Cause for the Crimean War. Crimean War

The spirit in the troops is beyond description. In the days of ancient Greece, there was not so much heroism. I have not been able to be in business a single time, but I thank God that I have seen these people and live in this glorious time.

Lev Tolstoy

The wars of the Russian and Ottoman empires were a common occurrence in the international politics of the 18th-19th centuries. In 1853, the Russian Empire of Nicholas 1 entered another war, which went down in history as the Crimean War of 1853-1856, and ended with the defeat of Russia. In addition, this war showed the strong resistance of the leading countries of Western Europe (France and Great Britain) to the strengthening of the role of Russia in Eastern Europe especially in the Balkans. The lost war also showed Russia itself the problems in domestic politics which led to many problems. Despite victories at the initial stage of 1853-1854, as well as the capture of the key Turkish fortress of Kars in 1855, Russia lost the most important battles on the territory of the Crimean peninsula. This article describes the causes, course, main results and historical significance in a short story about the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Causes of the aggravation of the Eastern question

Under the eastern question, historians understand a number of controversial issues in Russian-Turkish relations, which at any moment could lead to conflict. The main problems of the Eastern question, which became the main one for the future war, are as follows:

• The loss of the Crimea and the northern Black Sea region by the Ottoman Empire at the end of the 18th century constantly stimulated Turkey to start a war in the hope of regaining the territories. Thus began the wars of 1806-1812 and 1828-1829. However, as a result of them, Turkey lost Bessarabia and part of the territory in the Caucasus, which further strengthened the desire for revenge.
• Belonging to the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. Russia demanded that these straits be opened for the Black Sea Fleet, while the Ottoman Empire (under pressure from the countries of Western Europe) ignored these demands of Russia.
• Presence in the Balkans, consisting of Ottoman Empire, Slavic Christian peoples who fought for their independence. Russia supported them, thereby causing a wave of indignation among the Turks about Russia's interference in the internal affairs of another state.

An additional factor that intensified the conflict was the desire of the countries of Western Europe (Britain, France, and Austria) not to let Russia into the Balkans, and also to close its access to the straits. For the sake of this, the countries were ready to support Turkey in a potential war with Russia.

The reason for the war and its beginning

These troubled moments brewed throughout the late 1840s and early 1850s. In 1853, the Turkish Sultan handed over the Bethlehem Temple of Jerusalem (then the territory of the Ottoman Empire) to the management catholic church. This caused a wave of indignation of the highest Orthodox hierarchy. Nicholas 1 decided to take advantage of this, using the religious conflict as a pretext for attacking Turkey. Russia demanded to transfer the temple Orthodox Church, and at the same time also open the straits for the Black Sea Fleet. Turkey refused. In June 1853, Russian troops crossed the border of the Ottoman Empire and entered the territory of the Danubian principalities dependent on it.

Nicholas 1 hoped that France was too weak after the revolution of 1848, and that Britain could be appeased by transferring Cyprus and Egypt to it in the future. However, the plan did not work, European countries called the Ottoman Empire to action, promising her financial and military assistance. In October 1853, Turkey declared war on Russia. Thus began, to put it briefly, the Crimean War of 1853-1856. In the history of Western Europe, this war is called Eastern.

The course of the war and the main stages

The Crimean War can be divided into 2 stages according to the number of participants in the events of those years. Here are the steps:

1. October 1853 - April 1854. During these six months the war was between the Ottoman Empire and Russia (without the direct intervention of other states). There were three fronts: Crimean (Black Sea), Danube and Caucasian.
2. April 1854 - February 1856. British and French troops enter the war, which expands the theater of operations, as well as a turning point in the course of the war. Allied troops outnumbered Russian technical side, which was the reason for the changes in the course of the war.

As for specific battles, the following key battles can be distinguished: for Sinop, for Odessa, for the Danube, for the Caucasus, for Sevastopol. There were other battles, but those listed above are the main ones. Let's consider them in more detail.

Battle of Sinop (November 1853)

The battle took place in the harbor of the city of Sinop in the Crimea. The Russian fleet under the command of Nakhimov completely defeated the Turkish fleet of Osman Pasha. This battle was perhaps the last major world battle on sailing ships. This victory significantly raised the morale of the Russian army and gave hope for an early victory in the war.

Map of the Sinopo naval battle November 18, 1853

Bombing of Odessa (April 1854)

In early April 1854, the Ottoman Empire launched a squadron of the Franco-British fleet through its straits, which swiftly headed for Russian port and shipbuilding cities: Odessa, Ochakov and Nikolaev.

On April 10, 1854, the bombardment of Odessa, the main southern port, began. Russian Empire. After a rapid and intense bombardment, it was planned to land troops in the northern Black Sea region, which would force the withdrawal of troops from the Danube principalities, as well as weaken the defense of the Crimea. However, the city withstood several days of shelling. Moreover, the defenders of Odessa were able to deliver accurate strikes against the Allied fleet. The plan of the Anglo-French troops failed. The allies were forced to retreat towards the Crimea and begin battles for the peninsula.

Fights on the Danube (1853-1856)

It was with the entry of Russian troops into this region that the Crimean War of 1853-1856 began. After the success in the Battle of Sinop, another success awaited Russia: the troops completely crossed to the right bank of the Danube, an attack was opened on Silistria and further on Bucharest. However, the entry into the war of England and France complicated the offensive of Russia. On June 9, 1854, the siege of Silistria was lifted and the Russian troops returned to the left bank of the Danube. By the way, on this front, Austria also entered the war against Russia, which was worried about the rapid advance of the Romanov Empire into Wallachia and Moldavia.

In July 1854, near the city of Varna (modern Bulgaria), a huge landing of the British and French armies(according to various sources, from 30 to 50 thousand). The troops were supposed to enter the territory of Bessarabia, ousting Russia from this region. However, a cholera epidemic broke out in the French army, and the British public demanded that the leadership of the army first strike at the Black Sea fleet in the Crimea.

