Simonov information theory. Information theory of emotions by P.V. Simonov. Lindsay-Hebb activation theory

Information theory by P.V.Simonov.

This type of approach includes the information concept of emotions by psychophysiologist P.V. Simonov. According to his theory, emotional states are determined by a person’s desire, or, as Simonov says. By the force of urgent need. On the one hand, and the assessment that he gives of the probability of its satisfaction. - with another. A person makes this assessment of probability on the basis of innate and previously acquired experience. Moreover, emotion arises when there is a discrepancy between what needs to be known to satisfy a desire and what is actually known. That is, we constantly, voluntarily or involuntarily, compare the information we need (about means, time, resources) that will be required to satisfy a desire with the information we currently have. For example, the emotion of fear develops when there is a lack of information necessary for protection. On this basis, a formula of emotions was developed:

E =- P (In- Is),

where: E – emotion (its strength and quality);

P – need (in the formula it is taken with a negative sign “-”);

In – information necessary to satisfy an existing need;

IS – existing information, i.e. the information that a person has at the moment (what is known).

The consequences arising from the formula are as follows: if a person does not have a need (P = 0), then he does not experience emotions (E = 0); emotion does not arise in the case when a person experiencing any desire has the full opportunity to realize it (In = Is). If the probability of satisfying a need is high, then positive feelings appear (Is > In). Negative emotions arise if a person negatively evaluates the possibility of satisfying a need (Is< Ин). При этом максимум положительных или отрицательных эмоций при постоянной силе потребности человек испытывает, когда Ин = 0 или Ис = 0.

Thus, there is, as it were, a pressure gauge inside us, the readings of which depend on what information is available about what is required to satisfy the need and what we have, and depending on their relationship we experience different emotions.

In his book “What is Emotion?” P.V. Simonov describes the following situation: “A thirsty traveler moves along the hot sands. He knows that only after three days of travel he can meet the source. Will it be possible to go this route? Is the stream covered with sand? And suddenly, turning around a rock ledge, a man sees a well, not marked on the map. Stormy joy seizes the tired traveler. At the moment when the mirror of the well flashed in front of him, the traveler became the owner of comprehensive information about the possibility of quenching his thirst. And this is in a situation where the forecast, at best, predicted three days of difficult wandering.”

However, not all emotional manifestations fit into this concept. For example, to which category of feelings - positive or negative - would you classify surprise? Or imagine a situation where you come to visit, hungry. You see a table set with big amount food and your mood improves. Although in this situation you are quite sure what and how you will eat, i.e. In = Is and the emotion should be E = 0 (3, pp. 12-14; 5, p. 452).

It should also be noted that purely psychological theories of emotions that do not address physiological and other related issues do not actually exist, and ideas taken from different areas of scientific research usually coexist in theories of emotions. This is not accidental, since emotion as a psychological phenomenon is difficult to separate from the processes occurring in the body, and often psychological and physiological characteristics emotional states not only accompany each other, but serve as an explanation for each other. In addition, a number of theoretical issues, for example, the question of classification and basic parameters of emotional states, cannot be resolved without addressing the physiological components of emotions.

Typically, theories of emotion have little to say about the role of emotions in personality development and their influence on thought and action. Most studies of emotion have focused on only one component of the emotional process. Although some theories develop specific aspects of the relationships between emotion and reason, action and personality, much remains to be done at both the theoretical and empirical levels.

Conclusion

A holistic definition of emotions must take into account the nature of its experience and include neurological and expressive components. Emotions arise as a result of changes in the nervous system, and these changes can be caused by both internal and external events. Intense emotional states attract the attention of not only scientists, but the science of emotions should not stop at studying transient states. There are sustainable individual differences in the frequency with which people experience different emotions, and these differences can be analyzed in terms of emotional traits or emotional thresholds.

Consistent cross-cultural facts confirm Darwin's thesis formulated more than a hundred years ago about the innateness and universality of emotions as intra-individual processes. This means that emotions have innate neural programs, universally understood expression, and common experiential qualities.

Emotions can be conveniently divided into positive or negative based on the characteristics of their experience and sensory characteristics. However, any emotion (for example, joy, fear) can be positive or negative if the criterion for classification is based on the adaptability or maladaptation of the emotion in a particular situation.

Emotions affect the whole person, and each emotion affects the subject differently. Emotions affect the level of electrical activity of the brain, the degree of tension in the muscles of the face and body, and the functioning of the endocrine, circulatory and respiratory systems. Emotions can change the perception of the world around us from bright and light to dark and gloomy, our thoughts from creative to melancholic, and our actions from awkward and inadequate to skillful and expedient.

An emotion can be seen as altered or special condition consciousness. It can exist relatively independently of other states of consciousness, but usually interacts with them and influences coexisting states or processes in consciousness.

The field of emotions is complex and interdisciplinary. Social psychologists made contributions to the study of emotions as nonverbal communication. Personality psychologists have suggested ways in which emotions may relate to other motivational constructs, such as self-concept and psychological needs, and have increased our knowledge of the relationship of affective states to personality functioning. Clinical psychology and psychiatry have contributed to understanding the role of complex combinations of emotions in psychopathology and have emphasized the need for psychotherapeutic analysis of emotions. Neuroscience has contributed to knowledge about the role of various brain mechanisms of emotion, and biochemistry and psychopharmacology have shown the importance of hormonal and neurohumoral spheres in emotional processes and emotional behavior (6, p. 29).

Evolutionary theory Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory of the origin of emotions, published in The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals in 1872. It applies the evolutionary principle to psychological development living organism and proves that there is no impassable gap between the behavior of animals and humans. As Darwin showed, anthropoids and children born blind have much in common in the external expression of different emotional states and in expressive bodily movements. These observations formed the basis of his theory. Emotions, according to this theory, appeared in the process of evolution of living beings as vital adaptive mechanisms that contribute to the adaptation of the organism to the conditions and situations of its life. The bodily changes that accompany various emotional states, in particular those associated with the corresponding emotions of movement, according to Darwin, are nothing more than the rudiments of real adaptive reactions of the body. And indeed, the commonality of the emotional expressions of man and, in any case, of the higher animals that stand closest to man is so obvious that it defies any dispute.

Organic theory of emotions by James-Lange

The organic theory of emotions was put forward independently by the American philosopher and psychologist William James and the Danish physician Carl Georg Lange in 1880-1890. The basis for the theory was the analysis of the correspondence between the objective manifestation of the activity of the vegetative sphere and the subjective sensation of the experienced emotion. According to this theory, an emotional sensation is a manifestation in the consciousness of functional changes in the body that occur at the level of the autonomic nervous system. External irritation causes reflex changes in the activity of the heart, breathing, blood circulation, muscle tone, as a result of which different sensations are projected into consciousness, from which the experience of emotions is composed. That is, first, under the influence of external stimuli, changes characteristic of emotions occur in the body, and only then, as a consequence, does the emotion itself arise. If autonomic reactions are the cause, and emotions are the effect, in the continuum of interaction between the organism and the environment, then “we are sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble.” In comparison with the rudimentary theory of emotions, which considers them in the context of elementary behavioral programs, the James-Lange theory touches on deeper mechanisms of behavior, assessing emotions at the preparatory stage, as a set of autonomic reactions that ensure the implementation of a plan of action. It should be noted that in both concepts emotions are considered somewhat one-sidedly, as an attribute of a small set innate programs behavior, therefore it seems that a number of processes of our consciousness are devoid of emotional accompaniment and, accordingly, become difficult to explain inherent in man richness of the emotional sphere.

Lindsay-Hebb activation theory

This theory is based on the work of Giuseppe Moruzzi and Horace Magone, who showed the presence of a nonspecific system in the brain stem that can activate the cerebral cortex. Later studies established the presence of a nonspecific activating system in the thalamus and the participation of the striopallidal system in regulating the level of activity. Since these formations provide the strength and intensity of processes occurring in the brain, help the body adapt to its environment, and individual parts of this system are in reciprocal relationships, it was assumed that emotions are the sensory equivalent of the activating system of the brain. Donald Olding Hebb analyzed the electroencephalographic picture of the brain in connection with the activity of the reticular formation and showed that its activity correlates with the strength, duration and quality of emotional experience. Hebb expressed his ideas graphically and showed that in order to achieve a successful result of an activity, a person needs an optimal, average level of emotional arousal. This theory complemented existing ideas about the connection between emotions and behavior and autonomic reactions, showing their connection with the activating system of the brain.

Need-information theory of emotions

The need-information theory of emotions by Pavel Vasilievich Simonov develops the idea of ​​Pyotr Kuzmich Anokhin that the quality of emotion must be considered from the standpoint of the effectiveness of behavior. The entire sensory diversity of emotions comes down to the ability to quickly assess the possibility or impossibility of actively acting, that is, it is indirectly tied to the activating system of the brain. Emotion is presented as a certain force that controls the corresponding program of actions and in which the quality of this program is recorded. From the point of view of this theory, it is assumed that “... emotion is a reflection by the brain of humans and animals of any actual need (its quality and magnitude) and the likelihood (possibility) of its satisfaction, which the brain evaluates on the basis of genetic and previously acquired individual experience.” This statement can be represented as a formula:

E = P × (In - Is),

where E is emotion (its strength, quality and sign); P - strength and quality of current need; (In - Is) - assessment of the likelihood (possibility) of satisfying a given need, based on innate (genetic) and acquired experience; In - information about the means predicted to be necessary to satisfy the existing need; IS - information about the funds a person has at a given moment in time.

