII century. professional art schools appeared in Russia (Dance School in St. Petersburg, 1738; Ballet School at the Moscow Orphanage, 1773).

The Academy of Arts, founded in 1757, became the first state center for art education in the field of painting, sculpture and architecture. The music classes of the Academy of Arts played a well-known role in the development of musical education and upbringing in Russia. All these educational institutions were closed; they were forbidden to study the children of serfs.

A qualitatively new moment in the development of education in Russia was the emergence of a general education school. Its beginning is associated with the foundation in 1755 of Moscow University and two gymnasiums: for the nobility and raznochintsy with the same curriculum. Three years later, on the initiative of university professors, a gymnasium was opened in Kazan.

The opening of the Moscow University, as well as the Academy of Sciences, was a major social and cultural event. The University in Moscow has become a nationwide center of education and culture, it embodies the democratic principles of the development of education and science, proclaimed and persistently pursued by M.V. Lomonosov.

Already in the XVIII century. Moscow University became the center of Russian education. The printing house, opened under him in 1756, was, in essence, the first civilian printing house in Moscow. Textbooks and dictionaries, scientific, artistic, domestic and translated literature were printed here.

For the first time, many works of Western European enlighteners were printed in the printing house of the university, the first magazine for children ("Children's Reading for the Heart and Mind"), the first natural science magazine in Russia ("Shop of Natural History, Physics, Chemistry"), the magazine "Musical amusement." Moscow University began publishing the first non-governmental newspaper in Russia, Moskovskie Vedomosti, which existed until 1917.

The undoubted merit of the university was the publication of the ABCs of the peoples of Russia - Georgian and Tatar.

In the second half of the XVIII century. In Russia, a system of general education schools began to take shape. Approved in 1786, the Charter of Public Schools was the first general legislative act for Russia in the field of public education.

According to the Charter, the main four-year schools were opened in the provincial cities, approaching in type to high school, in the county - two-year schools, small, which taught reading, writing, sacred history, elementary courses in arithmetic and grammar. For the first time, unified curricula were introduced in schools, a class-lesson system, and teaching methods were developed.

Continuity in education was achieved by the common curricula of small schools and the first two classes of main schools.

The main public schools opened in 25 provincial cities, small schools, along with estate schools, universities and gymnasiums in Moscow and Kazan, thus constituted the structure of the education system in Russia by the end of the 18th century. In the country, according to the data available in the literature, there were 550 educational institutions with 60-70 thousand students. Approximately one person out of one and a half thousand inhabitants studied at the school. The statistics, however, did not take into account various forms private education (home education in noble families, education in literacy schools, in peasant families, etc.), as well as foreigners educated abroad or who came to Russia. The actual number of literate people in Russia was obviously much higher.

One-year parish (parochial) schools were established at each church parish. They accepted children of "any condition" without distinction of "gender and age." The charter proclaimed a succession between schools of different levels.

However, in fact, very little was done to spread education and enlightenment among the masses of the people. The treasury did not bear any costs for the maintenance of schools, transferring it either to the local city government, or to the landlords, or to the peasants themselves in the state village.

The school reform made the problem of teacher training urgent. The first educational institutions for teacher training arose in the second half of the 18th century. In 1779, the Teacher's Seminary was founded at Moscow University. In 1782, the St. Petersburg main public school was opened to train teachers of public schools. It was a closed educational institution that trained gymnasium teachers, boarding school instructors, and university teachers. The teachers of district, parish and other lower schools were mainly graduates of gymnasiums.

The emergence of new textbooks in the second half of the XVIII century. associated with the activities of the Academy of Sciences, primarily M.V. Lomonosov, and professors of Moscow University. Lomonosov's Russian Grammar, published in 1757, replaced the outdated grammar of M. Smotritsky as the main textbook on the Russian language. The textbook on mathematics, compiled in the 1960s by D. Anichkov, a student of Moscow University, retained its importance as the main textbook on mathematics in schools until the end of the 18th century. Lomonosov's book "The First Foundations of Metallurgy, or Mining" became a textbook on mining.

An important indicator of the spread of education was the increase in book publishing, the appearance of periodicals, interest in the book, its collection.

The publishing base is expanding, in addition to state-owned printing houses, private printing houses appear. The Decree "On Free Printing Houses" (1783) for the first time granted the right to start printing houses to everyone. Private printing houses were opened not only in the capitals, but also in provincial towns.

In the second half of the XVIII century. the repertoire of books changes, the number of original scientific and artistic publications increases, the book becomes more diverse in content and design.

The first public cultural and educational organizations appear. For some time (1768 - 1783) in St. Petersburg there was an "Assembly, trying to translate foreign books", created on the initiative of Catherine II. It was engaged in the translation and publication of the works of ancient classics, French enlighteners. The publisher of the proceedings of the "Collection" for some time was N.I. Novikov.

In 1773, Novikov organized in St. Petersburg the "Society for the Printing of Books", something like the first publishing house in Russia. Many people took part in its activities. famous writers XVIII century, including A.N. Radishchev. The activity of the "Society" was also short-lived, as it faced great difficulties, primarily with the weak development of the book trade, especially in the provinces.

The main centers for publishing books and journals were the Academy of Sciences and Moscow University. The academic printing house printed mainly scientific and educational literature. On the initiative of M.V. Lomonosov, the first Russian literary and scientific journal, Monthly Works for the Benefit and Amusement of Employees, began to be published (1755). The academic printing house also printed the first private journal in Russia, Hardworking Bee (1759), published by A.P. Sumarokov.

In the second half of the XVIII century. Periodicals become a noticeable social and cultural phenomenon not only in the capital, but also in provincial cities. In Yaroslavl, in 1786, the first provincial magazine "Solitary Poshekhonets" appeared. In 1788, the weekly provincial newspaper Tambov News, founded by G.R. Derzhavin, at that time the civil governor of the city. The journal The Irtysh Turning into Hippocrene (1789) was published in Tobolsk.

A special role in the publication and distribution of books in last quarter 18th century belonged to the outstanding Russian educator N.I. Novikov (1744 - 1818). Novikov, like other Russian enlighteners, considered enlightenment to be the basis of social change. Ignorance, in his opinion, was the cause of all the errors of mankind, and knowledge was the source of perfection. Defending the need for education for the people, he founded and maintained the first public school in St. Petersburg. Novikov's publishing activity reached its greatest extent during the period when he rented the printing house of Moscow University (1779 - 1789). About a third of all books published in Russia at that time (about 1000 titles) came out of his printing houses. He published political and philosophical treatises of Western European thinkers, collected works of Russian writers, works of folk art. A large place among his publications was occupied by magazines, textbooks, Masonic religious and moral literature. Novikov's editions had a large circulation for that time - 10 thousand copies, which to a certain extent reflected the growing interest in the book.

In the 60s - 70s of the XVIII century. satirical journalism became widespread, on the pages of which works “employees for the correction of morals” were printed, anti-serfdom educational thought was formed. Most important role in this process, she belonged to the Novikov publications Truten (1769 - 1770) and especially The Painter (1772 - 1773). This bright and bold satirical magazine by N.I. Novikov contained sharp criticism of the feudal system in Russia.

The development of education is connected with the expansion of the circle of readers. In the memoirs of contemporaries there is evidence that "people from the lower classes enthusiastically buy various chronicles, monuments of Russian antiquity and many rag shops are full of handwritten chronicles."

Books were copied, sold, and this often fed small employees and students. At the Academy of Sciences, some workers were paid in books.

N.I. Novikov contributed in every possible way to the development of the book trade, especially in the provinces, considering it as one of the sources of book distribution. At the end of the XVIII century. bookstores already existed in 17 provincial cities, about 40 bookstores were in St. Petersburg and Moscow.

During this period, there were libraries at universities, gymnasiums, closed educational institutions. The library of the Academy of Sciences continued to work. In 1758, the library of the Academy of Arts was opened, the foundation of which was donated by the curator of Moscow University I.I. Shuvalov collection of books on art, a collection of paintings by Rembrandt, Rubens, Van Dyck. From the moment of its foundation, it was publicly available; not only students of the Academy, but also everyone who wished, could use the books in the reading room. On certain days of the week, halls of other libraries were opened for "book lovers".

In the 80s - 90s of the XVIII century. in some provincial cities (Tula, Kaluga, Irkutsk) the first public libraries appeared. Paid (commercial) libraries arose at bookstores, first in Moscow and St. Petersburg, and then in provincial cities.

A large role in the spiritual life of society belonged to the intelligentsia. According to its social composition, the intelligentsia of the XVIII century. was mostly nobility. However, in the second half of this century, many raznochintsy appeared among the artistic and scientific intelligentsia. Raznochintsy studied at Moscow University, the Academy of Arts, and some closed educational institutions intended for non-nobles.

One of the features of the cultural process in Russia at the end of the XVIII century. there was the existence of a serf intelligentsia: artists, composers, architects, artists. Many of them were talented, gifted people, they understood the gravity of their disenfranchised position, and their lives often ended tragically.

The fate of the serf intelligentsia in Russia reflected the incompatibility of serfdom and the free spiritual development of the individual. The new concept of the human personality worked out by public consciousness came into conflict with real life.

Conclusion

The dominant trend in the development of culture in Russia in the XVIII century. was similar to the European one: the separation of science from the religious and mythological worldview, the creation of a new picture of the world and new sources of knowledge.

The outgrowth of state enlightenment in the Age of Enlightenment in Russia proceeded differently than in Western Europe, and had a slightly different content. If for European education the main task was the development of positive scientific knowledge, then in Russia - assimilation knowledge, overcoming traditionalism with the help of other people's rational knowledge. In other words, the priority direction was not the development of science, but education, school; not writing new books, but distributing them.

The new Russian culture was created in the conditions of active assimilation of Western European culture, its programs and conceptual schemes. The new Russian culture is being built as a more or less original copy of the culture of Europe. The creators of a new culture, as a rule, did not strive to be original. They acted as cultural leaders, educators, conductors of European enlightenment. They sought to imitate, assimilate, being proud of the successful acquisition of knowledge, skill, ideas.

Enlightenment in Russia turned out to be a time of inspired apprenticeship, assimilation of the ideas of the European Enlightenment in the conditions of a weak own secular intellectual tradition.

34) Geopolitics studies dependency foreign policy states depending on their geographic location. In 1904, the British scientist Halford Mackinder published his work The Geographical Axis of History. Russia was given a central place in Mackinder's theory. The scientist believed that the one who has a dominant influence on Central Asia has the most advantageous geopolitical position. He called Central Asia the core land (in English heartland .- "heartland"), Eurasia, according to Mackinder, is a giant natural fortress that is difficult to conquer for maritime states. It is rich in natural resources and can rely on its own strength for economic development. According to the scientist, the unification in the struggle for dominance in the world of two continental powers - Germany and Russia - is dangerous for the oceanic powers - Great Britain and the USA. It was on Mackinder's advice that the so-called buffer belt was created between Germany and Russia after the end of the First World War.