Fights in the Caucasus (1853-1856)

An important battle took place in July 1854 near the village of Kyuruk-Dara (Western Armenia). The combined Turkish-British forces were defeated. At this stage, the Crimean War was still successful for Russia.

Another important battle in this region took place in June-November 1855. Russian troops decided to attack eastern part Ottoman Empire, the fortress of Karsu, so that the allies sent part of the troops to this region, thereby slightly weakening the siege of Sevastopol. Russia won the battle of Kars, but this happened after the news of the fall of Sevastopol, so this battle had little effect on the outcome of the war. Moreover, according to the results of the "peace" signed later, the fortress of Kars returned to the Ottoman Empire. However, as the peace talks showed, the capture of Kars still played a role. But more on that later.

Defense of Sevastopol (1854-1855)

The most heroic and tragic event of the Crimean War is, of course, the battle for Sevastopol. In September 1855, Franco-British troops captured the last point of the city's defense - Malakhov Kurgan. The city survived 11 months of siege, however, as a result, it was surrendered to the allied forces (among which the Sardinian kingdom appeared). This defeat became a key one and served as an impetus for the end of the war. From the end of 1855, intensified negotiations began, in which Russia had practically no strong arguments. It was clear that the war was lost.

Other battles in the Crimea (1854-1856)

In addition to the siege of Sevastopol on the territory of Crimea in 1854-1855, several more battles took place, which were aimed at "unblocking" Sevastopol:

1. Battle of the Alma (September 1854).
2. Battle of Balaklava (October 1854).
3. Battle of Inkerman (November 1854).
4. An attempt to liberate Evpatoria (February 1855).
5. Battle on the Chernaya River (August 1855).

All these battles ended in unsuccessful attempts to lift the siege of Sevastopol.

"Distant" battles

Main fighting wars took place near the Crimean peninsula, which gave the name to the war. There were also battles in the Caucasus, on the territory of modern Moldova, as well as in the Balkans. However, not many people know that battles between rivals also took place in remote regions of the Russian Empire. Here are some examples:

1. Peter and Paul Defense. The battle that took place on the territory of the Kamchatka Peninsula between the combined Franco-British troops on the one hand and Russian on the other. The battle took place in August 1854. This battle was the result of the victory of Britain over China during the Opium Wars. As a result, Britain wanted to increase its influence in the east of Asia, ousting Russia from here. In total, the Allied troops made two assaults, both ended in failure for them. Russia withstood the Peter and Paul defense.
2. Arctic Company. The operation of the British fleet to attempt to blockade or capture Arkhangelsk, carried out in 1854-1855. The main battles took place in the water area Barents Sea. The British also undertook the bombardment of the Solovetsky fortress, as well as the robbery of Russian merchant ships in the White and Barents Seas.

Results and historical significance of the war

In February 1855, Nicholas 1 died. The task of the new emperor, Alexander 2, was to end the war, and with minimal damage to Russia. In February 1856, the Paris Congress began its work. Russia was represented by Alexei Orlov and Philip Brunnov. Since neither side saw the point in continuing the war, already on March 6, 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed, as a result of which the Crimean War was completed.

The main terms of the Treaty of Paris 6 were as follows:

1. Russia returned the Karsu fortress to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol and other captured cities of the Crimean peninsula.
2. Russia was forbidden to have a Black Sea fleet. The Black Sea was declared neutral.
3. The Bosporus and Dardanelles were declared closed to the Russian Empire.
4. Part of Russian Bessarabia was transferred to the Moldavian principality, the Danube ceased to be border river, so navigation was declared free.
5. On the Allada Islands (an archipelago in the Baltic Sea), Russia was forbidden to build military and (or) defensive fortifications.

As for losses, the number of Russian citizens who died in the war is 47.5 thousand people. Britain lost 2.8 thousand, France - 10.2, the Ottoman Empire - more than 10 thousand. The Sardinian kingdom lost 12 thousand soldiers. Austrian casualties are unknown, possibly because Austria was not officially at war with Russia.

In general, the war showed the backwardness of Russia, compared with the states of Europe, especially in terms of the economy (completion of the industrial revolution, construction railways, the use of steamboats). After this defeat, the reforms of Alexander 2 began. In addition, a desire for revenge was brewing in Russia for a long time, which resulted in another war with Turkey in 1877-1878. But this is a completely different story, and the Crimean War of 1853-1856 was completed and Russia was defeated in it.

On October 23, 1853, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia. By this time, our Danubian army (55 thousand) was concentrated in the vicinity of Bucharest, having forward detachments on the Danube, and the Ottomans had up to 120-130 thousand in European Turkey, under the command of Omer Pasha. These troops were located: 30 thousand at Shumla, 30 thousand in Adrianople, and the rest along the Danube from Viddin to the mouth.

Somewhat earlier than the announcement of the Crimean War, the Turks had already begun hostilities by seizing the Oltenitsky quarantine on the night of October 20 on the left bank of the Danube. The arrived Russian detachment of General Dannenberg (6 thousand) attacked the Turks on October 23 and, despite their numerical superiority (14 thousand), almost occupied the Turkish fortifications, but was withdrawn by General Dannenberg, who considered it impossible to keep Oltenitsa under the fire of Turkish batteries on the right bank of the Danube . Then Omer Pasha himself returned the Turks to the right bank of the Danube and disturbed our troops only with separate surprise attacks, which the Russian troops also responded to.

At the same time, the Turkish fleet brought supplies to the Caucasian highlanders, who acted against Russia at the instigation of the Sultan and England. To prevent this, Admiral Nakhimov, with a squadron of 8 ships, overtook the Turkish squadron, which had taken refuge from bad weather in the Sinop Bay. November 18, 1853, after a three-hour battle of Sinop, the enemy fleet, including 11 ships, was destroyed. Five Ottoman ships took off, the Turks lost up to 4,000 killed and wounded and 1,200 prisoners; the Russians lost 38 officers and 229 lower ranks.