Considering that need (P) is considered as “an impulse that is negative in a biological sense for the organism,” then from the formula it becomes clear that with Is<Ин эмоция приобретает отрицательный характер, а Ис>Ying is positive.

2.2.Emotions and personality, individual uniqueness of emotions

Individual characteristics of the emotional sphere. People as individuals emotionally differ from each other in many ways: emotional excitability, duration and stability of the emotional experiences they experience, the dominance of positive (thenic) or negative (asthenic) emotions. But most of all, the emotional sphere of people differs in the strength and depth of feelings, as well as in their content and subject relevance. This circumstance is used by psychologists when constructing tests designed to study personality. By the nature of the emotions that the situations and objects presented in the tests evoke in a person, their personal qualities are judged.

Formation of the emotional sphere. Do emotions and feelings develop throughout the life of a person’s personality? There are two different points of view on this issue. One argues that emotions cannot develop because they are associated with the functioning of the body and with its features that are innate. Another point of view expresses the opposite opinion - that emotions, like many other inherent psychological phenomena, develop along with personality.

In fact, these positions are quite compatible with each other and concern different classes emotional phenomena. Elementary emotions, acting as manifestations of organic states, really change little. It is no coincidence that emotionality is considered to be innate. personal characteristics person.

But already in relation to affects and especially feelings, such a statement is incorrect. A person is able to restrain the natural manifestations of affects, which means we train in this regard. Improving higher emotions and feelings means the personal development of their owner. Such development can go along the lines of strengthening volitional control of one’s feelings, as well as including higher values ​​in moral regulation.

The emotional characteristics of a person are associated, first of all, with her natural characteristics, expressed in temperament, and also depend on her upbringing and general culture. As is known, temperament depends on the innate properties of the nervous system, in particular, such as strength, mobility and balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition. Various combinations of these properties form a type of nervous system. Three strong and one weak types are most clearly represented. Strong nervous systems, in turn, are divided into mobile and inert, balanced and unbalanced. A connection has been established between temperaments and the types of nervous system: choleric - strong, unbalanced, sanguine - strong, balanced and mobile, phlegmatic - strong, balanced, but inert, melancholic - weak.

“Temperament influences mental life, the manifestation of all mental processes and personality traits. The influence of temperament on a person’s emotional life is especially noticeable. Thus, a person of choleric temperament is characterized by mild emotional excitability, combined with the strength of experience. I.P. Pavlov called choleric people unrestrained people. Their characteristic emotion is anger, which is why choleric people are called aggressive individuals. However, this is not quite true. They are able to rejoice wildly, laugh to the point of tears, and get carried away to the point of self-forgetfulness. They are the ones who are capable of being passionate about something. I.P. Pavlov considered himself a choleric person; he was an extremely passionate person. However, one should not make an ideal out of a choleric person. He also has disadvantages: lack of restraint, sometimes turning into tactlessness and rudeness, inappropriate reactions, strong emotional outbursts.”

A person of sanguine temperament is characterized by mild emotional excitability and a moderate, due to the balance of nervous processes, emotional reaction to influence. A sanguine person is distinguished by the mobility of nervous processes, and therefore his emotions quickly replace one another, without leaving serious consequences in the body. The characteristic emotional tone of a sanguine person is cheerfulness and gaiety. His suffering is fleeting and superficial. Pavlov defines a sanguine person as a “living type” who cannot be conquered by anything, no matter what conditions you put him in.”

A phlegmatic person, unlike a sanguine person, is inert in everything, including emotionally. His emotions arise and develop slowly: you accidentally offended him today, and he reacted to this in silence or even with a smile. However, the next day, with his entire appearance, especially his facial expressions (“pouty”, “gloomy”), he shows resentment: he does not want to be near you and talk to you. The emotions of a phlegmatic person, moderate due to the balance of nervous processes, are protracted (inertia) and difficult to change. It is in the phlegmatic person that the summation of emotions is clearly observed. There comes a moment when his feelings overwhelm him and, unexpectedly for those around him, he displays an emotional outburst.

A melancholic person is distinguished by very high emotional sensitivity, as a result of which he is very vulnerable. The emotions of a melancholic person are outwardly poorly expressed. He prefers to grieve and rejoice alone or, at least, in the circle of people close to him. A melancholic person often experiences a summation of emotions. You look, a quiet, meek and flexible person suddenly becomes aggressive or, expressing grief, sobs, shedding tears. It is believed that melancholic people are more sensitive to the emotional state of others and tend to empathize and sympathize with them.

A person’s emotionality is determined not only by temperament, but also by how he was raised, what culture he lived in and what culture he accepted. F. M. Dostoevsky, among the types of people discovered and described by him, points to the types of sincere, passionate and cold people. Soulful man- this is an ideal person. Such people include Alyosha in The Brothers Karamazov, Ivan in The Humiliated and Insulted. These people are able to understand others, sympathize with them, show kindness and affection towards them, and even readiness for self-sacrifice.

“Passionate people are individuals who are passionate about something. They cannot think about anything other than the object of their passion, they desire nothing more than mastery of this object. All emotions - from joy and delight to suffering and despair - are associated with some kind of passion, success or failure of activity. The passion of such people in its nature approaches a painful state of obsession. Passionate people can be noble, and their passion is socially significant. These are people of science, art, and practice. But there are also negative passions, such as passion for alcohol, gambling, and sexual passion. F. M. Dostoevsky very vividly portrayed passionate people, their spiritual world and behavior. Examples of the manifestation of love passion are Rogozhin in “The Idiot” and Svidrngailov in “Crime and Punishment.”

“People of a different character are described in literature, and in life, too - these are “dry”, “cold” and “callous” people who are deaf to the suffering of people. A striking example This type of person was described by Saltykov-Shchedrin in the novel “Judushka Golovlev.” Judushka Golovlev was not touched not only by the illness of his brother, whom he robbed, but even by the hopeless situation of his son, who hinted that he would commit suicide if his father did not give him money to repay the debt. Even when Judushka Golovlev received the news of his son’s death, not a single human feeling did not awaken in his heart. We can also talk about a type of ardent person who is distinguished by great emotionality and impulsive behavior. F. M. Dostoevsky believed that “ardent people” are even proud of their emotional reactivity and consider life endurance to be a conditioned prejudice. An ardent person is usually impulsive and often acts recklessly.”

In contrast, there are sentimental natures, whose emotions are superficial and not of an effective nature. These people constantly sigh over the misfortune of others, express sympathy, give advice, but practically do not provide them with any help. V. G. Belinsky once wrote about such people: “Some sentimental German manager sobs from poetry to Laura and immediately goes to the stable to flog a man.” A truly humane person talks less and does more for other people. His experiences are sincere, but he does not advertise them.

We can distinguish two polar types of people - optimistic and pessimistic. The first sees only the good in everything, and the second only the bad, the shadow sides of life. The first most often shows joy, delight, while the other side shows emotions of bitterness and dissatisfaction. He grumbles about everything, sighing, shows that he is upset by what is happening.

According to the degree of control over one’s emotions and their external expressions, two types can be distinguished, one of them is the direct and open type. When a person of this type experiences joy, he laughs loudly, dances, and tells everyone and everyone about the reason for his condition. Representatives of the second type know how to control their emotions well and tend to hide their experiences. They can worry violently in their souls, but outwardly remain calm or even smile when experiencing trouble.

CONCLUSION

A person’s emotional experiences open up a completely special world to him – the world of creativity and art. A necessary condition for the implementation of any creative plan, for the implementation of a unique idea, is inspiration, and this is nothing more than a unique emotional state of a person, characterized by strong tension and an upsurge of spiritual creative forces. Often, a person’s feelings provide direct material for creativity: when emotions are combined with imagination, a new creative image is born. For example, many writers endow their hero with their own feelings, and about artists we say that they literally throw out their emotions on the canvas. Thus, emotions motivate and accompany any creative process, be it the discovery of a new scientific law or the writing of an essay. Without emotions, we would not be able to appreciate the unique appeal of poetry, music and painting. Emotions make a person’s world richer and more interesting; they set the vector for personal development. Thanks to the ability to feel, we have the opportunity to admire beautiful works of art, sympathize with the hero of a film or book, experiencing everything that he experiences, cry and rejoice with him.

Thus, only in the unity of the intellectual and emotional spheres, the first of which is responsible for reflecting the objective conditions of activity, and the second for reflecting the subjective significance of these conditions, is the ultimate goal of activity, which is to satisfy needs, achieved. Despite the fact that emotions often take over us at the most inopportune moments, that only our feelings bring us so much grief and unhappiness, it is emotions that give the real taste to life, making it brighter, more colorful and richer. And how boring it would probably be to live without impulsive, thoughtless actions, which sometimes only make life more interesting.