A buffer belt is a territory between large and powerful powers, on which small and weaker states, as a rule, are located in a dependent position. They protect geographically close countries from clashes or, conversely, from a close political union. The buffer belt between the First and Second World Wars included the Baltic States, Poland, and Romania.

The geopolitical formulas developed by Mackinder are: "Who controls Eastern Europe controls the Heartland. Who controls the Heartland controls the World Island. Who controls the World Island controls the World." The scientist called Eurasia the world island. Russia, according to Mackinder's theory, occupies a central and very advantageous geopolitical position.

In the 20s. 20th century among Russian emigrants living in Europe, a socio-political movement of Eurasians arose. Among the Eurasian scientists were historian Georgy Vladimirovich Vernadsky, geographer and economist Pyotr Nikolaevich Savitsky, lawyer and jurist Nikolai Petrovich Alekseev, as well as philosophers and theologians. The Eurasianists believed that Russia was not just a huge country in terms of territory, but a cultural and geographical world that united many peoples from the Baltic Sea to Pacific Ocean and from the Kola Peninsula to Central Asia. The Eurasians called this common space Russia-Eurasia. It includes Eastern Europe, all of Northern Eurasia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia. In relation to Russia-Eurasia, the remaining parts of the mainland (Western Europe, China, Iran, Japan, India) are outskirts that occupy a peripheral (i.e. marginal) geopolitical position. P. N. Savitsky considered the cooperation of continental Russia-Eurasia with the oceanic powers to be very important. The scientist considered a possible political union of Russia, Germany and France as a geopolitical axis of the entire continent.

After World War II, the world split into two parts. On the one hand were the United States and its allies, mainly in Western Europe, and on the other, the Soviet Union and the dependent countries of Eastern Europe. For the first time, the arena of geopolitical rivalry was not just one continent, but the entire globe. The invention of nuclear weapons made this rivalry especially dangerous. Such a geopolitical system was called a bipolar (i.e., bipolar) world, and the USSR and the USA were the poles of "attraction".

In the 70-90s. 20th century In the United States, American-centric concepts have emerged, according to which the United States plays a central role in the world. The most famous adherents of this concept are the American geopoliticians Nicholas Spykman and Zbigniew Brzezinski.

From Spykman's point of view, the geopolitical position of the country is determined not by the internal territories, but by the sea coasts. He identified three major centers of world power: the Atlantic coast of North America and Europe, as well as the Far East of Eurasia. By analogy with the concept of "heartland", Spykman called these territories rshyalekdoi (from the English rim - "rim", "edge"). Therefore, according to his theory, the United States and Great Britain, as the two centers of the Rimland, should enter into an alliance. This scheme reduced the importance of Russia in the world order. The task of the Rimland powers, according to Spykman, is to prevent Russia's wide access to the ocean.

In the 60-90s. the works of Zbigniew Brzezinski became very popular. In his opinion, Russia, as a huge Eurasian state with an unpredictable foreign policy, is doomed to collapse. In its place, several federal states should appear, gravitating towards different centers of power - Europe and the Far East. In Brzezinski's theory, the United States is also a Eurasian power, that is, a state that can and should actively influence the political and economic development in Eurasia.

In the 70-80s. Japan, China, India, and Germany have grown politically and economically. After the collapse of the world socialist system, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the geopolitical concept of a multipolar world arose.

According to the concept, there are several regional centers forces that must interact with each other: the USA, Western Europe, Russia, Japan, China, the countries of Southeast Asia. These countries have different political and economic interests, but for the security of the whole world, they must be harmonized. Within the framework of such a concept, it is impossible to imagine the dominance of one geopolitical center or state.

All geopolitical models emphasize the role of Russia. Eurasia is recognized as the center of the world, and Russia occupies key positions on this continent.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE GEOPOLITICAL POSITION OF RUSSIA

Over the centuries, the geopolitical position of Russia has repeatedly changed. At the end of the 15th century, when the Russian lands were liberated from the Horde yoke, the expansion of the Muscovite state to the east began. The territories of the Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1556) khanates were captured, Siberia and most of the Far East became part of the country. Borders of Russia at the end of the 17th century. very similar to its borders at the end of the 20th century. From a marginal Eastern European state, Russia has turned into a Eurasian state rich in natural resources, with rigid centralization in governance and a strong army.

However, this geopolitical position also had disadvantages. Firstly, Russia had strong rivals: in the south - the powerful Ottoman Empire and its vassal, the Crimean Khanate, in the Far East - the Chinese Empire, which stopped the development of the Amur region by Russian explorers.

Secondly, the vast territory of Russia was poorly developed, especially in the east (in particular, the Pacific coast). And finally, the main thing - Russia had no access to the commercial seas. In the Baltic, Sweden blocked the road, in the Black Sea - Turkey, and in the Pacific Ocean there was no one to trade with. Constant wars with Poland and Lithuania hindered the development of political and trade relations with European states. Establishing strong relations with them was also hampered by religious differences. After the fall of the Byzantine Empire, Russia remained the only Orthodox power in the world; The official religion of most European states was Catholicism and Protestantism.

The geopolitical position of our country changed again in the 18th - mid-19th centuries. Russia won access to the Baltic and Black Seas, its borders moved to the west and south: the Baltic states, Finland, Poland, the Southern Black Sea region, the Caucasus and Kazakhstan became part of the state. Russia reached the height of its power at the beginning of the 19th century. However, now the Russian state included areas so heterogeneous (in culture, religious traditions, etc.) that this weakened it.

In the middle of the XIX - early XX century. Russia's influence in the West has declined. The country lagged behind the leading European powers militarily and economically and could no longer play the role of first violin in the European political orchestra. But on the eastern and southern borders, it continued to expand its borders. Part Russian Empire(this was the name of our state from 1721 to 1917) included Central Asia and the south of the Far East. In 1860, Vladivostok was founded - the first convenient seaport on the Russian Pacific coast. During this period, the geopolitical position had both its advantages (a huge territory, access to the seas of three oceans, the ability to enter into political alliances with different neighbors) and disadvantages (significant cultural and natural heterogeneity of the territory and its poor economic development). Russia remained one of the leading world powers, but in terms of economic and military power, influence on world politics, it lost the palm to other countries - Germany, France, Great Britain.

With the collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917 on political map In the world, new states appeared - Finland, Poland, etc. However, the core of the former empire was preserved, and in 1922 a new state was proclaimed - the Soviet Union. He inherited some of the geopolitical traditions of the Russian Empire, in particular the desire to expand the territory. The socialist system, established in the USSR, prevented the establishment of strong political relations with the countries of the West. Therefore, before the start of World War II (1939-1945), the USSR was in political isolation. By the end of the war, the Soviet Union approached the borders of the Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century on almost all frontiers. His sphere of influence included all of Eastern and part of Central Europe.

In the 40-80s. The USSR was one of the two world powers (along with the USA) that determined the world political order. After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia does not have such influence in Eastern and Central Europe. The coastal situation worsened: many Black Sea ports passed to Ukraine, and the Baltic ones - to the Baltic states. At the end of the XX century. Russia can no longer match the military and economic power of the United States and Western Europe, but it still remains largest state Eurasia.

For more than a thousand years of Russian history, the features of its geopolitical position have been identified. Our country has a stable geopolitical core - regions that have been part of Russia for centuries. The regions that make up this core are inextricably linked by political, cultural, economic and simply human ties.

On the western borders there is a buffer belt - the states of Eastern Europe. For a long time these countries divided Russia and Western Europe. They were part of the zone of Russian influence, then the zone of influence of the Western powers. Russia, even in difficult periods of its history, has always had a serious impact on all geopolitical processes taking place in Eurasia.

36) Socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the XIX century

State of agriculture

The socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century can be characterized as pre-crisis, since the old, feudal, and new, market relations were intertwined in the economy in the most complex way. During these years it became clear that the country burdened by the system of serfdom could not move forward, but it was necessary to take radical steps in this direction. This is the reason for the inconsistency of many events during the reign of Alexander I and Nicholas I.

By the beginning of the 19th century, Russia occupied a vast territory from the Baltic to the Far East. She owned Alaska and some other territories in North America. The population of the country by the middle of the century was about 74 million people. It consisted of numerous peoples living on endless lands, and this also left its mark on the state of the economy.

In 1801-1804, at the request of the Georgian kings and princes, Georgia became part of Russia, which was fleeing from the onslaught of Persia. As a result of the war with Persia and Turkey in 1804-1813, Imeretia, Guria, Mingrelia, Abkhazia, as well as Dagestan and the khanates of Northern Azerbaijan with their capital in Baku, went to Russia. In May 1812, Russia signed peace with Turkey in Bucharest, and Bessarabia ceded to Russia, except for its southern part. As a result of the war with Persia (1826-1828), all of Armenia was annexed to Russia. After successful military operations against Sweden in 1808-1809, Finland (the Grand Duchy of Finland) and the Aland Islands were annexed to Russia. Finland had greater independence within Russia: an elected diet, its own constitution, monetary and customs systems. On behalf of the Russian emperor, a governor was appointed there. It can be said that Finland was rather a special state, united with Russia by a personal union, than a Russian province.

By decision of the Vienna (1814-1815) Congress of European countries that defeated Napoleon, almost all of Poland (the Kingdom of Poland), which was ruled by the royal governor, was included in Russia. The Sejm was the governing body of Poland, the constitution was in force. The Polish corps (army) was part of the Russian armed forces. True, later, as a result of the defeat of the uprising of 1830-1831, Poland lost its constitution, the Sejm was abolished, and the Kingdom of Poland was declared an integral part of the Russian Empire.

In the first half of the 19th century, agriculture remained the main branch of the Russian economy. Approximately 90% of the country's population were peasants. The development of agricultural production took place mainly by extensive methods, due to the expansion of new sown areas, which increased by 53% over half a century, mainly in the southern and eastern regions. History of Russia: textbook / A.S. Orlov and others; Moscow State University M.V. Lomonosov. Faculty of History - 4th ed., revised. and additional - M .: Prospect, 2012 - 528 p. The introduction of more advanced methods of tillage, new varieties of agricultural crops was very slow, the yield of bread at the beginning of the century averaged "sam-three", "sam-four", i.e. . when sowing one pood, three or four poods of grain were collected. Crop failures were frequent, which led to mass starvation of the peasants, the death of livestock. The traditional three-field system remained the main agrotechnical system, in some places the undercut was still preserved (in Siberia), and in the steppe regions, the fallow (shifting) system. Animal husbandry was predominantly subsistence, i.e. cattle were raised for domestic consumption, not for sale.