Meanwhile, Omer Pasha, refusing offensive operations from the side of Oltenitsa, gathered up to 40 thousand to Kalafat and decided to defeat the weak advanced Little Wallakh detachment of General Anrep (7.5 thousand). On December 25, 1853, 18 thousand Turks attacked the 2.5 thousand detachment of Colonel Baumgarten near Chetati, but the reinforcements (1.5 thousand) who came up saved our detachment, which shot all the cartridges, from final death. Having lost up to 2 thousand people, both of our detachments retreated at night to the village of Motsetsei.

After the battle at Chetati, the Small Wallachian detachment, reinforced to 20 thousand, settled in apartments near Calafat and blocked the Turks from entering Wallachia; further operations of the Crimean War in the European theater in January and February 1854 were limited to minor clashes.

Crimean War in the Transcaucasian theater in 1853

Meanwhile, the actions of Russian troops in the Transcaucasian theater were accompanied by complete success. Here the Turks, having gathered a 40,000-strong army long before the declaration of the Crimean War, opened hostilities in mid-October. The energetic Prince Bebutov was appointed head of the Russian active corps. Having received information about the movement of the Turks to Alexandropol (Gyumri), Prince Bebutov sent a detachment of General Orbeliani on November 2, 1853. This detachment unexpectedly stumbled near the village of Bayandur on the main forces Turkish army and barely escaped to Alexandropol; the Turks, fearing Russian reinforcements, took up a position at Bashkadyklar. Finally, on November 6, a manifesto was received on the beginning of the Crimean War, and on November 14, Prince Bebutov moved to Kars.

Another Turkish detachment (18 thousand) on October 29, 1853 approached the Akhaltsikhe fortress, but the head of the Akhaltsikhe detachment, Prince Andronnikov, with his 7 thousand on November 14, attacked the Turks himself and put them into a disorderly flight; the Turks lost up to 3.5 thousand, while our losses were limited to only 450 people.

Following the victory of the Akhaltsikhe detachment, the Alexandropol detachment under the command of Prince Bebutov (10 thousand) defeated on November 19 the 40 thousandth army of the Turks in the strong Bashkadyklar position, and only the extreme fatigue of people and horses did not allow to develop the success achieved by pursuit. Nevertheless, the Turks in this battle lost up to 6 thousand, and our troops - about 2 thousand.

Both of these victories immediately raised the prestige of the Russian power, and the general uprising that was being prepared in Transcaucasia immediately subsided.

Crimean War 1853-1856. Map

Balkan theater of the Crimean War in 1854

Meanwhile, on December 22, 1853, the combined Anglo-French fleet entered the Black Sea in order to protect Turkey from the sea and help it supply its ports with the necessary supplies. Russian envoys immediately broke off relations with England and France and returned to Russia. Emperor Nicholas turned to Austria and Prussia with a proposal, in the event of his war with England and France, to observe the strictest neutrality. But both of these powers shied away from any obligations, refusing at the same time to join the allies; to ensure their possessions, they concluded a defensive alliance among themselves. Thus, at the beginning of 1854, it became clear that Russia was left in the Crimean War without allies, and therefore the most decisive measures were taken to strengthen our troops.

By the beginning of 1854, up to 150 thousand Russian troops were located in the area along the Danube and the Black Sea up to the Bug. With these forces, it was supposed to move deep into Turkey, raise an uprising of the Balkan Slavs and declare Serbia independent, but the hostile mood of Austria, which was strengthening its troops in Transylvania, forced us to abandon this bold plan and limit ourselves to crossing the Danube, to master only Silistria and Ruschuk.

In the first half of March, Russian troops crossed the Danube at Galats, Brailov and Izmail, and on March 16, 1854, occupied Girsovo. An unstoppable advance towards Silistria would inevitably lead to the occupation of this fortress, the armament of which had not yet been completed. However, the newly appointed commander-in-chief, Prince Paskevich, who had not yet personally arrived at the army, stopped it, and only the insistence of the emperor himself forced him to continue the offensive towards Silistria. The commander-in-chief himself, fearing that the Austrians would cut off the retreat of the Russian army, offered to return to Russia.

The stop of the Russian troops at Girsov gave the Turks time to strengthen both the fortress itself and its garrison (from 12 to 18 thousand). Approaching the fortress on May 4, 1854 with 90 thousand, Prince Paskevich, still fearing for his rear, stationed his army 5 miles from the fortress in a fortified camp to cover the bridge over the Danube. The siege of the fortress was carried out only against its eastern front, and from the western side, the Turks, in full view of the Russians, brought supplies to the fortress. In general, our actions near Silistria bore the imprint of the extreme caution of the commander in chief himself, who was also embarrassed by false rumors about the alleged union of the allies with the army of Omer Pasha. On May 29, 1854, Prince Paskevich, shell-shocked during reconnaissance, left the army, handing it over to Prince Gorchakov, who energetically led the siege and on June 8 decided to storm the Arab and Peschanoe forts. All orders for the assault had already been made, as two hours before the assault, an order was received from Prince Paskevich to immediately lift the siege and move to the left bank of the Danube, which was carried out by the evening of June 13. Finally, according to the condition concluded with Austria, which undertook to support our interests in the western courts, from July 15, 1854, the withdrawal of our troops from the Danubian principalities began, which from August 10 were occupied by Austrian troops. The Turks returned to the right bank of the Danube.