List of sources used

1. Nepomnyashchaya, N.I. Psychodiagnostics of personality. Theory and practice. [Text]: tutorial/ N.I. Nepomnyashchaya - M.: Vlados, 2013. - 191 p.

2. Norakidze, V.G. Methods for studying personality character. Theory and practice. [Text]: textbook / V.G. Norakidze - Tbilisi, 1915. - 243 p.

3. Orlov, Yu.M. Methods for studying the individual and the collective[Text]: Guidelines/ Yu.M. Orlov, N.D. Tvorogova. - M., 1915. - 127 p.

4. Platonov, K.K. Structure and development of personality [Text]: textbook / K.K. Platonov. - M.: Nauka, 1914.

5. Kjell, L. Theories of personality [Text]: textbook / L. Kjell, D. Ziegler - St. Petersburg: Peter, 1912. - 608 p.

Let's try to approach the topic of emotions with scientific point vision. There are a great many different psychological theories of emotions. And the first problem I encountered was their classification. Since childhood, I have been accustomed to approaching the study of any issue by constructing a certain system. I will give a classification that I liked.

It identifies eight main approaches to emotions, and we will look at each in more detail:

• Biological theories of emotions;
• Psychoanalytic theories of emotions;
• W. Leeper's motivational theory of emotions;
• Cognitive theories of emotion;
• Plutchik's adaptation theory;
• C.E. Izard's theory of differential emotions;
• Simonov's Information Theory of Emotions;
• Emotions within the framework of the teachings of A.N. Leontiev.

Some other classifications can be found by following the following links:

1. http://www.emotionlabs.ru/view/klassifikaciya-emocij/
2. http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1 %87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D1%8D %D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9

In this work I will try to highlight the views of different scientists on the problem of emotions. Unfortunately, this area of ​​psychology has been little studied, so it is impossible to say with certainty about the absolute correctness of one or another theory and the inconsistency of another. All of them are correct, but most of them look at emotions from one side, without paying attention to other aspects. Whereas it would be more logical, in my opinion, to consider them in a compartment, all together, and to build a new, more complete theory based on existing ones.

Biological theories of emotions.

This theory was developed and developed by the Soviet physiologist,Pyotr Kuzmich Anokhin (01/14/1898 – 03/05/1974).

He argued that theories of emotional states differ in one feature, which is the reason for their insufficiency: they do not consider emotional states as a natural fact of nature, as a product of evolution, as an adaptive factor in the life of the animal world. Based on the Darwinian point of view on the evolution of useful adaptations, it must be assumed that emotional states that were retained in the process of evolution and developed to their subtlest manifestation in humans could neither appear nor be preserved, much less be fixed by heredity, if they were in any way -degrees were either harmful or useless to the vital functions of the animal.

From the above it can be seen that he was convinced of the need for emotions in humans and devoted his research to discovering the biological and physiological usefulness of emotions. Anokhin, answering this question, argues that in the process of evolution, emotional sensations have become entrenched as a kind of tool that keeps the process within its optimal boundaries. Thus, emotions prevent the destructive nature of the deficiency and excessive information about any factors in the life of the body.

The essence of the biological theory is that it states that a positive emotional state of any need arises only if the information about the action taken reflects all the components of the positive result. This emotion reinforces the correctness and usefulness of both the action itself and the adaptive actions that were used to achieve the result.

To make it clearer, consider the example given by P.K. Anokhin. He says that leading emotions with a negative sign signal the body about deviations in its internal environment (hunger, thirst), which activates the corresponding program of action. Completion targeted actions is accompanied by a positive emotional background, which is fixed in the animal’s memory as “receiving a reward.” Explaining his position, Pyotr Kuzmich Anokhin gives an example when a predator, for many days, purposefully pursues its prey, which is accompanied by both negative experiences (a feeling of hunger) and positive ones (the process of satiation). Thus: “leading emotions participate in the formation of a functional system, determining the vector, that is, the direction of behavior, goal setting, and the formation of an acceptor for the result of an action. Situational emotions that arise when assessing individual stages of action allow you to correct behavior and achieve your goal.”

Psychoanalytic theories of emotions.

E it is a theory about the nature, structure, functions and dynamics of emotions or emotional processes, from the point of view of psychology.

This theory was developed primarily by Sigmund Freud. He looked mainly at the negative affects*. This comes from the fact that affects are generated by a conflict between the unconscious (interest - libido drive) and the preconscious (sanctions of the Super-Ego). This kind of affect enslaves the ego and can cause mental disorder.

A psychoanalytic theory of emotions is “a theory of emotions that asserts the signifying character of emotional facts must seek this meaning in consciousness itself. In other words, it is consciousness itself that makes itself consciousness, being excited by the need for inner meaning.”

Holt rejects the theory of instinctual drives. In his theory, he emphasizes the importance of external stimulation and perceptual-cognitive processes, but at the same time recognizes that phenomena that are associated with the expression and experience of emotions are important. According to Holt, “despite the fact that sexual desire, aggression, fear and other affective phenomena can be considered as biologically determined, innate... reactions, they are activated only as a result of the individual’s awareness of external pressure...”.

Over time, psychoanalysis came to the conclusion that the energy of the “unconscious” is not stored in the structures of the brain as a “developmental defect”, but is a consequence of the appearance of excess energy in the nervous system, as a result of imperfect adaptation of the individual in society. For example, A. Adler believed that most children initially have a feeling of their own imperfection, in comparison with “omnipotent adults,” which leads to the formation of an inferiority complex. Personal development, according to Adler’s views, depends on how this complex will be compensated. In pathological cases, a person may try to compensate for his inferiority complex by striving for power over others.

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* Affect
German: Affect. - French: affect. - English: affect. - Spanish: afecto. - Italian: affetto. - Portuguese: afeto.
A term borrowed by psychoanalysis from the German psychological tradition: any emotional and affective state - pleasant or unpleasant, vague or distinct - manifested in a general mental tone or in a strong energetic discharge. According to Freud, every drive finds its expression at two levels: affect and representation. Affect is a qualitative expression of the amount of drive energy and its varieties.

Freud (S.). Aus den Anfangen der Psychoanalyse, 1887-1902.German, 95; English, 84; French, 76-77.

http://www.psyoffice.ru/1292-affekt.html

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Robert Ward Leeper's motivational theory of emotion

He brings up for discussion the fact that “without resorting to a motivational criterion, we are not able to distinguish between those processes that we call emotions and a number of other processes that we do not classify as emotions.”

As an example, he considers a situation where you are driving a car with a person who is driving it extremely carelessly. At the same time, Leeper notes that you will not admire the landscape around you, but will look intently at the road and try to figure out what you can do to drive the car more carefully. Here the influence of the emotion of fear for one’s life on the activity of the whole organism is evident. And it was this fact that served as the basis for Leeper’s view of emotional processes as motives.

An example described by Robert Ward Leeper very clearly depicts the emotions of a person in such a situation. When you drive with a sloppy, inattentive or aggressive driver, you constantly feel uncomfortable. I often caught myself thinking that instinctively, sitting in the passenger seat, I pressed the brake pedal (I pressed my foot hard to the floor, simulating pressing the pedal).At the same time, facial expressions change greatly.This happens involuntarily, awareness comes a little later, and at this moment, it seems to me that I am really slowing down.

The author believes that among the motives it is possible to distinguish two types. These are emotional and physiological motives. At the same time, Leeper emphasizes that physiological motives may depend on the internal state of the body (hunger, thirst), or may depend on external stimulation (pain from a mechanical shock). And emotional motives depend on mental processes. Leeper suggests that the main difference between these types of motives is that emotional motives “are processes that depend on signals ... resembling stimuli that cause perceptual* or cognitive processes; these are processes that can be excited even by very light and weak external stimuli...” And physiological motives are processes that depend either on special, specific chemical conditions inside the body, or on strong irritation from the outside.

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*Perception (perception) is the process of reflecting objects or phenomena with their direct impact on the senses.

http://www.psyperm.narod.ru/K15_151.htm

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Cognitive theories of emotion ( Cognitive* )

Arnold: Emotion as a function of cognitive processes

According to Arnold, emotions arise as a result of exposure to any sequence of events that are described in categories of perception and evaluation.

“The term “perception” is interpreted by Arnold as “elementary understanding.” In this case, “perceiving an object” means in some sense “understanding” it, regardless of how it affects the perceiver.” An image of the perceived object is formed in the mind, and in order for this image to receive an emotional coloring, it must be evaluated, taking into account its influence on the perceiver. Based on this, we can conclude that Arnold understands emotion not as an assessment, but as an unconscious attraction to an object, or its rejection.

According to Arnold, assessment occurs immediately after the direct perception of an object; it is an intuitive act that is not associated with reflection; assessment acts as the final stage perceptual process and can be presented separately only reflexively.