By the middle of the 19th century, agriculture gradually began to change. The sowing of industrial crops - hops, tobacco, flax - was expanded, and in the 1840s, the area under potatoes, which became not only a "second bread" for the peasants, but also a raw material for the food industry, increased significantly. The area under the new crop, sugar beet, also increased, especially in Ukraine and in the south of the Chernozem region. There were enterprises for its processing. The first plant for the production of beet sugar was built in 1802 in the Tula province, by 1834 34 plants had been built, and in 1848 there were over 300.

New machines began to be introduced in the countryside: threshers, winnowing machines, seeders, reapers, etc. Increased specific gravity hired workers. In the 1850s, their number reached 700 thousand people, who mainly came for seasonal work in the southern, steppe, trans-Volga provinces, and in the Baltic states.

The process of specialization of individual regions in the production of various types of agricultural crops continued slowly: in the Trans-Volga region and in the steppe regions of Russia, more and more land was given for growing wheat, in the Crimea and Transcaucasia - for viticulture and sericulture, about major cities- under commercial gardening, poultry farming. In Novorossia, Bessarabia, in the North Caucasus, fine-wool sheep breeding was developed, which was carried out by large landowners with great support from the government, which was interested in supplying raw materials for army cloth factories.

In the first half of the 19th century, as in the 18th century, the peasants were divided into the same categories: landowners, state and appanage (palace). The landlord peasants constituted the largest group. In the 1850s, there were more than 23 million people of both sexes, including 1.5 million - yard and 540 thousand - working in private factories and plants Nekrasov M.B. National history: textbook (M.B. Nekrasova 2nd ed., revised and additional - M .: Higher education, 2010 - 378 p..

At the beginning of the century, the share of serfs was 40% of the total population of the country, and by the middle of the century - 37%. The bulk of the landlord peasants lived in the central provinces, in Ukraine, Lithuania and Belarus. In the north and south of the country, there were much fewer serfs - from 12 to 2%. There were few of them in Siberia, and in the Arkhangelsk province they were not at all Nekrasova M.B. Domestic history: textbook (M.B. Nekrasova 2nd ed., revised and supplementary - M .: Higher education, 2010 - 378 pages ..

In different regions of the country, the ratio of corvee and dues was different, since it depended on the economic characteristics of the province. So, in the central region, where the level of fishing activities of the peasants was high, the quitrent system became widespread - from 65 to 90%. In the Baltic States, Belorussia, and the Ukraine, where it was considered more profitable for the landowners to increase the lord's plowing, the peasants were predominantly on corvee - up to 90-95% of the peasants.

State (state) peasants by the middle of the century, there were about 19 million souls of both sexes. Officially they were called "free villagers". As in the 18th century, their economic situation was more stable. They were provided with land plots, for which, in addition to state taxes and dues, they had to bear feudal duties in the form of a cash dues. Since 1801, this category of peasants was allowed to acquire ownership of land. They were relatively free to choose: to engage in agriculture or handicraft production, create their own small businesses or move into the urban class.

But this legal status of state peasants was not strong enough and guaranteed by the state. The government could transfer them to military settlements, give them as a gift to some nobleman (which was extremely rare in the 19th century), transfer them to the category of appanage peasants, etc. This class group was concentrated mainly in the northern and central provinces, in the Left Bank and steppe Ukraine, in the Volga, Urals, Siberia.

The category of appanage peasants, in terms of its legal and economic status, occupied an intermediate position between the other two categories. In the 18th century they were called palaces, i.e. belonged to members of the imperial family. In 1797, the Department of appanages was created to manage the palace lands and peasants, and the peasants were renamed appanages. By the middle of the 19th century, there were almost 2 million souls of both sexes. Specific peasants carried dues for the benefit of the royal family, paid state taxes and worked out dues in kind. They lived mainly in the provinces of the Middle Volga region and in the Urals.

As for the nobles, out of 127 thousand noble families, or about 500 thousand people (1% of the country's population), in the early 1830s, 109 thousand families were landowners, i.e. had serfs. Most of the landowners (about 70%) had no more than 100 male serf souls and were considered small estates. Among the small estates, more than half had only a few serfs, an average of about seven souls.

In the 1820s, it became obvious that the possibilities for the development of landowner farms based on serf labor were practically exhausted. The productivity of labor in the corvee was noticeably decreasing, the peasants were looking for all sorts of pretexts to evade it. As a contemporary wrote, the peasants go to work later, work carelessly, if only not to do the job, but to kill the day. While the landowner was vitally interested in increasing the production of agricultural products for sale, and primarily grain, the peasants were less and less diligent in their work.

Crisis phenomena were also felt by those farms in which the quitrent system prevailed. With the development of peasant crafts, competition grew among workers, and the earnings of peasant quitrents fell, therefore, they paid less and less rent to the landowners. Increasingly, debtor landlords began to appear who could not repay debts to credit institutions. So, if at the beginning of the 19th century only 5% of serfs were pledged, then in the 1850s - already over 65%. Many estates were sold under the hammer for debts.

So, the serf system had the most detrimental effect primarily on agricultural production. But serfdom also held back the successfully developing industry and trade. This was due to the fact that there was no labor market in the country. In addition, the serfs had a very low purchasing power, which significantly narrowed the scope of market relations.

Development of industry and transport

In the first half of the 19th century, the main part of industrial output was produced not by large enterprises, but by small industries. This was especially true for the manufacturing industry producing consumer goods. In the 1850s, they accounted for up to 80% of the total output. Crafts were most common in the central non-chernozem provinces - Moscow, Yaroslavl, Vladimir, Kaluga, etc., where in almost every village the peasants were simultaneously engaged in agriculture and some kind of craft: weaving, making pottery and household utensils, sewing shoes and clothes .

Gradually, the population of many villages and fishing districts completely abandoned agricultural labor and switched entirely to industrial activity. There are such villages as Ivanovo-Voznesensk and Teikovo in the Vladimir province, Pavlovo in the Nizhny Novgorod province, Kimry in the Tver province, which have become centers of the textile, metalworking and leather industries.

A large role in the development of domestic industry was played by dispersed manufactory, in which the entrepreneur-buyer distributed work to homework peasants. Later, these workers began to be collected under one roof, where they worked on the basis of a detailed division of labor. Thus, capital was gradually accumulated, qualified personnel were trained for future large industrial enterprises.

As before, seasonal crafts, which originated in the 17th century, were still important for the rural population. They became widespread in the central and northwestern provinces, where peasants could not support their families and pay taxes on marginal lands. By the middle of the century, up to 30-40% of the adult male population went from here to work in large cities. This process served as an important factor in the formation of the labor market, as well as the growth of the urban population.

In the 1820s-1830s, serfs accounted for 46% of the total number of industrial workers in the country, and only by 1860 did their share decrease to 18%. But even among the 82% of "freelance" workers, the overwhelming majority were serfs, released by the landowners to work.

The number of industrial enterprises by 1860 increased to 15 thousand, but most of them were small-scale industries, where 10-15 people worked, most often hired workers. The share of such enterprises in their total volume reached 82% by the middle of the century.

But there were still many enterprises based on serf labor: old mining mines and factories created in the Petrine era, as well as patrimonial manufactories founded by landowners. Many of them were in a state of crisis and were inferior in competition to enterprises based on hired labor due to low productivity, poor quality of products and their high cost. Work at patrimonial manufactories was one of the most difficult forms of corvée for the peasants, which pushed them to resistance. The session manufactories also experienced an acute crisis due to their low efficiency.

The development of Russian industry was uneven. Cotton production developed most rapidly. In the 1850s, Russia ranked fifth in the world in the production of cotton fabrics. Noticeable successes were observed in the wool industry, and the production of linen and silk fabrics was in a state of stagnation. If in 1804 there were 285 linen manufactories in the country, then by 1845 their number was reduced to 156. The state of depression also affected metallurgy. During the first half of the 19th century, the production of pig iron only doubled - from 9 to 18 million poods, while at the same time England increased its production of pig iron 30 times. Russia's share in world metallurgy fell from 12% in 1830 to 4% in 1850. This was the result of technical backwardness, low labor productivity of serfs. Russian metallurgy survived only thanks to a rigid system of customs tariffs for the import of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

In the 1830s-1840s, large enterprises began to be created in industry - factories - based on machine technology, i.e. the industrial revolution began. The transition to factory production meant the emergence of completely new social groups population: entrepreneurs and employees. This process began first of all in the cotton industry, where already in 1825 94.7% of the workers were hired, and later in the mining industry. This is due to the fact that textile enterprises were faster than others to be equipped with various machines, for the maintenance of which more trained workers who were not related to agriculture were needed.

The first enterprise based on machine technology was the state-owned Alexander Cotton Manufactory in St. Petersburg (1799). In 1860, there were already 191 such enterprises in the Moscow province alone, and 117 in the St. Petersburg province. By this time, special equipment was widely used in spinning and calico printing.

One of the indicators of the industrial revolution can be considered the emergence and development of Russian engineering. And although, until the 1860s, foreign-made machines were mainly used in the national economy, it was during these years that the first machine-building plants were built in St. In 1849, a factory was built in Sormov (near Nizhny Novgorod), which began to produce river boats. In the Baltic States, in the Ukraine, agricultural engineering was developed. From 1804 to 1864, labor productivity in industry increased almost fivefold, despite the presence of serf labor in the country. Nevertheless, factory production began to occupy a dominant position in all industries only after the reforms of the 1860s and 1870s.

It should be noted specific features that were inherent in pre-reform employees and entrepreneurs. Wage workers, as a rule, were at the same time serfs who had gone to quitrent, but were still connected with agriculture. They depended, on the one hand, on the manufacturer (breeder), and on the other hand, on the landowner, who could at any moment return them to the village and force them to work in the corvée. And for the manufacturer, hiring such a worker was quite expensive, since in addition to the wages of the worker, he had to reimburse the dues to the landowner for him. The state (official) peasant who went to the city was also not completely free, because he was still connected with the community by certain relations.

The Russian pre-reform bourgeoisie was characterized by other features. She came mainly from guild merchants or from among the "trading peasants" who received "tickets" (special certificates for the right to trade) and managed to establish any enterprise. Most often they combined trade and entrepreneurial functions. In the middle of the century, the number of merchants of all three guilds was 180 thousand, and approximately 100-110 thousand - "trading peasants".

But most of the entrepreneurs and trading peasants still remained serfs. And although many of them already had large capitals, owned manufactories, they, as in the 18th century, continued to pay considerable amounts of tribute to the landlords, who were in no hurry because of this to let the wealthy entrepreneurs go free.