During these actions, the Allies launched a series of attacks on our coastal cities on the Black Sea and, by the way, on Holy Saturday, April 8, 1854, severely bombarded Odessa. Then the allied fleet appeared at Sevastopol and headed for the Caucasus. On land, Allied support for the Ottomans was expressed by the landing of a detachment at Gallipoli to defend Constantinople. Then these troops were transferred to Varna in early July and moved to Dobruja. Here, cholera caused great devastation in their ranks (from July 21 to August 8, 8,000 fell ill and 5,000 of them died).

Crimean War in the Transcaucasian theater in 1854

Military operations in the spring of 1854 in the Caucasus opened on our right flank, where on June 4, Prince Andronnikov, with the Akhaltsykh detachment (11 thousand), defeated the Turks at Cholok. Somewhat later, on the left flank of the Erivan detachment of General Wrangel (5 thousand) on June 17 attacked 16 thousand Turks on the Chingil Heights, overturned them and occupied Bayazet. The main forces of the Caucasian army, i.e., the Alexandropol detachment of Prince Bebutov, moved to Kars on June 14 and stopped at the village of Kyuryuk-Dara, having 15 miles ahead of them the 60,000th Anatolian army of Zarif Pasha.

On July 23, 1854, Zarif Pasha went on the offensive, and on the 24th, the Russian troops also moved forward, having received false information about the retreat of the Turks. Faced with the Turks, Bebutov lined up his troops in battle order. A series of energetic attacks by infantry and cavalry stopped the right wing of the Turks; then Bebutov, after a very stubborn, often hand-to-hand combat, threw back the center of the enemy, having spent almost all of his reserves for this. After that, our attacks turned against the Turkish left flank, which had already bypassed our position. The attack was crowned with complete success: the Turks retreated in complete frustration, losing up to 10 thousand; in addition, about 12 thousand bashi-bazouks fled from them. Our losses amounted to 3 thousand people. Despite the brilliant victory, the Russian troops did not dare to begin the siege of Kars without a siege artillery fleet and retreated back to Alexandropol (Gyumri) in the fall.

Defense of Sevastopol during the Crimean War

Panorama Defense of Sevastopol (view from Malakhov Kurgan). Artist F. Roubaud, 1901-1904

Crimean War in the Transcaucasian theater in 1855

In the Transcaucasian theater of war, operations were resumed in the second half of May 1855 by us occupying Ardagan without a fight and advancing towards Kars. Knowing about the lack of food in Kars, the new commander-in-chief, General Ants, was limited to only one blockade, but, having received in September the news of the movement of Omer Pasha's army transported from European Turkey to the rescue of Kars, he decided to take the fortress by storm. The assault on September 17, which was launched on the most important, but at the same time on the strongest, western front (Shorakh and Chakhmakh heights), cost us 7,200 people and ended in failure. The army of Omer Pasha could not advance to Kars due to a lack of means of transportation, and on November 16 the garrison of Kars surrendered to capitulation.

British and French attacks on Sveaborg, the Solovetsky Monastery and Petropavlovsk

To complete the description of the Crimean War, one should also mention some of the secondary actions taken against Russia by the Western allies. On June 14, 1854, an allied squadron of 80 ships, under the command of the English Admiral Nepier, appeared at Kronstadt, then withdrew to the Aland Islands, and returned to their harbors in October. On July 6 of the same year, two English ships bombarded the Solovetsky Monastery on the White Sea, unsuccessfully demanding its surrender, and on August 17, an allied squadron also arrived at the port of Petropavlovsk in Kamchatka and, shelling the city, made a landing, which was soon repulsed. In May 1855, a strong allied squadron was sent to the Baltic Sea for the second time, which, after standing for some time near Kronstadt, went back in the autumn; combat activity it was limited only to the bombing of Sveaborg.

Results of the Crimean War

After the fall of Sevastopol on August 30, hostilities in the Crimea were suspended, and on March 18, 1856, Parisian world, who completed a long and hard war Russia against 4 states of Europe (Turkey, England, France and Sardinia, which joined the allies at the beginning of 1855).

The consequences of the Crimean War were enormous. Russia after it lost its predominance in Europe, which it had enjoyed since the end of the war with Napoleon in 1812-1815. It has now passed to France for 15 years. The shortcomings and disorganizations discovered by the Crimean War opened in Russian history the era of reforms of Alexander II, which updated all aspects of national life.

The article briefly describes the Crimean War of 1853-1856, which influenced further development Russia and became the immediate reason for the reforms of Alexander II. The war revealed a significant gap between Russia and Europe both in the military field and in all spheres of government.

1. Causes of the Crimean War
2. Course of the Crimean War
3. Results of the Crimean War

Causes of the Crimean War

• The reason for the Crimean War was the aggravation by the middle of the 19th century. eastern question. The Western powers showed an increased interest in the territories of the weakening Ottoman Empire in Europe, and plans were made for the possible division of these territories. Russia was interested in seizing control over the Black Sea straits, which was necessary in economic terms. The strengthening of Russia would allow it to expand its influence in this region, which worried Western countries. They adhered to the policy of maintaining a weak Turkey as a source of constant danger to the Russian Empire. Turkey was promised the Crimea and the Caucasus as a reward for a successful war with Russia.
• The central reason for the war was the struggle of the Russian and French clergy for the possession of holy places in Palestine. Nicholas I, in the form of an ultimatum, declared to the government of Turkey that he recognized the right of the Russian emperor to provide assistance to all Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman Empire (mainly the Balkan region). Hoping for the support and promises of Western powers, Turkey rejected the ultimatum. It became clear that war could no longer be avoided.