Schechter: Cognitive-physiological t e oriya

He and his co-authors proposed that emotions arise from physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal. Some event or situation causes physiological arousal, and the individual has a need to evaluate the content of the situation that caused this arousal. The type or quality of emotion experienced by an individual does not depend on the sensation arising from physiological arousal, but on how the individual evaluates the situation in which it occurs. Assessing the situation allows the individual to label the feeling of excitement experienced as joy or anger, fear or disgust, or any other emotion appropriate to the situation. According to Schechter, the same physiological arousal can be experienced as joy or as anger (or any other emotion) depending on the interpretation of the situation.

He showed that a person’s memory and motivation make a significant contribution to emotional processes. The concept of emotions proposed by S. Schechter was called cognitive-physiological (Fig. 4).

In one of the experiments aimed at proving the stated provisions of the cognitive theory of emotions, people were given a physiologically neutral solution as a “medicine”, accompanied by various instructions. In one case, they were told that this “medicine” would cause them to experience a state of euphoria, and in the other, a state of anger. After taking the appropriate “medicine”, after some time, when according to the instructions it should have started to act, the subjects were asked how they felt. It turned out that the emotional experiences they described corresponded to those expected from the instructions given to them.

Rice. 4. Factors in the emergence of emotions in the cognitive-physiological concept of S. Schechter

It was also shown that the nature and intensity of a person’s emotional experiences in a given situation depend on how they are experienced by others nearby. This means that emotional states can be transmitted from person to person, and in humans, unlike animals, the quality of communicated experiences depends on his personal attitude towards the one with whom he empathizes.

J. Kelly's theory of emotions

J. Kelly created the theory of personal constructs. He believed that "people perceive their world through distinct systems or models called constructs. Each person has a unique construct system (personality) that he uses to interpret life experiences." He also described different types of personality constructs: proactive, constellatory, presupposing, comprehensive, private, core, peripheral, rigid and free. Kelly's goal was to create a more empirical approach to clinical psychology. Kelly also believed that his theory could be useful for understanding emotional states, mental health, as well as in therapeutic practice.

L. Festinger: The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance

A separate group of theories consists of views that reveal the nature of emotions through cognitive factors, i.e. thinking and consciousness.

First of all, L. Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance should be noted. Its main concept is dissonance. Dissonance is a negative emotional state that arises in a situation where the subject has psychologically contradictory information about an object. According to this theory, a person experiences a positive emotional experience when his expectations are confirmed, i.e. when the actual results of activities correspond to those planned and are consistent with them. In this case, the resulting positive emotional state can be characterized as consonance. Negative emotions arise in cases where there is a discrepancy or dissonance between the expected and actual results of activity.

Subjectively, a person usually experiences a state of cognitive dissonance as discomfort, and he strives to get rid of it as soon as possible. To do this, he has two ways: first, change his expectations so that they correspond to reality; secondly, try to obtain new information that would be consistent with previous expectations. Thus, from the perspective of this theory, emerging emotional states are considered as the main cause of corresponding actions and actions.

In modern psychology, the theory of cognitive dissonance is most often used to explain a person’s actions and actions in a wide variety of situations. Moreover, in the determination of behavior and the emergence of human emotional states, cognitive factors are given much more importance than organic changes. Many representatives of this direction believe that cognitive assessments of the situation most directly influence the nature of emotional experience.

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*Cognitive(lat. cognition, “cognition, study, awareness”) is a term used in several significantly different contexts, denoting the ability to mentally perceive and process external information. In psychology, this concept refers to the mental processes of the individual and especially to the study and understanding of the so-called " mental states” (i.e. beliefs, desires and intentions) in terms of information processing. This term is used especially often in the context of the study of so-called “contextual knowledge” (i.e. abstraction and concretization), as well as in those areas where concepts such as knowledge, skill or learning are considered.

The term "cognition" is also used in a broader sense, referring to the "act" of knowing or knowledge itself. In this context, it can be interpreted in a cultural-social sense as denoting the emergence and “becoming” of knowledge and the concepts associated with that knowledge, expressing themselves in both thought and action.

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Adaptation theory Plutchik's emotions

Plutchik views emotions as a means of adaptation. Below we will look at the basic prototypes of adaptive behavior and the emotions that correspond to them.

Number	Protypic adaptive complex	Primary emotion
1.	Incorporation is the absorption of food and water.	Adoption.
2.	Rejection - rejection reaction, excretion, vomiting.	Disgust.
3.	Destruction is the removal of an obstacle to satisfaction.	Anger.
4.	Defense - initially against pain or the threat of pain.	Fear.
5.	Reproductive behavior - reactions accompanying sexual behavior.	Joy.
6.	Deprivation is the loss of an object that brings pleasure.	Grief.
7.	Orientation is a reaction to contact with a new, unfamiliar object.	Fright.
8.	Exploration is a more or less random, voluntary activity aimed at studying the environment.	Hope or curiosity

Plutchik defines emotion as a somatic reaction that is associated with a specific adaptive biological process that is common to all living organisms. He divides emotions into primary and secondary. By secondary emotions he means various combinations of primary emotions. In addition, primary emotions are limited in time and are formed when external influence, and each secondary corresponds to a certain physiological and expressive-behavioral complex. Plutchik believes that " permanent blocking adequate motor reactions in conflict or frustrating situations causes chronic muscle tension, which can serve as an indicator of poor adaptation...”

Interestingly, for some animals the table may look slightly different. For example, some monkeystend to destroy and break everything around them when they feel fear.

Izard Eddie Carroll's Theory of Differential Emotions

The theory of differential emotions received this name because the object of its study is private emotions, which are considered separately. The theory is based on 5 main theses:

• The main motivational system of a person is made up of ten + one basic emotions (later it will be explained in more detail which emotions are basic and why).
• Each emotion implies a specific way of experiencing it.
• All fundamental emotions have different effects on the cognitive sphere and behavior in general.
• Emotional processes interact with drives and influence them.
• In turn, drives influence the course of the emotional process

Within the framework of the differential theory of emotions, the latter are considered not only as the motivational system of the organism (as in Leeper's theory), but also as basic personal processes that give meaning to human existence.

The differential theory of emotions defines emotions as complex processes that have neurophysiological, neuromuscular, and sensory-experiential aspects. The neurophysiological aspect is defined in terms of the activity of the central nervous system. The assumption here is that emotion is a function of the somatic nervous system. At the neuromuscular level, it manifests itself in the form of facial activity. At the sensory level, emotion is represented by experience.

The criteria on the basis of which Izard defines basic emotions are as follows:

1. Basic emotions have distinct and specific neural substrates.
2. Basic emotion manifests itself through an expressive and specific configuration of facial muscle movements (facial expressions).
3. A basic emotion entails a distinct and specific experience that is conscious to the individual.
4. Basic emotions arose as a result of evolutionary biological processes.
5. Basic emotion has an organizing and motivating effect on a person and serves his adaptation.

These criteria, according to the author, correspond to such emotions as:

1. Joy
2. Astonishment
3. Sadness
4. Anger
5. Disgust
6. Contempt
7. Grief-suffering
8. Shame
9. Interest-excitement
10. Guilt
11. Embarrassment

All other emotional states, according to Izard, are derivative or composite, i.e. arise on the basis of several fundamental ones.

Simonov's Information Theory of Emotions

Simonov says that his approach to the problem of studying emotions belongs to the Pavlovian direction of studying higher nervous activity brain He is of the opinion that “emotion is a reflection by the brain of humans and animals of any actual need (its quality and magnitude) and the likelihood (possibility) of its satisfaction, which the brain evaluates on the basis of genetic and previously acquired individual experience.”

Simonov offers a formula in which he represents the rule for the emergence of emotions:

EMOTION = INFORMATION REQUIRED - INFORMATION AVAILABLE.

Emotions within the framework of the teachings of A.N. Leontyev

“In its most general form, the function of emotions can be characterized as an indication of the plus/minus of sanctioning a completed, ongoing or upcoming activity.” Emotions, according to Leontyev, are capable of regulating activity in accordance with anticipated results, but at the same time he emphasizes that although emotions play a very important role important role in motivation, they themselves are not motives.

Leontyev refers to emotional processes as affects, emotions, and feelings. It separates them by duration in time. Following Leontiev’s logic, the shortest affects in time are accompanied by pronounced motor and vegetative manifestations, and the longest are feelings, and they are supra-situational, objective and hierarchical.

Conclusion.

If we turn to the issue of the emergence of emotions, there is no consensus (this is to be expected). The division of theories into groups was carried out taking into account what exactly scientists believed to be the cause of emotions.

In biological theories of emotions (theories of Anokhin, Duffy, Lindsley, James, Lange), the source of their occurrence lies in organic changes. U different authors it is called differently, but it doesn’t matter what it is called, since the meaning is the same.

In psychoanalytic theories, the cause of emotions is a clash of instinctive energy with the prohibitions and norms of the Super-Ego. This can be explained by the fact that the entire theory of psychoanalysis was built on the idea of ​​two instincts (eros, tonatos), as well as on a three-component theory of personality structure (Id, Ego, Super-Ego).