For example, the owner of a large silk-weaving factory in the Moscow region, I. Kondrashev, remained the serf of the Golitsyn princes until 1861. As an example, one can also cite the manufacturer S. Morozov, who in the 1820s bought himself free from the landowner Ryumin for 17 thousand rubles. - an amount equal to the annual quitrent from two thousand serfs. Several dozen manufacturers in the village of Ivanovo ransomed from Count Sheremetev for more than 1 million rubles.

One of the indicators of the degree of development of new economic relations there was an increase in the urban population. If at the end of the 18th century the population of cities was 2.2 million people, then by the middle of the 19th century it had increased to 5.7 million people, which accounted for only 8% of the total population of the country. In half a century, the number of cities increased from 630 to 1032, and 80% of these cities were very small, up to five thousand inhabitants each. The trading centers of the Volga region, as well as the trading and industrial villages that were turning into cities, grew especially rapidly: Ivanovo-Voznesensk, Pavlovo-on-Oka, Rybinsk, Gzhatsk, etc. In 1811, the population of only 19 cities exceeded 20 thousand, and only St. really big cities. Moscow has grown in half a century from 270 thousand to 460 thousand, and St. Petersburg - from 336 thousand to 540 thousand inhabitants.

In the first half of the 19th century, Russia remained an off-road country, which greatly interfered with its economic development. The main types of transport in Russia at that time were water and horse-drawn (transportation on horseback). Along the rivers - the Volga, the Dnieper, the Northern and Western Dvina, the Neman, the Don - the main cargo flows moved: bread, agricultural raw materials, metallurgy products, building materials, timber, etc. At the beginning of the century, canals were put into operation that connected the Volga with Northern Dvina and the Baltic basin, the Dnieper was connected by canals with the Vistula, Neman, Zapadnaya Dvina, but their throughput was small. In 1815-1817, the first steamboats appeared on the rivers, and by 1860 there were already about 340 of them, mostly of foreign manufacture. On the rivers, cargo was rafted on rafts, barges or with the help of horse and barge traction. In 1815, the first Russian steamship "Elizaveta" opened regular flights from St. Petersburg to Kronstadt. The speed of the ship was 9.5 km per hour.

If waterways were used in summer, then in winter, horseback riding along a sledge track was a more convenient mode of transport. Most of the roads were unpaved, almost impassable in muddy conditions. In cities, the streets were often paved with cobblestones. In the first half of the century, highways began to be built between St. Petersburg and Moscow, Warsaw, Yaroslavl, Nizhny Novgorod, etc. By 1860, there were 9 thousand miles of highways in the country, which was, of course, very little for vast Russia (1 verst = 1, 07 km).

In the 1830s, railroad construction began. The first railway, which had almost no economic significance, was built in 1837 between St. Petersburg and Tsarskoye Selo, its length was only 25 miles. In 1843-1851, a 650-verst railway connected St. Petersburg and Moscow, which was of great economic and strategic importance for the country. Construction was carried out with public money.

For the gauge of this railway, a width of 1524 mm was approved, which was 89 mm narrower than the European gauge. This difference in width (which still exists) was adopted solely as a protectionist measure. It was believed that a direct rail link to Europe would lead to an influx of cheap European products, which were very difficult for Russian goods to compete with. It should be noted that Russia still suffers unjustified losses of time and money on the border change of wheeled carts of all trains.

At the same time, a railway from St. Petersburg to Warsaw was built with private funds. In total, by 1861 in Russia there were only about 1.5 thousand miles of railway lines, and according to this indicator, the country was extremely lagging behind Western Europe. In England at that time the length of railways was 15 thousand miles.

But, despite the urgent need to create new means of communication, not everyone in society understood the expediency of their development. Even in the government there were opponents of the construction of railways, who argued that in Russia there would supposedly be no cargo or passengers for them. Finance Minister Yegor Frantsevich Kankrin (1774-1845) stated that railways"incite frequent travel without any need, and thus increase the inconstancy of the spirit of our age." He said that connecting Moscow and Kazan with rails is possible only after 200-300 years.

This position of the chief treasurer of the country led to the fact that the undeveloped Russian infrastructure was unable to provide the Russian army with food and weapons during the Crimean campaign of 1853-1856, and this played a role in the defeat of Russia.

Trade, money circulation, finance

The internal trade of the first half of the 19th century did not differ much from the trade of the 18th century either in structure or in content. The bulk of domestic trade continued to be in agricultural products and handicrafts. And only by the middle of the century did the share of products of large industrial enterprises, especially textile and leather, increase. The role of wholesale trade centers - fairs - has noticeably increased. The largest, with a turnover of over 1 million rubles, were few, only 64: Nizhny Novgorod, Rostov (Yaroslavl province), Korennaya (near Kursk), and others. In addition, almost 18 thousand fairs were medium and small.

The largest fairs remained the core of Russian entrepreneurship. In the middle of the 19th century, with the assistance of many foreign wholesalers, large international transactions were concluded here. At the fairs, in addition to the trading process itself, technical innovations were demonstrated, business contacts were established, partnerships and joint-stock companies were created. The fairs acted as a sensitive barometer of the economic life of the country, they were spontaneous regulation of the balance of supply and demand, coordination of the economic mechanism.

As in the 18th century, pedlars, ofeni, carrying fabrics, haberdashery, small items life, often not selling them for money, but exchanging them for raw materials (linen, linen, etc.).

By the middle of the 19th century, trade had already ceased to be the privilege of the guild merchants. In 1842, laws were repealed that prohibited industrialists from engaging in retail trade themselves, as a result of which guild merchants lost their monopoly position in the market. Following the industrialists, “trading peasants” literally poured into the city markets and fairs, pushing the merchants in some places. So, in Moscow in the 1840s, the peasants already accounted for almost half of all merchants.

Russia's foreign trade was built mainly with a focus on the Western European market, which accounted for up to 90% of the total foreign trade turnover. England was still the main trading partner - more than 30% of Russia's trade turnover fell on this country. France and Germany played a significant role in the turnover. Western countries bought bread, agricultural raw materials in Russia, and sent cars, raw cotton, paints here, i.e. what was necessary for the Russian industry. But if for Western countries Russia was a supplier of raw materials and semi-finished products, then for the countries of the East, and above all in Central Asia, Russia acted as a supplier of industrial products, mainly fabrics and metal products. During the first half of the 19th century, the volume of foreign trade increased significantly. The average annual volume of exports in the years 1800-1860 increased almost four times: from 60 million to 230 million rubles, and imports - more than five times: from 40 million to 210 million.

After a number of battles in Europe, the Treaty of Tilsit, unsuccessful for Russia, was concluded with the French troops (1807), according to which Russia was obliged to follow France in many international affairs, which significantly limited its independence. In 1808, France forced Russia to join the continental blockade, i.e. stop trading with England. This caused significant damage to the Russian economy, since it was losing the capacious English market, where Russian landowners exported their agricultural products and from where industrial production went to Russia. In addition, as a result of the blockade, prices for colonial goods (sugar, tea) rose enormously. This economic union with Napoleon brought significant financial losses and led to a further depreciation of the domestic currency - banknotes.

E. Kankrin paid much attention to customs policy, believing that it was tough protectionism that would not only support domestic producers, but also bring large revenues to the treasury. Since in 1816-1821 Russia noticeably weakened the tariff taxation of imports, one of Kankrin's first steps as Minister of Finance was to increase customs duties. Tariffs were mainly imposed on cheap English goods (especially textiles and iron), up to a complete ban on their import. As a result, the revenues of the treasury from tariff duties increased in 1824-1842 from 11 million to 26 million rubles.

Later, after the departure of E. Kankrin from the ministerial post, Russia began to reduce tariffs, and in the 1850s began to support the policy of free trade. Many previously established import bans were lifted, and by 1857 tariffs remained on only seven goods: sugar, iron, liquor, and a few others.

Speaking about the financial system of Russia, it should be noted that the Patriotic War of 1812, which caused significant material damage, had a great influence on its condition. More than 100,000 people were killed and wounded during the hostilities. Moscow fire destroyed almost the entire city, many others suffered settlements, industrial enterprises. In addition, Napoleon literally flooded Russia with counterfeit money. By 1814, the rate of banknotes had reached a very low level: for one paper ruble gave 20 kopecks. silver. The amount of banknotes issued reached astronomical figures, in 1818 it amounted to 836 million rubles. During the first decades of the 19th century, the rate of banknotes constantly fluctuated, even in different parts of the country it differed markedly.

In 1839, E. Kankrin conducted monetary reform, according to which the silver ruble was again declared the main monetary unit. It was found that 350 rubles. paper money equals 100 rubles. silver, which meant the devaluation of banknotes. By 1843, they were completely withdrawn from circulation and replaced by credit notes, which were freely exchanged for silver. But during the Crimean War and after the defeat in it, the government more than once resorted to money emission. As a result of this policy, the rate of the credit ruble was constantly declining compared to the rate of the silver ruble, so the free exchange was abolished. The country was actually threatened by financial collapse. During 1853-1856, the budget deficit increased from 57 million to 307 million rubles, inflation rose to 50% per year.

The state finances of the first half of the 19th century were constantly in great tension, the state budget deficit increased from year to year, since the main source of state revenues remained taxes from the taxable population, mainly from peasants, while the nobility and clergy paid almost no personal taxes. , the merchants paid only small fees. But these revenues could not cover the needs of the state. So, before the reform of 1861, the lower taxable strata paid 175 million rubles. per year from total amount direct taxes in 191 million rubles.

The credit and banking system of Russia has hardly changed since the time of Catherine II and continued to remain in the hands of the state, there were practically no commercial credit institutions in the country. The main part of bank loans was directed to highly concessional lending to noble households. Very insignificant amounts were used for lending to trade and industry, since loans for these purposes were subject to a number of conditions.

A specific feature of Russia was that the initial accumulation of capital took place under the conditions of serfdom. The most important source of accumulation was feudal rent received by large landowners in kind and in cash. But in general, the accumulation process ended after the abolition of serfdom, when the nobles, having received huge ransom sums, sent some of them to the production sector.

The redemption process also brought great income to the state, which withheld from the landowners all the debts that were on the estates mortgaged to the treasury. And by 1860, the landlords had about 400 million rubles of such debts. Later, in 1871, out of the total amount of redemption payments, almost 250 million rubles. went to pay the bank debts of the nobility.

Merchants' capital was for the most part created through extremely profitable government contracts and farming out, especially for the wine monopoly. In 1860, wine farmers paid 128 million rubles to the treasury, and their own income from the wine trade was several times higher. In the middle of the century, up to 40% of all budget revenues were the so-called drinking income - from the wine trade. Private capital also grew due to non-equivalent trade with the Russian outskirts, the rapid growth of the gold mining industry in Siberia, and so on.

social economic industry trade

Socio-economic development of Russia in the pre-reform period

The palace coup of 1801 was the last in the history of Imperial Russia. Alexander I, who ascended the throne, immediately announced that he would follow the laws of Catherine II. He restored the "Charters of Letters" canceled by Paul I to the nobility and cities, abolished corporal punishment for the nobles and other reactionary and punitive decrees introduced during the reign of Paul I. Officials and officers expelled without trial were returned to service - about 10 thousand people. All those arrested and exiled by the “secret expedition”, i.e., were released from prisons and returned from exile. without a court order. It was allowed to open private printing houses, to import foreign literature from abroad, free travel was again allowed Russian citizens abroad.