Course of the Crimean War

• In June 1853, Russia brings troops into the territory of Moldavia and Wallachia. The pretext is the protection of the Slavic population. In response to this, Turkey declares war on Russia in the fall.
• Until the end of the year, Russia's military operations are successful. It expands its sphere of influence on the Danube, wins victories in the Caucasus, the Russian squadron blocks the Turkish ports on the Black Sea.
• Russian victories are worrisome in the West. The situation changes in 1854, when the fleet of England and France enters the Black Sea. Russia declares war on them. After that, European squadrons are sent to blockade Russian ports in the Baltic and Far East. The blockades were demonstrative in nature, landing attempts ended in failure.
• Russia's successes in Moldavia and Wallachia ended under pressure from Austria, which forced the withdrawal of the Russian army and itself occupied the Danubian principalities. There is a real threat of creating a pan-European coalition against Russia. Nicholas I was forced to concentrate the main forces on the western border.
• Meanwhile, Crimea is becoming the main arena of the war. The allies block the Russian fleet in Sevastopol. Then there is a landing and the defeat of the Russian army on the river. Alma. In the autumn of 1854, the heroic defense Sevastopol.
• The Russian army is still winning victories in Transcaucasia, but it is already becoming clear that the war is lost.
• By the end of 1855, the besiegers of Sevastopol managed to capture the southern part of the city, which, however, did not lead to the surrender of the fortress. The huge number of casualties makes the allies abandon further assault attempts. The fighting actually stops.
• In 1856, a peace treaty was signed in Paris, which is a black page in the history of Russian diplomacy. Russia was losing the Black Sea Fleet and all the bases on the Black Sea coast. Only Sevastopol remained in the hands of Russia in exchange for the Turkish fortress Kars captured in the Caucasus.

Results of the Crimean War

• In addition to territorial concessions and losses to Russia, a serious moral blow was inflicted. Having shown its backwardness during the war, Russia was excluded from the ranks of the great powers for a long time, and was no longer perceived in Europe as a serious adversary.
• Nevertheless, the war became a necessary lesson for Russia, exposing all its shortcomings. In society, there was an understanding of the need for significant changes. The reforms of Alexander II were a natural consequence of the defeat.

The eastern or Crimean direction (including also the territory of the Balkans) was a priority in Russian foreign policy of the 18th-19th centuries. Russia's main rival in this region was Turkey, or the power of the Ottomans. In the 18th century, the government of Catherine II managed to achieve significant success in this region, Alexander I was also lucky, but their successor Nicholas I had to face great difficulties, as European powers became interested in Russia's success in this region.

They feared that if the empire's successful foreign policy eastern line continued, then Western Europe will lose full control over the Black Sea straits. How the Crimean War of 1853-1856 began and ended, briefly below.

Assessment of the political situation in the region for the Russian Empire

Before the war 1853−1856. the policy of the Empire in the East was quite successful.

1. With the support of Russia, Greece gains independence (1830).
2. Russia receives the right to freely use the Black Sea straits.
3. Russian diplomats seek autonomy for Serbia, and then a protectorate over the Danubian principalities.
4. After the war between Egypt and the Ottoman Empire, Russia, which supported the Sultanate, is seeking from Turkey a promise to close the Black Sea straits for any ships other than Russian ones in the event of any military threat(the secret protocol was in effect until 1941).

Crimean, or Eastern War, which broke out in last years reign of Nicholas II, became one of the first conflicts between Russia and a coalition of European countries. main reason war was the mutual desire of the opposing sides to gain a foothold on the Balkan Peninsula and the Black Sea.

Basic information about the conflict

Eastern war - a complex military conflict in which all the leading powers of Western Europe were involved. Statistical data is thus very important. The prerequisites, causes and general reason for the conflict require detailed consideration, the course of the development of the conflict is rapid, while the fighting took place both on land and at sea.

Statistical data

Note! Historians and researchers of the military conflict noted that from a material and technical point of view, the Russian army was significantly inferior to the coalition forces. The command staff for training was also inferior to the command staff of the combined forces of the enemy. Generals and officials Nicholas I did not want to accept this fact and was not even fully aware of it.

Prerequisites, causes and reason for the outbreak of war

Note! To weaken Russia by the European powers, even before the start of the war, the so-called Palmerston Plan (Palmerston is the leader of British diplomacy) was developed, which provided for the actual separation of part of the land from Russia:

Fighting and causes of defeat

Crimean War (table): date, events, result

Note! The most fierce battles of the Eastern War unfolded near Sevastopol. The city and strongholds around it were subjected to large-scale bombing 6 times:

The defeat of the Russian troops is not a sign that the commanders-in-chief, admirals and generals made mistakes. On the Danube direction, the troops were commanded by a talented commander - Prince M. D. Gorchakov, in the Caucasus - N. N. Muravyov, the Black Sea Fleet was led by Vice Admiral P. S. Nakhimov, the defense of Petropavlovsk was led by V. S. Zavoyko. These are the heroes of the Crimean War(about them and their exploits can be done interesting message or report), but even their enthusiasm and strategic genius did not help in the war against superior enemy forces.

The Sevastopol disaster led to the fact that the new Russian emperor, Alexander II, foreseeing an extremely negative result of further hostilities, decided to start diplomatic peace negotiations.

Alexander II, like no one else, understood the reasons for Russia's defeat in the Crimean War):

• foreign policy isolation;
• a clear superiority of enemy forces on land and at sea;
• backwardness of the empire in military-technical and strategic terms;
• deep crisis in the economic sphere.

Results of the Crimean War 1853−1856

Treaty of Paris

The mission was headed by Prince A. F. Orlov, who was one of the outstanding diplomats of his time and believed that Russia could not lose in the diplomatic field. After long negotiations that took place in Paris, 18 (30).03. 1856 a peace treaty was signed between Russia on the one hand, and the Ottoman Empire, coalition forces, Austria and Prussia on the other. The terms of the peace treaty were as follows:

Foreign and domestic consequences of the defeat

The foreign and domestic political results of the war were also deplorable, although somewhat mitigated by the efforts of Russian diplomats. It was obvious that

Significance of the Crimean War

But, despite the severity of the political situation within the country and abroad, after the defeat, it was the Crimean War of 1853-1856. and the defense of Sevastopol became the catalysts that led to the reforms of the 60s of the XIX century, including the abolition of serfdom in Russia.