In cognitive theories, the emergence of emotions is associated with the activity of cognito, and emotion is presented as an assessment, in this Simonov’s information theory is similar to cognitive theories of emotions, where emotion is an assessment of the situation, it seems to me that they could be combined under the general name of cognitive theories, but to do we will not do this due to the fact that the key word for cognitivists is assessment, and for Simonov it is information.

The remaining theories: motivational, adaptation, respectively, consider emotions as motives of adaptation to environmental conditions, while the mechanism of their occurrence becomes clear.

A special place is occupied by the view of A.N. Leontiev on the same problem, since he considers emotions within the framework of his doctrine of activity, the mechanism of occurrence, automatically, is human activity. Moreover, he says that emotions are a “specific personal attitude,” and the concept of attitude itself includes the concept of activity, that is, without any kind of activity, relationships and attitudes do not seem possible to us. Theories of emotions

Refers to

Theory of emotions by P. V. Simonov

From the information “theory” (actually hypotheses) by P. V. Simonov:
“But all the factors listed and similar factors determine only variations in the infinite variety of emotions, while two, only two, always and only two factors are necessary and sufficient: the need and the probability (possibility) of its satisfaction.”
"we came to the conclusion in 1964 that emotion is a reflection by the brain of humans and animals of any actual need (its quality and magnitude) and the likelihood (possibility) of its satisfaction, which the brain evaluates on the basis of genetic and previously acquired individual experience "
“In its most general form, the rule for the emergence of emotions can be represented as a structural formula:
E = f [P, (In - Is), …. ],
where E is emotion, its degree, quality and sign; P - strength and quality of current need; (In - Is) - assessment of the likelihood (possibility) of satisfying a need based on innate and ontogenetic experience; In - information about the means predictably necessary to satisfy the need; IS - information about the funds available to the subject at the moment.
"
“a positive emotion when eating arises due to the integration of hunger arousal (need) with afferentation from the oral cavity, indicating an increasing likelihood of satisfying this need.”
In other words, it turns out: the intensity of the emotion is greater, the greater the strength of the need and the greater the likelihood of its satisfaction.

Let's take the simplest situation. An attack by a predator on a fairly defenseless individual. It is clear that you need to react with lightning speed, otherwise you will not survive, you will not produce offspring, and the delayed type of reaction will not be passed on to subsequent generations. You can, of course, talk about the need to save life that has arisen, but in this case, the probability of its satisfaction may be depressingly small, which already contradicts Simonov’s formula, in whose example the case of satisfying hunger is given, when both the strength of the need is great and the probability of its satisfaction in the course of food absorption is also great.
There is also a specific work that gives the opposite formula: "Between the strength of emotion, determined by frequency heart rate, and the amount of need subjectively felt by a person, there is a direct correlation, and between the intensity of emotional stress and the likelihood of need satisfaction negative correlation connection." (which is also controversial due to the absence of a specific such dependence in general, which will be shown below).
In the situation discussed above, in the case of a disappointing forecast, the emotion of passive numbness comes to the fore - as the only possible defensive reaction, and in the case of an optimistic forecast - a reaction of violent resistance.
According to Simonov, in the first case, the argument In (information about the means necessary to satisfy the need) is large, and the argument Is (information about the means available to the subject at the moment) is much smaller; it turns out that the emotion should turn out to be more positive, the less available capabilities of an individual :) Does anyone get a thrill from a state of numbness?
In the example, the physiological purpose of emotions is also obvious, as a quick switch of the type of response, without which survival is impossible, and not just “an emotion is a reflection by the brain of humans and animals of any current need.” In terms of the life experience of an individual, the task of quickly finding the desired type of reaction (choosing a suitable emotion) is played by the detection of novelty of the situation. If the novelty is maximum, i.e. If you don’t have a damn experience (which means there’s no need to talk about the components of the formula In and Is at all), then the choice will be predominantly passive behavior or one of the preparations for intimidating behavior, but not an “information assessment of the likelihood of need satisfaction.”
Even 20 years ago, I proposed another formula: the greater the strength of an emotion, the greater the product of the novelty of what is perceived and its significance for a given individual. It is easy to see that this formula is more general and more adequate for describing the mechanisms of response formation than the Simonov formula. Moreover, it directly reflects fundamental principle switching attention and the formation of long-term connections and directly follows from the modulating influence of novelty detectors on the response of the significance system. Simonov’s formula does not take into account the influence of new detectors at all, as if not noticing the completely integral, well-studied mechanism of perception.

In the work we read:
"P.V. Simonov believes that “need acts as a motivating force for any action, including ordinary, automated actions, carried out against an emotionally neutral background. Thus, we have no reason to consider emotion as a direct and obligatory consequence of the emergence of a need ". In his works, P.V. Simonov sets himself the task of “focusing attention on those facts that show that need, attraction (motivation), excitation of the nervous apparatus of emotions and, finally, action represent closely related, but independent links in adaptive behavior , having a relatively independent anatomical representation in the brain." Thus, he believes that various anatomical structures of the nervous system are responsible for the development of motivations and emotions."
"According to the theory of P.V. Simonov, in the human body there are objectively certain needs that do not depend on consciousness. Motivation is the result of awareness of this need, which leads to the formation of an activity goal. In this case, activity can be of two types: upon the approach of the desired event and to eliminate the unwanted.Emo
“It is interesting that on this issue there is a fundamental discrepancy between the positions of the theorists under consideration and the views of physiologists of the Pavlovian school, who most often interpret higher emotions as a result of the complication of simple biological emotions.”
However, this intuitive idea of ​​the Pavlovtsians is completely justified and difficult to dispute. After all, it is quite easy to trace the existence of the two most common emotions: the states Good and Bad, which may not have a clear relationship to one of the traditionally distinguished emotions. These are not just subjective states, but very specifically localized brain centers responsible for these states.
"Unlike the Pavlovian school, which is characterized by the consideration of the human psyche as a stream of reflexes ordered by external events, within the framework of the direction based on the ideas of P.K. Anokhin, consciousness is viewed rather as a set of motivations. Thus, P.V. Simonov believes, that “a person’s personality is determined primarily by the totality and hierarchy of his needs (motives).”
But needs constantly change throughout a person’s development and life, and even within one day they can be opposite, and a personality cannot in any way be simply a collection of motivations.
"It was possible to induce various degrees of aggressiveness and fear by modulating the strength of the stimulus or the area of ​​application of the stimulus. In experiments in the absence real threat reactions of mild anxiety, severe anxiety, panic or aggressiveness were caused. In the same studies, the animal was brought into a state of complete calm, when no external threats caused defensive behavior. Thus, with the help of influences on the emotional and motivational structures of a higher mammal, it was possible to achieve artificial control of its mood and behavior."
Thus, there are structures, the excitation of which, like the Good and Bad centers, causes the appearance of more complex emotional states that CONTROL the type of behavior of an individual, which is the main physiological purpose of emotions.

An interesting and informative article from the journal Bulletin of Biological Psychiatry No. 5, 2004
"P.V. Simonov also emphasized the informational nature of emotions. In Kabanak's definition, the informational side of emotions
completely ignored. It is important to note that emotion is a mental mechanism that performs certain functions. During the functioning of this mechanism, various mental states arise, which are also called emotions. We can say that an emotion is a mental state that arises as a result of cognitive processing of information that can be received from the outside, extracted from memory, or even invented or fantasized. Emotion regulates the amount of energy allocated by the body to solve a problem related to the information received.
The amount of energy and (activity) is determined by the level of physiological arousal. Emotion also determines, in the most general outline, a sequence of actions (behavioral program) that is caused by the received information. For example, fear makes you run away or hide, anger makes you attack, interest makes you explore, hope makes you wait, etc.”
Here are more arguments in favor of the fact that emotions are the context of a certain style of behavior, and not just "information assessment of the likelihood of need satisfaction."
"According to the definition of M. Kabanak, pain will be a negative emotion. It is proven that pain is a sensation (the result of the action of receptors). The emotional background of pain is suffering. The emotion that pain can cause is, for example, fear (under normal conditions, so to speak , state of things). However, there are people (masochists) for whom pain causes pleasant sensations and even pleasure. This means that pain does not have a clear hedonic tone. There are emotions that also do not have a clear hedonic tone, but they appear as a result of the perception of some information.Pain is a simple reaction of receptors to certain influences and is not directly related to the perception and processing of information.
Any emotion can arise not only as a result of the perception of external information, but also as a reaction to memories or one’s own fantasies, which can be represented as a certain source of information. "
According to Simonov, it is difficult to explain masochism. The formula again slips a lot here.
According to Simonov "surprise will be an emotion only when it is pleasant or unpleasant. But surprise can also be neutral. Does this stop it from being an emotion? And what does it become? domestic psychology The concept of intellectual emotions is widely used.
They do not have a specific sign and can be positive, negative or indifferent. Surprise as a reaction to unexpected information is an intellectual emotion in any hedonic tone. " Next comes a description of the specifics of intellectual emotions.
Indeed, the requirement of a certain sign for emotions is a miscalculation of Simonov, resulting from the fact that he does not take into account the detection of the ora of the new (the basis of the indicative reflex and the state of surprise). And the intellectual emotions described in the article are an even more complicated phenomenon from the hierarchy of emotions, confirming that emotions are contexts of behavior, and not “an information assessment of the likelihood of satisfying a need.”
"The work of Chevalier and Belzung describes the phenomenon of variability of emotions in the same situation. The same person in the same situation can experience different emotions."
With the same level of need or generally with a state of satisfaction and indifference, a person can experience a variety of emotions, regardless of forecasts and possibilities. In general, a person can switch his emotional states with just one effort of imagination, which speaks specifically about the switchable function of emotional states, and not the informational prognostic one.