For the socio-economic reform of the country, the new emperor formed an Unofficial Committee of young well-born noblemen: P. Stroganov, V. Kochubey, A. Czartorysky, N. Novosiltsev. At meetings of this committee during 1801-1803, projects of state reforms were discussed, including the abolition of serfdom. With the direct participation of these advisers, some liberal transformations were carried out in Russia. Upon accession to the throne, Alexander I proclaimed that from now on the distribution of state-owned peasants into private hands, which was very common in the 18th century, would cease. Thus, an end was put to the expansion of serfdom throughout the country. By decree of 1801, the long-awaited purchase of land by non-nobles was allowed: merchants, petty bourgeois, state peasants. True, according to this decree, landlord peasants who were engaged in entrepreneurship did not receive such permission. This right was obtained by them only in 1848.

On February 20, 1803, a decree “On Free Plowmen” was issued, which provided for the possibility of redeeming serfs with a family with land allotments, entire villages or settlements, but with the obligatory consent of the landowner. However, this decree was rarely used in practice. Under Alexander I, only 47,000 male souls, or 0.5% of all serfs, became free cultivators, and for all the years of this decree (1803-1858), only 152,000, or approximately 1.5%, were able to use it serfs.

In 1802-1811, a reform of the highest governing bodies was carried out. First of all, eight ministries were created to replace the old Peter's colleges: military ground forces, naval forces, foreign affairs, justice, internal affairs, finance, commerce, public education (later their number increased to 12). It should be noted that under the auspices of the Ministry of Finance, all economic departments were gathered: the Ministry of Commerce, the Department of Manufactory and Foreign Trade. The preparation of a unified state budget began, information about which, due to its scarcity, was strictly classified. All responsibility for the issues being resolved fell solely on the ministers, which was more convenient for management. But at the same time, the bureaucratic essence of the state apparatus was strengthened. The ministerial system in this form existed in Russia without change until 1917.

One of the outstanding statesmen of the first years of the reign of Alexander I was undoubtedly Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky (1772-1839). He was the son of a poor village priest, he graduated from the theological academy, where he became a professor. Then he moved to the civil service in the State Council, and later - in the Ministry of the Interior to Count Kochubey.

Thanks to his outstanding abilities, energy, and desire to serve the fatherland, he quickly became one of the brightest politicians of the early 19th century. Beginning in 1802, he drafted or edited the most important laws and decrees. In 1808, on behalf of Alexander I, Speransky began work on an extensive plan for state reforms. At the same time, he intended to use some of the norms of French law from the so-called Napoleonic Code. By October 1809, the project was developed and presented to Alexander I under the title "Introduction to the code of state laws." The main purpose of the document was to streamline the outdated and chaotic legislation developed over many decades, as well as to bring legal regulations to the requirements of developing market relations, taking into account the European changes of that time. Of course, it was assumed that the reform would be carried out from above, in the interests of the autocracy and the preservation of the class structure of society.

For effective legislative work, it was planned to create a bicameral parliament, consisting of the State Council and the State Duma. The State Council under the emperor was supposed to prepare and discuss bills, then they should be considered by the emperor, then they were submitted for discussion in the Duma, and after their adoption in the Duma, they were finally approved by the emperor.

This principle of government was approved by Alexander I, who was ready to approve Speransky's project. But as a result of the intrigues of the highest court officials, who considered the project extremely radical, the document was rejected by the sovereign. Alexander I decided to go only to the creation of a legislative Council of State (1810), which included all the ministers and senior dignitaries appointed by himself. And the convocation of the State Duma took place only at the beginning of the 20th century - in 1906.

Further, fate was unfavorable to M. Speransky. Particular dissatisfaction with the "priest", as he was called at court, increased due to the decree of 1809, which prohibited promotion through the state ranks without a university education or passing a special exam. In addition, Speransky's French sympathies aroused hostility in high society, where a hostile attitude towards Napoleon was already taking shape, and everyone understood the inevitability of war with France. The reason for the imminent resignation of Speransky was also the introduction of new direct taxes in the country: the poll tax from peasants and burghers increased from a ruble to two rubles, a tax was also introduced on noble estates, on the land of landowners. This caused irritation among various segments of the population.

At the beginning of 1812, on a false denunciation, he was removed from his post, exiled first to Nizhny Novgorod, and then to Perm, where he stayed for more than four years. Later, disgrace was removed from him, he was appointed governor of Penza, then governor-general of Siberia, where he carried out a number of administrative transformations. In 1821 he was returned to the capital, appointed a member of the State Council, but no longer played a prominent role in government.

Some transformations took place at the beginning of the century in the field of education. All educational institutions proclaimed the principle of classlessness and free education at the lower levels. A coherent system of education was formed from four levels: parochial one-class schools, county schools, gymnasiums and universities. In 1802-1804, universities were opened in the cities: Vilna (Vilnius), Derpt (Tartu), Kazan, Kharkov, in 1819 the Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg was transformed into a university. In 1811, the famous lyceum was opened in Tsarskoe Selo, which prepared a whole galaxy for the country. prominent people, and above all A.S. Pushkin, many Decembrists. The university charter of 1803 provided higher educational institutions with broad rights and independence in their internal life: the election of the rector and professorship, their own court, non-interference of administrative authorities and the police in the affairs of these educational institutions, etc.

After the successful end of the Patriotic War of 1812 and the foreign campaign of the Russian army in 1813-1814, the international prestige of Russia grew significantly. Created in 1815 Holy Union, which set as its goal to keep the existing borders in Europe inviolable, to strengthen the monarchical dynasties, to suppress all kinds of revolutionary uprisings. Even decisions were made on the right to interfere in the internal affairs of states to suppress revolutionary movements.

Until the early 1820s, the domestic policy of Alexander I did not yet feel a clear tightening, since he did not immediately become a supporter of absolutism. In 1818, several dignitaries were instructed to prepare draft decrees on the abolition of serfdom on rather moderate and favorable terms for the landowners. But the nobility expressed resistance to such intentions of the emperor, and he did not dare to continue this process.

However, in the Ostsee Region (Latvia and Estonia) the government has taken some steps in this direction. Starting from 1804-1805, there was gradually carried out

Question for point 1. Remember what educational institutions appeared in Russia in the first half of the 18th century. What new types of educational institutions appeared in the second half of the 18th century? For the enlightenment of what estates were they organized?

In the first half of the century, secondary specialized educational institutions existed in Russia (Artillery and Engineering Schools, Medical School, Naval Academy, etc.), as well as gymnasiums and universities (for most of the century there was only one university).

Under Catherine II, public schools, educational houses, soldiers', mountain and seafaring schools appeared. That is, the state began to take care of the education of the common people, and not just the upper strata of society. Women's education also advanced - in 1764 the Smolny Institute was established. Vocational education also developed. For example, medical-surgical schools appeared, which already under Paul I in 1798 were transformed into Medical-Surgical Academies.

Question for point II. What is the relationship between the development of education and science? What new things can be noted in the scientific life of Russia in the second half of the 18th century?

With the development of enlightenment, science also developed, although the connection was not direct - many scientists, like other nobles, traveled to Europe to complete their education, therefore the level of education in their homeland did not directly affect them. But these processes developed in parallel, therefore they had common trends. The number of scientists expanded, as did the number of educational institutions. In the middle of the century, Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov became a leading specialist in many fields of science because there were few other specialists. During the reign of Catherine II, we already see a whole galaxy of Russian scientists, each of whom worked in his own field of science.

Question to paragraph III No. 1. What, in your opinion, is the connection between the development of the system of education and technical thought in the second half of the 18th century?

In the development of technical thought, not only nobles, but also people from the people played a big role. Therefore, education for the lower strata of society, for example, public schools, which appeared precisely in the Catherine era, played a big role.

Question to point III No. 2. Why have not all the technical innovations of Russian inventors been put into practice?

In Europe, many technical innovations were used by entrepreneurs. They wanted to reduce production costs so that during the years of crises they would not be left without profit. In Russia there was no layer of free entrepreneurs, and the nobles who kept manufactories during the years of crises simply transferred the peasants back to tilling the land. Therefore, technical innovations sometimes aroused interest, but there was no need for new inventions.

Question to paragraph No. 1. What trends in the development of education and science were common for Russia and European countries during the Enlightenment? And what made them different?

Both in Russia and in Europe, education was dominated by the ideas of the Enlightenment. It was believed that a person is born, as if Blank sheet, his beliefs are laid down by education. Therefore, from anyone you can grow a hardworking and decent person, as well as a free citizen, you just need to properly organize the education system. Moreover, in Russia these ideas dominated undividedly. In Europe, there was a struggle with the systematization of the formation of monastic orders, primarily the Jesuits. In Russia, there was no such heritage of previous centuries.

Question for paragraph No. 2. Prepare a report about one of the Russian scientists of the second half of the 18th century. Describe his contribution to the development of scientific knowledge and education Russian society.

Apollos Apollosovich Musin-Pushkin was born in 1760 in the family of a prominent official Apollos Epaphroditovich Musin-Pushkin, who rose to the position of President of the Berg Collegium (he was from 1767 until his death in 1771). Because Apollos received the best education for his time.

The future scientist lost his father at the age of 11, but his father's connections remained, so the young man had no problems with patronage. The father-in-law's connections also helped - Apollos Apollosovich married a representative of the influential Golitsyn family, the granddaughter of Field Marshal Mikhail Mikhailovich Golitsyn. During his relatively short life, he became a captain of the horse guard, a real chamberlain and a privy councilor (that is, he rose to a very high rank IV). He was awarded the Order of St. Anna I degree. But he did not perform any duties in connection with most of the positions he held, as was the case for a high-ranking official of that time, he really worked only in the Mining Collegium.

Apollos Apollosovich conducted extensive scientific research in chemistry, mineralogy and some botany. He was especially interested in platinum. In particular, he found a way to apply platinum amalgam. He was elected a member of the academies of sciences in St. Petersburg, Berlin, Stockholm and Turin, as well as the Royal Society of London.

In the first years of the 19th century, the scientist went on a mineralogical expedition to Georgia, which had been annexed to Russia shortly before. On the affairs of the Mining College, he was looking for new deposits of ores of various metals, but the scientific program of the expedition was much broader, even included botany. Musin-Pushkin sent a large collection of minerals with scientific explanations to the Academy of Sciences.