Lesson Objectives:

1. To study the causes, course and consequences of the Crimean War.
2. Show that the war exposed the weakness of the Russian Empire, influenced international position Russia, gave a new impetus to subsequent modernization.
3. Work with the main components of the textbook.
4. To consolidate the ability to use reference and additional literature, the ability to highlight the main thing, to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
5. Create tables based on text.
6. To instill a sense of pride and love for the Motherland on the examples of desperate, courageous defense native land Russian soldiers and the population of Sevastopol, the work of doctors in the most difficult conditions of the besieged Sevastopol.

New terms and dates: The Crimean War (1853-1856), the Battle of Sinop - November 18, 1853, the defense of Sevastopol - September 1854 - August 1855.

Materials and equipment: personal computer, multimedia projector, screen, educational board, workbook, map, handout.

Lesson plan.

1. Causes and reasons for the war.
2. Balance of forces and military-technical readiness for war
3. The course of hostilities.
4. Results of the war.

During the classes.

I.Interview with students. (slide 2)

Remember what the Eastern question is?

What events foreign policy Russia related to its resolution?

II. New material.

Task for the lesson: Saratov journalist I. Horizontov, recalling the Crimean War, wrote: “ It was felt that we were defeated by Europe not by courage, not by personal prowess, but by means of mental development.How do you understand this phrase? (slide 3)

Today in the lesson, in the process of work, we have to learn the goals of the parties and the mechanism for unleashing the Crimean War, the balance of forces and the course of hostilities, get acquainted with the significance of the technical and economic potential of Russia in the war, find out the consequences of the Crimean War for Russia and its further development .

The Crimean War changed the balance of power in Europe, had a huge impact on the internal development of Russia, and became one of the main prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom and the reforms of the 1860s and 1870s. Participation in it is considered the main foreign policy mistake of Nicholas I. What caused the Crimean War?

1. Causes and reason for the Crimean War.

The children read the text and name the causes and reason for the war..(slide 4, 5)

(The reasons for the war were the contradictions between the European powers in the Middle East, the struggle of European states for influence on the weakening and gripped by the national liberation movement of the Ottoman Empire. Nicholas I said that Turkey is a sick person and his legacy can and should be divided. In the upcoming conflict Russian emperor counted on the neutrality of Great Britain, which he promised after the defeat of Turkey new territorial acquisitions of Crete and Egypt, as well as on the support of Austria, as a gratitude for Russia's participation in the suppression of the Hungarian revolution. However, Nicholas's calculations turned out to be wrong: England herself pushed Turkey to war, thus seeking to weaken Russia's position. Austria also did not want to strengthen Russia in the Balkans.

The reason for the war was a dispute between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy in Palestine about who would be the guardian of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem and the temple in Bethlehem. At the same time, it was not about access to holy places, since all pilgrims used them on an equal footing. The dispute over the Holy Places cannot be called a far-fetched pretext for unleashing a war. Historians sometimes cite this dispute as one of the causes of the war, given the "deep religious mentality of the people of that time<...>. The protection of the privileges of the Orthodox community of Palestine was part of the general task of Russia's patronage of the entire Christian population in Turkey." (Russian historyXIX - startedXX century: Textbook for historical departments of universities. M., 1998. S. 172.)

2. The goals of the countries participating in the war

Students work with the textbook item 14, pp. 84-85 and fill out the table. (slide 6)

Checking the filling of the table. (slide 7)

3. Puzzle game "The balance of forces and military-technical readiness for war."

Students are given cards, from which they must make blocks, based on the presence of statements written on the cards. Correctly assembled puzzles should depict one of the moments of the Crimean War. At the end of the lesson, students determine which event of the Crimean War is depicted on their puzzles.

Question to the class: Based on the above data, draw a conclusion about the balance of power and Russia's readiness for war . (slide 8)

4. Crimean War 1853-1856

Turkey was Russia's enemy, and hostilities took place on the Danube and Caucasian fronts. 1853 Russian troops entered the territory of Moldova and Wallachia and hostilities on land were sluggish. In the Caucasus, the Turks were defeated near Kars.

• Sinop battle November 1853

Students read the text "The battle of Sinop" and name the reasons for the victory of the Russians and the defeat of the Turks in the battle of Sinop. ( slides 10-12)

Sinopthe battle

The event to which we must now turn is inscribed in golden letters in the history of the glory of the Russian people.<...>

Nakhimov, as soon as reinforcements arrived, decided to immediately enter the harbor of Sinop and attack the Turkish fleet.

In essence, having decided to attack the Turkish fleet, Nakhimov took a very serious risk. The coastal batteries of the Gurkas in Sinop were good, the guns on the ships were also in good order. But for a long time, since the end of the 16th century, the Turkish fleet, once one of the most formidable and efficient in the world, did not have any capable admirals at the decisive moments of its existence. So it turned out on the fatal day of Sinop for Turkey. Osman Pasha deployed, as if like a fan, his fleet at the very embankment of the city: the embankment went in a concave arc, and the line of the fleet turned out to be a concave arc, covering, if not all, then many coastal batteries. Yes, and the location of the ships was, of course, such that they could meet Nakhimov with only one side: the other was facing not the sea, but the city of Sinop. The genius of the Russian naval commander and the crew of his squadron, first-class in their combat morale and training, would cope with all obstacles, even if the Turkish command turned out to be more capable <...>

At dawn on November 18 (30), 1853, the Russian squadron turned out to be fifteen kilometers from the Sinop raid<...>

The Turkish fleet, caught by Nakhimov, perished completely; not a single ship survived, and he perished with almost his entire crew. Four frigates, one corvette and one Erekli steamer were blown up and turned into a heap of bloody debris. who might as well leave. Before the start of the battle, the Turks were so sure of victory that they had already put troops on board the ships in advance, which were supposed to board the Russian ships at the end of the battle.