I also suggest reading the fair comments in
“P.V. Simonov put forward an “information” theory of emotions. He assumes that emotions make up for the lack of information.
They allow a person to act correctly even in conditions of an acute lack of information. But what does it mean to replenish? I can only make up for the lack of food with something edible. The lack of knowledge can only be compensated by knowledge - albeit of a “special kind”.
" etc.

IN "...according to the theory of functional systems by P.K. Anokhin, decision making is a choice from alternatives and is implemented on the basis feedback; This theory is developed by the “quantum” model of mental activity of K. V. Sudakov; and P.V. Simonov proposed a discrete mechanism for explaining creative thinking based on the recombination of memorable traces (engrams), etc. "
“The opposite position was taken by our outstanding psychologist Andrei Brushlinsky, director of the Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, who was brutally murdered in the entrance of his own house at the end of January 2002. He viewed the psyche not as a process of processing information, but as a continuous, non-disjunctive interaction of a person with the objective world.”
"...it is the independent, arbitrary formation of initially absent criteria that fundamentally distinguishes human thinking from discrete processes in a computer."

IN
"According to the formula proposed by P.V. Simonov (his concept can also be classified as cognitivist and has a special name - informational), the strength and quality of the emotion that arises in a person is ultimately determined by the strength of the need and the assessment of the ability to satisfy it in the current situation.
In later studies, it was discovered that of all the brain structures, the most functionally connected with emotions is not even the thalamus itself, but the hypothalamus and the central parts of the limbic system. In experiments conducted on animals, it was found that electrical influences on these structures can control emotional states, such as anger, fear (J. Delgado).
The psychoorganic theory of emotions (as the concepts of James-Lange and Cannon-Bard can be conventionally called) received further development under the influence of electrophysiological studies of the brain. On its basis, the Lindsay-Hebb activation theory arose. According to this theory, emotional states are determined by the influence of the reticular formation of the lower part of the brain stem. Emotions arise as a result of disruption and restoration of balance in the corresponding structures of the central nervous system."

Some of Simonov's ideas are used to create a more general picture. At the same time, the physiological purpose of emotions is considered very correctly.
“According to this theory (Simonov), if there is an excess of information about the possibility of satisfying a need, then a positive emotion arises, if there is a lack of information, then a negative emotion. It is believed that the variety of emotions is determined by the variety of needs.
However, even without going into a detailed analysis for now, it is obvious that when any need, from the most primitive to the most complex, is satisfied, one can experience joy, and when any need is not satisfied, one can experience grief. At the same time, one need, for example, food, can cause fear if there is a high probability of its dissatisfaction (i.e. the possibility of hunger), can cause hope for its satisfaction, can cause gratitude for its satisfaction, etc. Those. One need can cause different emotions and one emotion can be caused by different needs."
“Emotions perform many different functions in a person’s mental activity. We will now describe only one, which plays an important role for classification purposes. This function can be called simplifying in the process of making a decision about a person’s further behavior in each specific situation. In real life situations, there are many factors that have meaning for a person. If you start weighing all the factors logically, it will take a lot of time, while delay in some cases can be fatal. Emotion, having arisen, forces a person to act without reasoning. In critical situations, this can save a life, in situations ordinary emotions often turn out to be harmful precisely because they interfere with weighing all the circumstances and making the optimal decision."

IN
“Unfortunately, much of what is traditionally called the promising word “theory” in the study of emotions is, in essence, more likely to be individual fragments, only together approaching such an ideally comprehensive theory. The ability not to see many problems at once is sometimes a condition for advancement in one of them, so individual works can be interesting, insightful, subtle, can acquaint us with very important features of emotional life, but at the same time leave many equally interesting and important questions unresolved and even unidentified."

IN. Simonova.

Let us present the information theory of emotions by P. V. Simonov, trying, on the one hand, to convey the author’s point of view as accurately as possible, and, on the other hand, to highlight the role and meaning of the concept probabilistic forecasting and predictions as the principle of this theory.

The relationship between the information theory of emotions by P. V. Simonov and the Biological theory of emotions by P. K. Anokhin . The information theory of emotions by P. V. Simonov, as the author himself states, is a clarification of the biological theory of emotions by P. K. Anokhin: “The answer to the question about the relationship of our theory to the theory of P. K. Anokhin can be formulated very clearly: information theory of emotions represents a generalization on a broader scale, where biological theory(emotions. – E.V.) Anokhina is included as a special case» [

\\* MERGEFORMAT "">76; With. 61]. We will not go into details of the discussion between P.V. Simonov and P.K. Anokhin here, but will only note the main differences in their views and will further present P.V. Simonov’s information theory of emotions as a generalization of P.K.’s biological theory of emotions. Anokhina.

The main meaning of the information theory of emotions by P. V. Simonov, in contrast to the biological theory of emotions by P. K. Anokhin, is that it is necessary to know not only the achievability or unattainability of the result, but also its probability.

Biological theory of emotions by P. K. Anokhin . The biological theory of emotions by P.K. Anokhin can be briefly summarized as follows: “As a rule, any motivational arousal is subjectively emotionally unpleasant... The negative emotion that accompanies motivation has an important biological significance. It mobilizes the animal’s efforts to satisfy the emerging need... Unpleasant emotional experiences intensify in all cases when the animal’s behavior in the external environment does not lead to the satisfaction of the emerging need... Need satisfaction (the effect of a reinforcing stimulus on the body), on the contrary, is always associated with positive emotional experiences...Biological significance positive emotion when satisfying needs, it is understandable, since they, as it were, authorize the success of the search. However, this significance is not limited to this. Positive emotions are recorded in memory and subsequently as a kind of “ideas” (“appetite.” – E.V.) about the future result appear whenever a corresponding need arises. The organism, trained to repeatedly satisfy its needs, is subsequently stimulated to purposeful activity not only by the negative emotion of the motivational state, but also by the idea of ​​that positive emotion that is associated with possible future reinforcement” [

\\* MERGEFORMAT "">78; With. 91, 92]. By the idea of ​​a positive emotion, we must mean its anticipation according to the principle of anticipatory reflection of reality. Therefore, if we know how to achieve a goal, then achieving the goal will be ensured not only by the influence of the negative emotion of motivational arousal, but also by the energetic influence from the anticipation of a positive emotion by “appetite.” Thus, achieving the goal will be ensured by two emotional influences at once - positive and negative, so to speak, “ carrot and stick».

In the biological theory of P.K. Anokhin, emotions are assigned only an energetic role - to “mobilize” and “stimulate” the animal to achieve a goal. It is said, of course, that if obstacles arise, negative emotions intensify, but by how much and why - this already goes beyond the scope of the biological theory of emotions and the theory of functional systems. From the further presentation it will be clear why such subtleties fundamentally do not fit into the theory of functional systems.

Criticism of P. V. Simonov of the Biological Theory of Emotions . “...The vast majority of concepts considered the discrepancy semantics goals (“acceptor of action”, “nervous model of stimulus”, “attitude”, “model of the required future”, etc., etc.) with the actual result obtained. Such a semantic mismatch is quite enough for the emergence of negative emotions. As for positive emotional states, they have traditionally been and continue to be considered as a result of need satisfaction, i.e. coincidence of the forecast (“acceptor”, “afferent model”, etc.) with the existing afferentation" [

\\* MERGEFORMAT "">76; With. 89]. “In none of the works of P.K. Anokhin did we find any mention of the fact that, along with the content (semantics) of the goal, the brain every time predicts probability her achievements. As for our theory, this point is key for it... The introduction of the category of probabilistic forecasting immediately expands the limits of applicability of the theory to actually observed facts” [

\\* MERGEFORMAT "">75; With. 60].

P.V. Simonov gives the following examples: “The literature is replete with experimental data indicating dependence of emotional stress on the magnitude of need (motivation) and predicting the likelihood of its satisfaction. For example, it was found that the pulse rate of bank employees depends on the degree of their responsibility (counting banknotes of various denominations) and the amount of information contained in one operation... The greatest emotional stress in dogs (yelping, barking, scratching, scratching the feeder) was observed when the probability of reinforcement is 1: 4, and as the experiment continues - at 1: 2. The importance of the information factor appears especially clearly in experiments with paired animals, when both partners receive an equal number of electric shocks, but only one of them can prevent punishment with an appropriate instrumental reaction. It has been shown that it is in this animal that the signs of fear gradually disappear.”