During this expedition, the scientist fell ill and died in Tiflis in 1805 at the age of 45.

The development of education in Russia in the second half of the 18th century was influenced by the enlightened absolutism of Catherine II, which determined not only the growth of the network of educational institutions, but also the priority of the class principle in their recruitment. Catherine II carefully studied the experience of organizing education in the leading countries of Western Europe and the most important pedagogical ideas of her time. The humanitarian ideal, which originated in the Renaissance, was taken as the basis: it proceeded "out of respect for the rights and freedom of the individual" and eliminated "from pedagogy everything that is in the nature of violence or coercion" (PN Milyukov). On the other hand, Catherine's educational concept required the maximum isolation of children from the family and their transfer into the hands of a teacher. However, already in the 80s. the focus was once again shifted from education to education. The Prussian and Austrian education systems were taken as a basis. It was supposed to establish three types of general education schools - small, medium and main. They taught general subjects: reading, writing, knowledge of numbers, catechism, sacred history, the beginnings of Russian grammar (small school). In the middle one, an explanation of the Gospel, Russian grammar with spelling exercises, general and Russian history, and a brief geography of Russia were added. In the main - a detailed course in geography and history, mathematical geography, grammar with exercises in business writing, the foundations of geometry, mechanics, physics, natural history and civil architecture.

The class-lesson system of Comenius was introduced, attempts were made to use visualization, in the upper grades it was even recommended to evoke independent work of thought in students. But basically, didactics was reduced to memorizing texts from a textbook. The relationship between the teacher and the students was built in accordance with the views of Catherine: for example, any punishment was strictly prohibited.

In 1764, in Moscow, on Solyanka, a state-owned "Educational Home for Foundlings and Homeless Children" was opened - the first Moscow specialized institution for orphans. This institution was supposed to receive the bulk of its funds from charitable collections. The Empress herself donated 100,000 rubles for the laying of the building and allocated 50,000 annual revenues from her funds, urging her subjects to follow her example. Education took place according to the method of the famous teacher I.I. Betsky, who sought through closed educational institutions create a "new breed of people" - educated and hardworking. The level of the educational process in the Orphanage was high; the institution was popular in the city, so it is no coincidence that it was under him that “French classes” were opened to train future governesses.

In 1764, a decree was issued on the founding of the Educational Society for Noble Maidens for 200 people at the Smolny Convent in St. Petersburg - the Institute of Noble Maidens.

Girls from 4-6 years of age were taken away from home for 15 years. Education was mainly humanitarian, but the beginnings of mathematics and physics were also given, the pupils were intensively taught foreign languages, music, housekeeping, needlework. From the graduates of the institute, educated teachers, wives and ladies-in-waiting were obtained. In 1765, the first public school for women in Russia, the Smolny Institute, was opened in St. Petersburg. Before that, girls were brought up in families, monasteries or private boarding schools.

In 1779, with the money of Prokopy Akinfievich Demidov, the Moscow Commercial School was opened for the children of merchants and commoners.

In 1786, the Charter on Public Schools was issued, according to which public schools of two levels were established in each provincial town. The first stage was represented by "small schools" with a two-year term of study, the second - "main" ones, consisting of four classes. Literacy, reading, arithmetic and the Law of God were taught in the "small" schools. “The main schools were intended to train the teaching staff of the “small” schools. The first "main" public school was opened in Moscow on October 5, 1786. Teachers had to be trained for the system of comprehensive schools. For this purpose, in 1783, the Main Public School was opened in St. Petersburg, from which the teacher's seminary separated three years later - the prototype Pedagogical Institute. Until the end of the 18th century, there were no pedagogical educational institutions in Russia. Only at the end of the century, in 1786, the Main Public Schools were established in the provincial cities, in which teachers were trained for district schools. Catherine's reform was not completed, but, nevertheless, it played a significant role in the development Russian education. The school reform of the 1780s was the first attempt to create a state system of public education. The basis new school the principles of all-estate and free education were laid down. But to create an education system, the necessary funds were not enough and, most importantly, there was still no need for education among the general population.

The development of pedagogical thought in Russia in the second half of the 19th century (N.A. Korf, Bunakov, Tikhomirov)

The most significant development of pedagogical thought in modern Russia took place in the second half of the 19th century. The government is seriously engaged in the restructuring of the school system. Pedagogical journalism is being formed, scientific pedagogical societies and pedagogical journals are being created.

In November 1855, new rules for admission and study at universities were adopted, where restrictions on the number of university students were lifted. However, they did not suit students and teachers. The students insisted on the right to form independent corporations. In 1856, the Academic Committee was restored, which began preparing new school regulations. The work of the committee was influenced by the activities of N.I. Pirogov, K.D. Ushinsky. In June 1863, a new university charter was approved. Universities received greater autonomy, with university management transferred to the Councils of Professors. The charter rejected class-estate discrimination in education. The determining condition for admission to the gymnasium is the property status. Students were required to pay tuition fees.

The children of needy parents were exempted from the fee. Russia in the late 1850s. there are Sunday schools, schools for children from the people, schools based on new pedagogical ideas and principles. D.A. Tolstoy Minister of Education from 1866 to 1880 was head of the Holy Synod. He curtailed the autonomy of the universities, seeking to establish tight government control over universities and other educational institutions. There were changes that served as an impetus for the development of women's education in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Kazan. In the second half of the 19th century, both in Russia and in a number of Western countries, there was an intensive development of pedagogical thought.

In Russia, with the abolition of serfdom, various laws were issued on the free education of peasants and social elements of the lower class. In addition, there is a development of rules for teaching in schools and universities, on the rights of pupils, students and teachers. A number of laws are also passed regarding the power of governing educational institutions. A number of improvements in the education system allows us to judge the high development of the leading teachers who developed these improvements.

N.F. Bunakov is a teacher who shared the principles of an organic connection between school work and folk life, attention to the student and trust in the personality and work of a folk teacher. to personal advantage - one of those respectable qualities that no one will dispute. "School ... should support in its students the feeling of nationality," the scientist formulated, emphasizing the importance of teaching native nature, national geography, history, native language and literature in educating the national feeling. It is possible to influence the souls of children with the ideal, and there is neither bad nor unreasonable in this, - the teacher-educator believes. Student and teacher in a folk school. These problems interested N.F. Bunakov. From the very first days of accepting students, the school must become a “serious”, “interesting, entertaining” matter for them. The student does not just work, assimilating a new experience for himself, but works independently. Reflecting on the being of a student and a teacher at school, N.F. Bunakov comes to the view of the folk school, already noted in Russian pedagogy, as something integral and moral - alive at the same time. The condition for maintaining the moral "structure of school life" is the teacher's knowledge of the life of each of his students. Let's finish the appeal to the legacy of N.F. Bunakov with his idea of ​​the uselessness or even harmfulness of using "punishments and rewards" in school. Punishments and rewards have a bad effect on both the student and the teacher. “Sublime” and “beneficial” ideal (fatherland, kindness, conscience, labor, people and this is the whole human universe) understanding and development of children's spirituality, fostering a sense of catholicity in the human soul (collectivity that preserves the right of the individual with his will to God to question and answer ), presenting life to children as a serious, independent spiritual action-feat (teaching as an analogue of such a life), trusting and following the child’s soul in its desire to joyfully, with interest, peer into the world created by God; the existence of the school as a living conciliar spirituality (teachers and children), which follows the rules, but obeys only the heart - the teacher and the child; view of the teacher living phenomenon Russian culture (and science, in particular); understanding the education of a student through the prism of absolute values ​​- these ideas were introduced into Russian pedagogy by N.F. Bunakov.

The system of education in Western Europe during the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. Jesuit education system

In the XVI century. in Western and Central Europe, a broad social movement of the Reformation unfolded, which took the form of a struggle against the Roman Catholic Church. The Reformation formulated its own understanding of the nature and ways of human education, which differed from the views of the humanists of the Renaissance and Catholic orthodoxy. The religious anthropologism of the reformist teachings ran counter to the secular humanism of Renaissance pedagogy. Unlike the Roman Catholic Church, which professed truth as an unchanging reflection of divine providence, the Reformation intended to supplement truths that were divine in origin.

The Reformation proclaimed the principle of individuality, the "selfhood" of a person who bears personal responsibility before God. The critical and humanistic spirit of the Reformation had important implications for the school and pedagogy. In fact, the Reformation linked up with the Renaissance in an effort to move the human personality to the center of education, introduce it to the national culture, language, literature, and encourage secular education.

In the Reformation movement, moderate and radical currents were traced. The leader of the latter, Thomas Münzer (1490 - 1525), advocated the destruction of the old school, which makes it difficult for the people to access education. The Catechism in German was declared the main textbook of the folk school. The Catechism was translated by Luther himself. Education in educational institutions of elementary education took place within the framework of religious dogmas (Roman Catholic or Protestant). Clericalism was a significant brake on the development of school education.

In schools there was no hint of physical education. The children were constantly hit. Whipped all without exception. In elementary schools verbal mnemonic teaching reigned supreme.

Teaching aids designed specifically for children did not actually exist until the 16th century. The spread of elementary education was slow and difficult. Elementary education could only be obtained in the cities. Ignorance reigned in the countryside. Complete primary education was available only to the top of society. A significant part of the children did not even receive the rudimentary education. Educational institutions of advanced general education of the XV - the first third of the XVII century. genetically, one way or another, they were connected with the previous city and church schools.

The struggle for the unity of faith increased interest in the school as an apparatus for educating the masses, not only in the Protestant Reformation movement, but also in the Catholic one that replaced it, from the end of the 50s of the 16th century. The Counter-Reformation acted as a force opposing Lutheranism. The Catholic reaction was directed not only against reformist religious movements, but also against secular humanistic culture. The founder of the Jesuit order, a well-educated Spanish religious figure, a former officer, Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556), based on the practice already existing in history, believed that success in the cause he defended could be achieved through an all-encompassing educational activity. The Counter-Reformation began to create public free primary schools in European countries. And in order to attract the ruling classes to itself, it launched an active activity in the direction of secondary and higher education. The Jesuit education system, having gained great popularity, existed for quite a long time. Many of its elements have been preserved in Western schools today. Interest in their system of education and upbringing was represented by such methods as interclass and intraclass competition, competitions, theatrical performances, school self-government and much more. Then all this was combined by the Jesuits with a sophisticated system of lying and playing on human passions, authoritarianism and formalism. Developing fanatical devotion to the Roman Catholic religion, the Jesuit education system, despite certain achievements in the field of education, turned out to be essentially reactionary, leading a person away from the ideal of a self-developing creative personality.