The Turkish artillery in the Battle of Sinop was weaker than ours, if we count only the guns on the ships (472 guns against the Russians 716), but they acted energetically. Luckily for Nakhimov, the ludicrous disposition of the ships of the Turkish fleet rendered harmless some of the very strong coastal Turkish batteries, but still two batteries did great harm to the Russian ships. Some ships left the battle in a serious condition, but none sank.<...>

Here is the picture that appeared before the eyes of the crew of the Kornilov squadron when it entered the Sinop Bay: “ Most of the city burned, the ancient battlements with towers of the Middle Ages stood out sharply against the backdrop of a sea of ​​flame. Most of the Turkish frigates were still on fire, and when the flames reached the loaded guns, shots would spontaneously fire and the cannonballs would fly over us, which was very unpleasant. We saw how the frigates took off one by one. It was terrible to see how the people who were on them ran, rushed about on the burning decks, probably not daring to throw themselves into the water. Some seemed to be sitting motionless and awaiting death with the resignation of fatalism. We noticed flocks sea ​​birds and doves, standing out against the crimson background of the clouds illuminated by fire. The whole raid And our ships were so brightly lit by fire that our sailors worked on the repair of ships, not needing lanterns. At the same time, the entire sky to the east of Sinop seemed completely black.<...>

Among the prisoners was the flagship of the Turkish squadron Osman Pasha himself, whose leg was broken. The wound was very severe. The old Turkish admiral had no shortage of personal courage, just like his subordinates. But this quality alone was not enough to resist the Nakhimov attack.

On November 23, after a stormy passage through the Black Sea, Nakhimov's squadron landed in Sevastopol.

The entire population of the city, who had already learned about the brilliant victory, met the victorious admiral, Endless "Hurrah, Nakhimov!" it also rushed from all the ships anchored in the Sevastopol Bay. To Moscow, to St. Petersburg, to the Caucasus to Vorontsov, to the Danube to Gorchakov, the jubilant news of the crushing Russian naval victory flew. “You cannot imagine the happiness that everyone experienced in St. Petersburg upon receiving the news of the brilliant Sinop affair. This is a truly remarkable feat,” Vasily Dolgorukov, Minister of War, congratulated Prince Menshikov, Commander-in-Chief of the Fleet in Sevastopol. Nikolai gave Nakhimov Georgy 2nd class - the rarest military award - and generously rewarded the entire squadron. The Slavophiles in Moscow (including even the skeptical Sergei Aksakov) made no secret of their delight. The glory of the winner thundered everywhere.

[Tarle E.V. Crimean War.)

Watching the video fragment “The Surrender of Osman Pasha” (an excerpt from the film “Nakhimov”) (slide 13)

Concerned that Russia would completely defeat Turkey, England and France, in the person of Austria, delivered an ultimatum to Russia. They demanded that Russia refuse to patronize the Orthodox population of the Ottoman Empire. Nicholas I could not accept such conditions.

Turkey, France, England and Sardinia united against Russia . (slide 14-18)

Attacked:

• on the Black Sea - Odessa,
• in the Baltic - Aland Islands,
• on the Barents Sea - the Kola Bay,
• on the White Sea - the Solovetsky Monastery and Arkhangelsk,
• on the pacific ocean- Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.

In September 1854 an army of more than 60,000 allies landed in the Crimea near Evpatoria and launched an offensive against Sevastopol, the main Russian fortress on the Black Sea. The city was invulnerable from the sea, but practically defenseless from land. After the failure of the Russian troops in the battle on the Alma River, the commander-in-chief, Prince A. S. Menshikov (“Izmenshikov”) decided to “keep contact with the internal provinces”, for which he ordered the army to retreat deep into the Crimea. In essence, Sevastopol became doomed. Menshikov's attempts to help the city (the Inkerman battle and the battle in the valley of death near Balaklava) were unsuccessful.

• Defense of Sevastopol(slide 19 - 31)

Working with additional material students answer the questions:

Why is the defense of Sevastopol considered the only bright page for the Russian army Crimean War?

Why, expressing disagreement with the decision of the commander in chief to sink the ships, V.A. Kornilov and P.S. Nakhimov not only carried out this order, but also found words for subordinates proving the correctness of this decision?

Why were the actions of the main enemy forces directed against Sevastopol?

On October 17, 1854, the first bombardment of Sevastopol began. The enemy counted on a powerful bombardment from the sea and land to destroy the land fortifications of the fortress and take it by storm. However, the fire of the Russian coastal batteries caused significant damage to the siege artillery and ships of the French and British, which forced them to postpone the assault on the city. The defenders of Sevastopol were in dire need of weapons, ammunition and food. However, in the most difficult conditions, Russian soldiers and sailors maintained high morale and the will to fight. To protect the city, it was decided to flood part of the ships across the entrances to the Sevastopol Bay. Vice Admiral V. A. Kornilov was against this decision, but found the strength not only to fulfill the order, but and explain to seafarers the necessity of this act. Although one can imagine the horror of the situation when the admiral is told about the sinking of ships, no. In his opinion, opponents are also trying. Around 4 am on September 10, 1854, five ships were sunk. The Russian army under the command of A. S. Menshikov tried to help the inhabitants of Sevastopol. On October 13 (25) a battle took place in the valley between Sevastopol and Balaklava. The Russians managed to infiltrate the rear and capture several Turkish guns. In this battle, the light artillery cavalry, in which representatives of the most aristocratic families of England served, lost about 1.5 thousand people. This battle raised the morale of the Russian troops. At the same time, it served as a good lesson for the Allies, who allocated additional forces to protect their rear. Although the operation did not change the position of the besieged city. The situation in the city and around it was difficult. The defenders were not provided with enough ammunition, water, food. After death

V.A. Kornilov's defense was headed by PS Nakhimov, the hero of Sinop.