Formula of emotions of the information theory of emotions by P. V. Simonov . Probability is an informational concept and is associated with the assessment of information coming from the external environment to predict the likelihood of achieving a goal. This forces P.V. Simonov to try to redefine all physiological concepts such as motivation, need, behavior, etc. also in terms of information external environment. But this attempt seems unsuccessful to us: firstly, it gives absolutely nothing, and you cannot build a theory on such concepts (the information that a person extracts from the external environment is so diverse, often unconscious, that at present there is no theory that would described); secondly, from the point of view of the concept of goal, need and motivation are purely internal tasks of the organism and information from the external environment about the likelihood of achieving these goals can only have an auxiliary role. This places the concepts of goal, motivation and need first, and the concepts of probabilistic forecasting and emotions second. Nevertheless, emotions, as we will see from the theory of P. V. Simonov, play an even more important role in the organization of goal-directed behavior than motivation and needs, which may have forced Simonov to try to redefine these concepts. But this does not change the essence of the matter, despite the importance of emotions, they are secondary to the concept of goal.

Let us briefly describe the formula of emotions introduced by P.V. Simonov, although we will not use it. This formula is presented in order to make it possible to more accurately understand how emotions are related to probability and what is meant by probability.

“Summarizing the results of our own experiments and literature data, we came to the conclusion in 1964 that emotion is a reflection by the brain of humans and animals of any actual need (its quality and magnitude) and the probability (possibility) of its satisfaction, which the brain evaluates based on genetic and previously acquired individual experience... In the most general form, the rule for the emergence of emotions can be represented as a structural formula

E = f [P, (I P- AND c), ...],

where E is emotion, its degree, quality and sign; P – the strength and quality of the actual need (the need also has its own sign; the need that causes motivational arousal has a negative sign. – E.V.); (AND P- AND c) – assessment of the likelihood (possibility) of satisfying a need based on innate and ontogenetic experience; AND P– information about the means predicted to be necessary to meet the need; AND c– information about the funds available to the subject at the moment. Of course, emotion also depends on a number of other factors, some of which are well known to us, while we may not yet suspect the existence of others... (for example, spiritual - E.V.). But all these and similar factors determine only variations in the infinite variety of emotions, while two...and only two factors are necessary and sufficient: the need and the probability (possibility) of its satisfaction... we are not talking about information that actualizes a need (for example, about a danger that has arisen), but about information necessary to satisfy the need (for example, about how to avoid this danger). Under information we understand the reflection of the entire set of means to achieve a goal: the knowledge that the subject has, the perfection of his skills, the energy resources of the body, the time sufficient or insufficient to organize the appropriate actions, etc. The question is, is it worth using the term “information” in this case? We think it's worth it, and here's why. Firstly, the brain that generates emotions does not deal with the skills themselves... not with the body’s energy resources themselves, etc., but with afferentation from external and internal environment body, that is, with information about available resources. Secondly, the entire variety of information necessary to satisfy the emerging need and actually available to the subject at the moment is transformed by the brain into a single integral indicator - in assessing the probability of achieving the goal(need satisfaction). The assessment of probability by its very nature is a category informational» [

\\* MERGEFORMAT "">75; With. 20, 21]. The concept of information as informational will not be used further. Only the mentioned assessment of the probability of achieving the goal will be used as an integral indicator involved in the formation of emotions. To obtain this assessment, it is enough to assume that it is determined at the decision-making stage, using all the information obtained at the stage of afferent synthesis.

Information theory of emotions by P. V. Simonov as a generalization of the biological theory of emotions by P. K. Anokhin . Both in the theory of P.K. Anokhin and in the theory of P.V. Simonov, the emergence of motivational arousal causes negative emotions. In both theories, the occurrence of obstacles increases negative emotions, although the motivational arousal itself remains the same. The theory of P. V. Simonov is more precise in that assessing the probability of achieving a goal allows, firstly, to assess the possibility of achieving the goal even before any action at the stage of the decision-making process (and, perhaps, even refuse action and prefer “a bird in the hand, than pie in the sky"); secondly, adequately, in accordance with the probability of mobilizing the body to achieve the goal (compensatory function of emotions) and, finally, using the will to overcome obstacles.

The concept of “appetite”, considered in the biological theory of emotions, is an anticipation of a positive emotion, but not the positive emotion itself. In the theory of P. V. Simonov, the very anticipation of achieving a goal with some probability is the cause of the emergence of positive emotions. " Pleasure there is always a result of an already ongoing (contact) interaction (need satisfaction - E.V.), while joy(emotion. – E.V.) there is an expectation of pleasure due to the increasing likelihood of need satisfaction» [

\\* MERGEFORMAT "">75; With. 90]. In the future, we will adhere to the point of view of P.V. Simonov and will not use the concept of “appetite” from the biological theory of emotions.

The emergence of positive emotions in the theory of functional systems, associated with the satisfaction of a need and the achievement of a set goal (the coincidence of the achieved result with its anticipation in the acceptor of the results of the action), is explained in the information theory of emotions differently: as an increase in the probability of achieving the final result due to its actual achievement (the probability assessment becomes equal or close 1). “The information theory of emotions is valid not only for relatively complex behavioral and mental acts, but also for the genesis any emotional state. For example, a positive emotion when eating arises due to the integration of hunger arousal (need) with afferentation from the oral cavity, indicating an increasing probability of satisfying this need (the probability of assimilation of food became almost equal to 1, since the food entered the mouth - E.V.)» [

\\* MERGEFORMAT "">75; With. 27].

The emergence of positive emotions as a result of a positive discrepancy, when, for example, what is received exceeds what is expected, really cannot be explained without probabilistic forecasting. “Based on our experimental studies, we insist that For the emergence of positive emotions, as well as for the emergence of negative emotions, unsatisfied needs and a discrepancy between the forecast and existing reality are necessary.. Only now we are talking not only about the semantics (content, qualities) of the goal, but about probability of achieving it. It is the forecasting of the probability that makes it possible to obtain a positive discrepancy, an excess of what is obtained over what is expected. The introduction of a parameter for the probability of achieving a goal, making positive mismatch possible, represents the grain of our concept of emotions" [

\\* MERGEFORMAT "">76; With. 89, 90]. An illustration of the emergence of a positive emotion as a result of a positive mismatch is the following experiment: “In our experiments, sets of five numbers – ones and zeros – were projected on a screen installed in front of the subject. The subject was warned that some of the frames containing a common feature (for example, two zeros in a row 00) would be accompanied by a beep. The subject's task was to detect this general feature... Before the emergence of the first (usually erroneous, for example 01) hypothesis regarding the reinforced feature, neither new frames nor a beep caused GSR ( galvanic skin reflex – E.V.)... The emergence of a hypothesis is accompanied by GSR... After the formation of a hypothesis, two situations are possible, which we consider as experimental models of negative and positive emotional reactions... The hypothesis is not correct, and the frame... containing a reinforced sign (two zeros and, therefore, not confirming the hypothesis about 01 – E.V.), does not cause GSR. When the beep shows the subject that he was mistaken, GSR is recorded as a result of a mismatch between the hypothesis and the present stimulus - a case provided for by the concepts of the “acceptor of the result of an action” by P.K. Anokhin, the “nervous model of the stimulus” by E.N. Sokolov and the like. The subject changes the hypothesis several times, and at some point it begins to correspond to reality. Now the very appearance of a reinforced frame causes GSR, and its reinforcement with a beep leads to even stronger galvanic skin shifts. How to understand this effect? Indeed, in this case, there was a complete coincidence of the hypothesis (“acceptor of the result of the action,” “nervous model,” etc.) with the available stimulus. The absence of mismatch should entail the absence of GSR and other vegetative shifts. In fact, in the latter case we also encounter a mismatch, but a mismatch of a different kind than when testing a false hypothesis. The forecast formed in the process of repeated combinations contains not only the afferent model of the target, not only its semantics, but also probability achieving this goal. At the moment of reinforcement of the frame... with a beep, the predicted probability of solving the problem (the correctness of the hypothesis) increased sharply, and this discrepancy between the forecast and the received information led to a strong GSR as a vegetative component of a positive emotional reaction" [

\\* MERGEFORMAT "">75; With. 26].

The information theory of emotions identifies several functions of emotions.