In its own way, only the Renaissance became the most unique of the epochs, which raised a person to an unprecedented height. In its own way interpreting the ancient view of the development and upbringing of a person, the humanism of the Renaissance had a significant impact on determining the type of upbringing in modern times. Within the same historical period, the Renaissance and the Reformation defined the relationship between the individual and society in different ways. If humanism preached the harmonious development of a free individual, through which he sought to transform society, which the Enlightenment later inherited from him, then the Reformation was based on the ideal of a community subordinating the individual. And if the humanists sought to dominate the minds of people through education, then the reformers of the church managed to rule over the people themselves with the help of education. By the end of the XVI century. the humanistic worldview was almost completely pushed aside by the ideology of the Reformation and was revived only in the Enlightenment.

The militant organ of the counter-reformation was the Order of the Jesuits ("Society of Jesus"). This order was founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1540. The Jesuits, unlike the monks of other orders, lived in the world, often being politicians, diplomats, courtiers, educators and teachers, doctors.
The struggle against the Reformation in Spain was led by King Philip II himself.

Peter I and his reforms widened the horizon of Russian life. During the reign of Catherine II, this process accelerated. Russia moved further and further away from its medieval culture, largely isolated from the rest of the world, and turned into an enlightened European state.

Ideas of the European enlighteners, state practice enlightened monarchs became the property of not only the imperial court and the enlightened elite of Russia. They penetrated into wide circles of the population - the nobility, the growing middle class and even the peasantry. And if the previous major turns in the history of European civilization - the Renaissance and the Reformation - passed by Russia in many respects, then the Age of Enlightenment became its own era. The attitude to man, his place in the system of society and nature, to the goals and objectives of society has changed.

But feudalism reigned in Russia, absolutism reached its peak, serfdom, class privileges and restrictions formed the unshakable basis of human relations. This led to sharp contradictions between the still powerful old world in Russia and new phenomena in culture. And yet the new stubbornly made its way.

One of the features of the development of Russian culture at that time was the interpenetration of the achievements of Russian culture of the 17th century. and new cultural trends.

The Christian worldview remained the main one for the Russian people. Both Peter I and Catherine II were deeply religious people, but they showed complete indifference to church rituals, traditions, and rules. Freed from this constant ecclesiastical influence and pressure, Russian culture in all its manifestations became more and more secular.

Culture contributed to the formation of Russian society, it brought people together as a nation, awakened national identity.

The members of this society and this nation were the empress, and nobles, and provincial nobles, and city dwellers, and the Cossacks, and the peasantry, including the serf intelligentsia (actors, musicians, painters). Of course, between the upper strata of society and its lower classes lay an insurmountable abyss, but culture imperceptibly threw bridges across this abyss. Only the knightly peasantry turned out to be rejected in this new advancing world.

The emergence of new cultural values ​​also acquired an international character in the conditions of multinational Russia. New cultural values ​​and educational ideas were superimposed on the cultural traditions and achievements of the six peoples of Russia and made them participatory in the fate of the country's truths. They began to feel like Russians, residents of a colossal and multinational power.

The bearer of new scientific and cultural traditions was primarily the nobility. But this did not mean that Russian culture was purely noble. The nobility created and nurtured a universal human culture in Russia.

The creators of Russian science and culture of the XVIII century. also came from abroad. Throughout the century, foreigners had a strong influence on the formation of Russian civilization. They participated in the creation of the education system, stood at the origins of the organization of the Academy of Sciences, made a huge contribution to the development of Russian architecture, sculpture, painting, theater and music. For the most part, they were talented and enthusiastic people who brought a lot of benefits to Russia, passing on their experience and skills to the Russian people. But gradually domestic talents gained strength and influence.

Education and enlightenment of the people

Education and enlightenment of the people by the end of the XVIII century. achieved significant success.

Education was mostly class-based. This meant that each estate had its own system of education, closed from others. And the higher and more privileged the class was, the higher was the level of education.

In the 1730s The land gentry corps was opened, and in the 1750s, the Naval gentry corps. Thus, the army and navy were replenished with highly qualified personnel, and at the same time, the children of the nobility were given the opportunity immediately after training to start serving in the rank of an officer, and not to pull, as under Peter I, a soldier's strap. It was the privilege of the nobility.

Artillery and Engineering gentry corps became other closed educational institutions.

There were many private noble boarding houses in Moscow, St. Petersburg and other cities. Noble children lived and studied in such boarding houses. At the same time, learning at home came into fashion.

However, education in boarding schools and at home needed to improve the professional and general humanitarian level. This could be given only by higher educational institutions of the civil type. Due to the lack of higher educational institutions of a modern level in Russia, it was quite a natural step for the authorities to open two universities in Russia at once.

One, at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, trained Russian scientists. This goal limited the flow to the university of those who wanted to get a university degree, i.e. universal, general education. In addition, admission to the university was preceded by training in an academic gymnasium.

With the opening of Moscow University in 1755, the situation changed significantly. At first there were three faculties - philosophical, legal and medical. At the Faculty of Philosophy, they studied mathematics, mechanics, physics, geography, philology. At the Faculty of Medicine, a significant place was given to the study of chemistry and biology.

Moscow University became the first and only one in Europe in the 18th century. a university that did not have a theological faculty and did not teach theological sciences. The new educational institution in Russia rested entirely on secular principles of education.

It is not for nothing that Moscow University bears the name of the great Russian scientist M. V. Lomonosov (1711 - 1765). He was the initiator of its creation, developed a university project, insisted that teaching in it be conducted in Russian, which at the time of general use in teaching Latin was also unusual. M. V. Lomonos caught the transformation of the university into a public, that is, inaccessible, educational institution.

It is no coincidence that within the walls of the university in the XVIII century. studied natives of families raznochintsev. They also formed the teaching staff. The charter of the university forbade corporal punishment of students. The university was an autonomous self-governing organization and did not depend on local authorities. He obeyed the Senate.

There was a gymnasium at the university. One of its networks was intended for the children of the nobility, the other for the children of the raznochintsy. A huge role in the creation of the university I.I. Shuvalov played the favorite of Elizabeth Petrovna - I. I. Shuvalov (1727-1797). It was with his active support that M. V. Lomonosov realized his plans.

Along with educational institutions for the nobility, the network of religious educational institutions expanded in the country.

The network of comprehensive schools gradually developed. In the 1780s For the first time in the history of the country, a public education system was introduced. In St. Petersburg province, and later in 25 other provinces of the country, two-class and four-class public schools were opened. In the first children were taught reading, writing, calligraphy, drawing, the Law of God. Secondly, the teaching of grammar, arithmetic, geometry, mechanics, physics, geography, history, natural science and architecture was added.

Catherine II sought to put the education system on a European level. She wanted broad-minded, humane, enlightened people to appear in the country. And not only among the nobles, but also among other classes. For this purpose, it was supposed to create closed educational institutions - separately for the nobility, merchants, and other inhabitants. Education there was thought to be carried out on the basis of the principles of education - by persuasion, without punishment and coercion.

Closed educational institutions appeared primarily in St. Petersburg. In 1767 the Institute for Noble Maidens (Smolny Institute) was opened. In separate groups, girls from the petty-bourgeois class studied in it.

The science

The Academy of Sciences with its three departments - philosophical, physical and historical - remained at the center of Russian science. At first, only scientists invited from abroad were members of the Academy. After the accession of Elizabeth Petrovna and the end of German dominance in many areas of the country's public life, the situation at the Academy began to change. Scientific research moved forward, Russian cadres appeared among scientists. In the 1740-1750s. the leading role in the Academy belonged to Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov.

For Russian science, Lomonosov became a whole era. It seems that there was no branch of knowledge in which he would not penetrate and where he would not leave his remarkable mark. He created the first chemical laboratory in the history of Russia. It was during a series of chemical experiments that he came to the discovery of the law of conservation of matter and motion. He owns the development of the atomic-molecular theory of the structure of matter. He also explained the phenomenon of heating bodies: not mythical caloric, as was previously thought, but the movement of body particles causes this process. Astronomers call Lomonosov the father of their science. It is to him that the honor of discovering the atmosphere on the planet Venus belongs. Lomonosov did a lot in the field of geology, mineralogy, mining, and geography. He substantiated the great importance for Russia of the Northern Sea Route, along which to this day ships go to the northeastern ports of the country.

MV Lomonosov was never an armchair scientist. He achieved amazing results in many applied sciences, made a number of discoveries that were of practical importance. So, he owns the idea of ​​lightning rods that protect people from atmospheric electricity, from lightning. He became the founder of domestic scientific meteorology. He worked a lot in the industrial sector - in the development of new types of porcelain, glass, paints, creating mosaics, from which he made magnificent paintings.

M. V. Lomonosov was a genius not only in the field of natural sciences, but also an outstanding humanitarian. He contributed huge contribution in the formation of the Russian literary language and became the author of Russian grammar. His poetic writings, in particular the ode in honor of Elizabeth

11strovny, the victories of Russian weapons, were a model for G of many writers of the 18th century. Finally, M.V. Lomonosov showed himself as a brilliant historian. His Ancient Russian History is a work filled with pride in the history of the Slavic world.

In the second half of the XVIII century. stepped forward and technical thought. The heat engineer I. I. Polzunov (1728-1766) developed a project for a universal steam engine. The self-taught mechanic I.P. Kulibin (1735-1818) invented many different mechanisms, among them - an amazing clock. He proposed a project for a single-arch bridge across the Neva, almost 300 m long.

Research expeditions became an important part of scientific activity. If the 17th century was the century of great Russian discoveries in the east, then the XVIII century. became the time of their research and development. Interested in everything - communication routes, climate, subsoil, sea ​​currents, geographical outlines of the Eurasian continent, its population.

From 1733 to 1741, with the support of the Senate, the Admiralty, the Academy of Sciences, the Second Kamchatka Expedition of V. Bering and A. I. Chirikov took place, during which the strait separating America from Asia was discovered, and named after the discoverer - the Bering Strait. The expedition opened Northwest America to the world. Members of the expedition explored and described the shores of Kamchatka, the Kuril and Aleutian Islands, Northern Japan.

Expeditions were sent to South Siberia, the Lower Volga region, the Urals and the Urals, Bashkiria, the North Caucasus, the Crimea, to Lake Baikal.

A special research expedition set sail for Alaska. The materials of these expeditions were widely published in Russia and abroad.

Literature and art

Literature of the second half of the XVIII century. becomes more and more secular, goes out from under the influence of the Church. The Russian literary language is being formed, freed from the old church speech. The Church Slavonic language remained only in religious texts and in divine services. Big influence the reform of the language was first provided by M.V. Lomonosov, and later the writer and historian N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826), whom Peter I. He creates prose and poetry, translates ancient and modern European classics into Russian. Among the works of classicism are the odes of M.V. Lomonosov and V.K. Trediakovsky (1706-1768), as well as the tragedies and comedies of A.P. Sumarokov (1717-1777), the father of Russian drama, according to his contemporaries.