Despite the difficulties, the defenders of Sevastopol inflicted significant blows on the enemy, carrying out sorties to the location of enemy troops. They disabled manpower and equipment, destroyed trenches, captured prisoners. Even children defended their hometown. For courage, the ten-year-old defender of the fifth bastion, Kolya Pishchenko, was awarded a military order. Pyotr Makarovich Koshka became famous for his courage, who participated in eighteen sorties into the location of enemy troops, captured ten "languages" and was awarded the St. George Cross.

The enemy troops stormed the city several times. Sometimes the city was literally bombarded with bombs and rockets. The defenders, on the other hand, could not respond with fire of the same strength, since there was a catastrophic lack of ammunition. A bloody struggle was going on for one of the important frontiers of Sevastopol - Malakhov Kurgan.

The last forces of the defenders of Sevastopol were drying up from the losses caused by the incessant artillery shelling of the allies. On July 12, the besieged suffered the most significant loss - during the defense of the Malakhov Kurgan, Admiral Nakhimov died.

On August 5 (17), 1855, the enemy began preparations for a new assault on Sevastopol with a massive bombardment, which lasted until August 24 (September 5). In total, about 200 thousand shells were fired. As a result of this shelling, the city was completely destroyed, almost not a single whole house remained in it. At the same time, the opponents launched a general offensive, directing the main blow to Malakhov Kurgan. But the defenders repulsed the attack. at the cost big losses the enemy managed to capture Malakhov Kurgan, which decided the outcome of the defense of Sevastopol. The garrisons of the city, its defenders, having destroyed the batteries, powder magazines and sunk some of the remaining ships, crossed to the North side. On August 30 (September 11), the last ships were sunk Black Sea Fleet. AT this the same day, Alexander II, who ascended the throne, gave the order to stop the defense of Sevastopol. The defense of Sevastopol lasted 349 days (1854-1855).

The feat of doctors in the Crimean War

From the very beginning of the Crimean War, women took an active part in helping the wounded. In Odessa, Sevastopol, Psgropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, sisters of mercy operated.

During the defense of Sevastopol, the daily bombardments that the city was subjected to by the enemy, the number of losses increased every day, both among the soldiers and among the inhabitants of the city, even

more were injured.

In 1954, the famous Russian surgeon N.I. Pirogov arrived in besieged Sevastopol with a group of young surgeons. Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov is the founder of surgery as a scientific medical discipline. He was one of the first to use ether anesthesia in the clinic. And in 1847, for the first time in the world, he used anesthesia in military field surgery.

In Sevastopol, he performed about 400 operations under ether and 300 under chloroform anesthesia. He owns the initiative to deploy temporary hospitals for the defenders of Sevastopol. Based on the experience of the Crimean War, Pirogov created the doctrine of the general principles of military field surgery.

In October 1854, on the initiative of N. I. Pirogov and thanks to the assistance Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna in St. Petersburg, the Exaltation of the Cross community of sisters of care for the sick and wounded soldiers of Russia was established. 200 nurses of this community took part in helping the sick and wounded during the Sevastopol defense. N. I. Pirogov was directly in charge of the sisters of the Exaltation of the Cross community during the Crimean War.

Wives, widows and daughters of officers and sailors also volunteered as nurses and nurses. During the war, women competed with men, under a hail of bullets they carried kvass and water to the hottest places of the fight, often paying for it with their lives and injuries.

From the very beginning, the main functions of the sisters were dressings, assistance during operations, dispensing medicines, keeping the clothes and bed linen of the wounded clean, beautifying hospital wards, distributing warm drinks and food, feeding the seriously wounded, and morally calming the sick. On December 6, 1854, that is, a week after the start of the nursing service, Pirogov wrote about the work of the sisters: “... if they do it the way they do now, they will undoubtedly bring a lot of benefits. Day and night they are alternately in hospitals, helping with dressings, they are also at operations, they distribute tea and wine to the sick and watch the ministers and caretakers, and even the doctors. The presence of a woman, neatly dressed and helping with participation, enlivens the deplorable vale of suffering and disasters ... "

Among the sisters of mercy there were many who can rightfully be considered heroes of the war, along with soldiers and officers awarded this title. Dasha Sevastopolskaya (Aleksandrova) became especially famous for her selfless, disinterested service to the wounded. A seventeen-year-old girl was poisoned to the front. She assisted the wounded during the bloody battle on the Alma River, during which the Russian army tried to stop the advance of the Anglo-French-Turkish troops.

And in November 1854, Dasha was transferred as a voluntary nurse to the Main dressing station, which was located in the building of the Nobility Assembly in Sevastopol. Approximately on THESE days, an award was delivered from St. Petersburg on behalf of Emperor Nicholas 1 herself. In the Central State Military Historical Archive, a document entitled “On the presentation of the girl Daria for the award, for exemplary diligence and caring for the sick and wounded in Sevastopol”, dated November 7, 1854, has been preserved. As follows from the document, at the direction of Nicholas I, Daria was awarded a gold medal with the inscription "For diligence" on the Vladimir ribbon and 500 rubles. silver. At the same time, they announced that after marriage, Daria would be granted another 1000 rubles. The wounded affectionately called her Dasha of Sevastopol, and she entered the history of the Crimean War under this name.

4. Results of the war.

Students read the textbook p. 14, p. 89 and name the conditions of the Paris Peace Treaty. (slide 32)

• What is the main outcome of the Crimean War for Russia?
• What is the main outcome of the Crimean War for England and France? (slide 33)

5. Homework.

1. Write a cinquain about the Crimean War.
2. Read "Sevastopol stories". What facts have produced on you greatest impression? Can this work be used as a source? Justify your answer.