Russian literature developed rapidly. And no sooner had classicism blossomed than it was replaced by new style- sentimentalism, with its interest in inner world, experiences not of an outstanding hero, but of ordinary townspeople, peasants. bright representative N. M. Karamzin, whose story “Poor Lisa about the love experiences of a modest girl that ended in tragedy, was read by all literate Russia, became this direction.

18th century does not end yet, and the beginnings of realism imperiously invade Russian literature, under the sign of which the literature of the entire 19th century existed.

Realistic motives are felt in the poetic works of G. R. Derzhavin (1743-1816), in the plays of D. I. Fonvizin (1745-1792). His comedy “The Undergrowth” brings to the stage that part of the nobility that did not want any innovations, any progress and firmly held on to serfdom and its privileges.

An integral part of Russian culture was folk art. Folklore of the second half of the 18th century. the events and folk heroes of those years were reflected - Emelyan Pugachev and Salavat Yulaev, heroes of past glorious events, for example, Bogdap Khmelnitsky and Maxim Krivonos. The famous "Lament of serfs, created among the people, narrated about hatred ordinary people to serfdom.

Many wonderful architectural monuments, a true decoration of Russian cities, were created in the 18th century. What are Petersburg, Tsarskoye Selo, Pavlovsk, Peterhof, which have become the pride of Russia and the world's architectural masterpieces worth!

The name of VV Rastrelli (1700-1771), an Italian sculptor who worked in Russia, is associated with the emergence of the Baroque style in our country. In this style, he created the famous Winter Palace, the equally famous Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo, the complex of buildings of the Smolny Monastery, the Stroganov Palace and other buildings in St. Petersburg.

Following the baroque, classicism came into the architecture of Russia with its strict proportions, slender colonnades, monumentality, and harmony. The court architect of Catherine II, the Scot C. Cameron (1730s - 1812), became a vivid exponent of this style. He is the author of the ensemble of the palace and park structures in Pavlovsk near St. Petersburg, the gallery in Tsarskoye Selo, and other structures.

The famous Italian architect G. Quarenghi (1744-1817) left a noticeable mark on the architecture of the capital. It was he who created the Hermitage, the Smolny Institute, the Stock Exchange building, magnificent palaces in Peterhof (Great Palace) and Tsarskoe Selo (Alexander Palace). State Library). This is a creation of the remarkable Russian architect V.I. Bazhenov (1738-1799). He owns the projects of the Grand Kremlin Palace in Moscow and the Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg, the imperial palace in the village of Tsaritsyn near Moscow, and other buildings. IN AND. Bazhenov was elected a professor at the Roman Academy and a full member of the Bologna and Florence Academies.

A rich architectural heritage was left by M. F. Kazakov (1738-1812). His main works are the building of Moscow University on Mokhovaya, the building of the Golitsyn Hospital in Moscow (now the 1st Gradskaya Hospital), the house of the Noble Assembly in Moscow (now the Column Hall of the House of Unions), other buildings in Moscow, Tver and other cities.

The pride of Russian architecture of the XVIII century. was the work of I. E. Starov (1745-1808). His best creations are the Tauride Palace of G. A. Potemkin and the Trinity Cathedral of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra in St. Petersburg.

In the last decades of the century, powerful manor construction unfolded in Russia. Wooden architecture continued to develop. A vivid example of it was the Sheremetev Palace in Ostankino, built by Russian masters P. I. Argunov, G. E. Dikushin and A. F. Mironov.

Experienced flourishing and Russian painting. This flourishing was expressed in an ever greater transition from the conventions of icon painting to realistic canvases. In the XVIII century. portraiture developed. The son of a soldier A. P. Antropov, serf artists I. P. Argunov and F. S. Rokotov, immigrants from Ukraine D. G. Levitsky and V. L. Borovikovsky created a brilliant gallery of portraits of Russian monarchs, nobles, statesmen, commanders.

Historical painting appeared on biblical and ancient Russian themes, as well as genre painting. The peasant theme has become a phenomenon of the times here. The artist I. A. Eremeev in his canvases showed the life of the common people, the peasants. Everyday paintings on a peasant theme were created by the serf artist M. Shibanov.

Sculpture and music became part of the general development of Russian art. It was in the second half of the XVIII century. in Russia, a transition is being made from applied, ornamental sculpture to monumental and portrait sculpture. An example of the first is the famous Bronze Horseman - a monument to Peter I, built at the direction of Catherine II by the French sculptor E.M. Falcone (1716-1791) in 1775, as well as a monument to Minin and Pozharsky in Moscow, the author of which was the sculptor I.P. Martos (1754-1835).

Another direction in sculpture was demonstrated by F. I. Shubin (1740-1805). He came from Pomeranian peasants, was a friend of M. V. Lomonosov. His chisel owns the busts of Catherine II, Paul I, Lomonosov, Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin.

Among the remarkable cultural figures of the second half of the XVIII century. there is also an amazing figure of the founder of the Russian theater F. G. Volkov (1729-1763). The son of a Yaroslavl merchant, he became the first Russian actor and founder of the Russian national theater. At first he worked in Yaroslavl, then moved to St. Petersburg and founded the first professional theater here.

The musical art was still dominated by visiting opera and ballet troupes, but the time had already come for the establishment of original Russian talents. The composer I. E. Khandoshkin (1747-1804) wrote his own music for folk instruments, whose works are still performed today. The creator of amazing church chorales was D. S. Bortnyansky (1751-1825).

Russian life

The most striking changes in the life of the population took place in St. Petersburg, Moscow and some other large cities of the country. Petersburg, on the Palace Embankment, Nevsky Prospekt, along the canals and rivers that flowed into the Neva, the nobles built luxurious palaces for themselves. The banks of the Neva were dressed with granite embankments. This was done at the direction of Catherine I. She also owned the idea of ​​building the famous lattice of the Summer Garden.

The palaces were rich and refined. Aristocrats tried to make them look like imperial ones. There were large halls, living rooms furnished with European furniture, and comfortable rooms. Tiled stoves in winter radiated even, dry heat throughout the room. Candles in chandeliers and candelabra perfectly illuminated rooms, corridors and passages.

In these palaces, balls thundered, high society receptions were held. What was the cost of the famous ball given by G. A. Potemkin in his Tauride Palace in honor of the Empress! Three thousand guests, a performance of the choir, ballet, pantomime, a reception in a hall turned into a garden with a fountain and bushes of flowering trees, with the singing of living nightingales and a temple with a statue of Catherine. Dinner until 2 am, dancing until the morning. 140 thousand lamps and 20 thousand candles illuminated this action.

By the end of the XVIII century. in St. Petersburg it became fashionable to keep aristocratic salons. French speech was heard here, disputes about politics, literature, and art were in full swing. Russian literary celebrities began to shine in such salons.

Dapper carriages drove past luxurious mansions along Nevsky Prospekt, guards officers and smartly dressed townsfolk strolled by.

Moscow has also changed. Although there was no such wealth and brilliance here as in St. Petersburg, the Moscow nobility did not want to lag behind the demands of the time. Evidence leveled out. the chaotic development of the city has stopped, although it continues.

Wealthy nobles and merchants built, as a rule, two or three-story manor-type houses. Such a house was separated from the street by a garden, lawns, paths. It stood in the depths of the space, fenced off from the street by a cast-iron or iron grating, only the wings of the outbuilding went out onto the street. Such manor houses of the XVIII century. Until now, Moscow has preserved a lot.

Next to them were the houses of other rich people - stone, elegant buildings with columns. There were up to 7-8 rooms - living rooms, a sofa room, a bedroom, an office, a nursery, a dining room, a dance hall. Here, too, there were furniture sets that came into fashion at that time, sofas and sofas. Gone were the benches and the crudely knocked together tables. There were chairs, armchairs, elegant tables with curved legs, shelves for books. The walls were covered with wallpaper.

In the evenings, many Russian cities were illuminated by lanterns in which hemp oil burned. In the center of cities, as in St. Petersburg, paving stones were laid, and more often - wooden pavements.

There were city hospitals. Medical personnel were trained in hospital schools and medical-surgical schools. By the end of the century, a unified system of medical institutions for the population was created. In each provincial city, one doctor was to be in the service, and in county towns, one doctor. Pharmacies have opened. Of course, this was negligible and small for a vast and multi-million country. Hospitals were also built with private funds. After some time, rich people passed them on to the city.

Small Russian towns were more like large villages. In addition to two or three stone buildings, the rest of the houses were wooden. Unpaved streets overgrown with grass, puddles after rains, mud in autumn and spring became an integral part of such cities.

On the outskirts there were workers' barracks, where the alien working people of local manufactories, various artisans, lived. These were cramped, dirty, stuffy rooms with bunks instead of beds. Several dozen people sometimes lived in such a barrack in a common room. Families also lived here. Only later did the interiors of the barracks begin to be separated by partitions.

Cities and urban life with its innovations, of course, were of great importance for the general civilizational development of the country. Here, like nowhere else, the latest European achievements in architecture, education, enlightenment, lifestyle, clothing, food, recreation, and entertainment took root. United with old Russian traditions, customs and habits, they determined the main directions of life of the Russian population of the 18th century.

But this did not mean at all that innovations captured the whole country. On the contrary, they only emphasized the general stagnation, traditionalism, and poverty of Russian life.

A huge area of ​​Russian life remained outside the urban civilization - the village, the village, the rural population. Here, as in the cities, there were great fluctuations in living conditions, in the features of life. On the one hand, part of the rural population was the nobility. After the decree on the liberties of the nobility and the Letter of Complaint to the nobility, which freed the nobles from the mandatory state and military service, a significant part of the nobles settled in their estates, took up farming, began to arrange their rural life.

Of course, there were big differences between the representatives of the rural nobility. It's one thing - rich landowners, owners of tens of thousands of serf souls. These rich people had luxurious estates with magnificent houses built according to the designs of famous architects. Another thing is the small landowners, who had a dozen and a half serfs.

And yet, the main part of the nobility were middle-class landlords, owners of rural estates. Such Chnoryane were not separated from peasant life by an insurmountable wall. They constantly communicated with the peasants, courtyard people lived in their estates, servants from those peasants. Masters and servants were side by side for years, came into contact with the origins of the same folk culture, traditions, customs, beliefs, were treated by the same healers, drank the same infusions and steamed in the bathhouse with the same birch brooms. In addition, a significant part of the nobility, like Fonvizin's Mrs. Prostakova, was illiterate or semi-literate. Rural estates of such nobles were an integral part of Russian rural life.

The latest innovations in everyday life bypassed peasant life. Only a small part of the peasants fought out among the people. They built good, clean huts with Dutch ovens in the villages, used new household items (utensils and furniture), bought good-quality clothes and shoes, and diversified food.