Switching function of emotions . In functional systems theory, the decision-making stage has not been well defined. Developing a specific plan of action based on all possible ways to achieve a goal, extracted from memory at the stage of afferent synthesis, is impossible without probabilistic forecasting and the active participation of emotions. Indeed, if there are many different ways to achieve a goal (for example, when moving over some terrain), having different probability, various energy costs and various possible dangers associated with negative emotions, etc., then the task becomes at a minimum three-parameter– probability of achieving the goal; the total value of negative emotions (from energy costs, dangers, risks, difficulties, etc.); and the meaning of positive emotions (from achieving the goal(s)). Moreover, many decisions will obviously be incompatible with each other. For an effective decision-making mechanism, it is necessary to synthesize all these indicators into one parameter, which is what emotions do, including both the probability of achieving a goal and positive and negative emotions, expressed in the variety of qualities of emotions. Emotions are the integral parameter on the basis of which decisions are made. “The dependence of emotions not only on the magnitude of the need, but also on the likelihood of its satisfaction extremely complicates the competition of coexisting motives, as a result of which behavior is often reoriented towards a less important, but easily achievable goal: the “bird in the hand” defeats the “pie in the sky.” From a physiological point of view, emotion is an active state of a system of specialized brain structures that encourages a change in behavior in the direction of minimizing or maximizing this state. Because the a positive emotion indicates the approaching satisfaction of a need, and a negative emotion indicates moving away from it; the subject strives to maximize(intensify, continue, repeat) first state and minimize(to weaken, to interrupt, to prevent) second...» [

\\* MERGEFORMAT "">75; With. 28].

The reinforcing function of emotions . In the theory of functional systems, reinforcement was understood as sanctioning afferentation and the positive emotion caused by it, arising when achieving a goal and obtaining a result. “The purposeful behavioral act thus ends with the last sanctioning stage. At this stage, under the action of a stimulus that satisfies the leading need - reinforcement in the generally accepted sense - the parameters of the achieved result through stimulation of the corresponding receptors... cause flows of reverse afferentation, which in all its properties corresponds to the previously programmed properties of the reinforcing stimulus in the acceptor of the results of the action. At the same time, the leading need is satisfied and the behavioral act ends” [

\\* MERGEFORMAT "">78; With. 89, 90]. Moreover, in the theory of functional systems it is assumed that for all purposeful acts, if they lead to the achievement of a result, there is a corresponding sanctioning afferentation and positive emotion that consolidates the result, even for actions to eliminate pain or, for example, sneezing: “You can take for example such a rude an emotional act like the act of sneezing. Everyone knows that hedonic and protopathic the nature of the sensation that a person receives during a successful sneeze. In the same way, the opposite is also known: an unsuccessful sneeze creates a feeling of dissatisfaction for some time, an unpleasant feeling of something unfinished. Such fluctuations in emotional states are inherent in absolutely all vital functions of animals and humans.” The need for the existence of positive emotions that complete any purposeful act of action is also justified by the following considerations: “It should, however, be emphasized that emotional arousal of a negative nature has been established to have a long aftereffect and summation... Unlike negative emotions... positive emotions have a relaxing effect and are characterized by a slight aftereffect. However, their main biological significance is that they are able to completely eliminate the central and peripheral aftereffects of previous negative emotions. Thus, any achievement of a goal... eliminates any consequences of short-term and even long-term emotional stress... That is why there is no pace of life, if it is properly organized, if a person correctly uses the mechanisms developed during evolution for replacing negative emotional experiences with positive ones in the process of individual and social purposeful activity, not dangerous to health" [

\\* MERGEFORMAT "">79; With. 18–20].

P. V. Simonov shows that a necessary condition for reinforcement is not the action of a reinforcing stimulus (sanctioning afferentation), and the effect of positive emotions in the presence of motivation:“However, neither afferentation from the oral cavity (sanctioning afferentation - E.V.), nor hunger excitement (motivation - E.V.) by themselves cannot play the role of reinforcement ensuring the formation of an instrumental conditioned reflex. Only integration of hunger arousal from a factor capable of satisfying this need, i.e. the mechanism generating positive emotion , ensures production conditioned reflex» [

\\* MERGEFORMAT "">75; c. 34].

Thus, for two factors are necessary for reinforcement: motivational arousal and positive emotion, meaning an increase in the likelihood of achieving the goal set by motivation, while the goal may not yet have been achieved. The involvement of probability estimation in emotion immediately makes reinforcement more local and precise. With any step forward in achieving the goal set by motivation, which is recorded by the reverse afferentation from the achievement of some milestone result (bringing closer the achievement of the final goal and thereby increasing the assessment of the likelihood of achieving it) causes a positive emotion and reinforcement of those brain structures that carried out this step. Hence, emotions, based on probabilistic forecasting, reinforce each successful step of action, increasing the likelihood of achieving the final goal(while sanctioning afferentation and positive emotions in the theory of P.K. Anokhin only reinforce the entire sequence of actions leading to the achievement of the goal).

We will not consider the controversial possibility of “negative reinforcement” for now. “In addition, the term “negative reinforcement” is interpreted ambiguously by various authors, and in many cases, especially in relation to instrumental methods of active avoidance (avoidence), the independence of the physiological mechanism of negative reinforcement is generally rejected or questioned.” [

\\* MERGEFORMAT "">84; With. 225]

Compensatory function of emotions . Hypermobilization vegetarians: “...When emotional stress occurs, the volume of vegetative changes (increased heart rate, rise in blood pressure, release of hormones into the bloodstream, etc.), as a rule, exceeds the real needs of the body. Apparently, the process of natural selection has consolidated the expediency of this excessive mobilization of resources. In a situation of pragmatic uncertainty (namely, it is so characteristic of the emergence of emotions), when it is not known how much and what will be needed in the coming minutes, it is better to spend unnecessary energy than in the midst of intense activity - fight or flight - to be left without sufficient oxygen and metabolic supplies. "raw materials" [

\\* MERGEFORMAT "">75; c. 35].

Replacement function of emotions .This function, in a certain sense, is the opposite of the enrichment of functional systems in the process of orientation and research activities. Developed functional systems have a rich acceptor of action results and, therefore, a large variety of controlled triggering, environmental and signaling stimuli for the achievement of intermediate results. In a new unusual environment, some of these stimuli may be absent and, therefore, the functional systems in it will not be able to work. In this case, it is necessary to weaken the requirements for incoming stimuli, which is done by emotions. In a new unusual environment, it is impossible to obtain a good assessment of probability and, therefore, negative emotions of anxiety, fear or anxiety will arise, changing forms of behavior: “If the process of strengthening the conditioned reflex is accompanied by a decrease in emotional stress and at the same time a transition from the dominant one ( generalized) response to strictly selective reactions to a conditioned signal, then the emergence of emotions leads to secondary generalization. #The stronger the need becomes, writes J. Nutten..., the less specific the object that causes the corresponding reaction#. Thus, a hungry person begins to perceive uncertain stimuli as associated with food" [

\\* MERGEFORMAT "">75; With. 38]. An increase in emotional tension, on the one hand, expands the range of engrams extracted from memory, and on the other hand, reduces the criteria for “decision making” when comparing these engrams with available stimuli. “The emergence of emotional tension is accompanied by a transition to forms of behavior different from those in a calm state, principles of assessing external signals and responding to them. Physiologically, the essence of this transition can be defined as a return from finely specialized conditioned reactions to responding according to the principle of dominance by A. A. Ukhtomsky” [Ibid.; With. 35]. " The compensatory value of emotions lies in their replacement(missing information. – E.V.) roles"[Ibid.; With. 38, 39]. “As for positive emotions, their compensatory function is realized through their influence on the need that initiates behavior. In a difficult situation with a low probability of achieving a goal, even a small success (increasing probability) generates a positive emotion of inspiration, which strengthens the need to achieve the goal.” [Ibid; With. 39].

Psychophysiology of will . The concept of “will” has many meanings in philosophical, spiritual, psychological and mystical literature. We will consider it only as a physiological concept.

We said above that when obstacles appear, negative emotions intensify, providing additional energy to overcome the obstacle. But such strengthening is carried out within the energy capabilities of a given need. If the obstacle is significant, the achievement of this goal may nevertheless be suspended. So that the suspension of actions does not occur at every serious obstacle, but at least sometimes continues despite the obstacle, it is necessary to have additional and independent energy supply. Such energy supply is will. “...The difficulty of understanding the true motives of behavior gave rise to the belief that there are some over-regulators, which manage needs, although they do not always cope with them... Traditionally, such regulators are considered will and consciousness. Below we will try to show that the will does not control needs, but, by joining any of them, contributes to its satisfaction. As for consciousness, it is busy equipping needs with means and ways of satisfying them. Thus, both will and consciousness are the result of the transformation of needs, a stage of their further development" [

\\* MERGEFORMAT "">75; With. 160]. “We believe that the phylogenetic prerequisite for volitional behavior is “ freedom reflex", described by I.P. Pavlov. Pavlov saw in the dog’s resistance to limit its motor activity much more than a type of defensive reaction. " Freedom reflex“is an independent form of behavior for which an obstacle serves as no less an adequate stimulus than food for food-procuring actions, pain for a defensive reaction, and a new and unexpected stimulus for an orientation... Faced with an obstacle on the way to food, the animal begins to use not those options of actions that previously led to food reinforcement, but stored in memory ways to overcome similar obstacles. It is the nature of the obstacle, and not the primary motive, that determines the composition of actions taken in the process of organizing behavior that can ensure the achievement of the goal... Activity caused by an obstacle, in certain cases, can push the original motivation into the background, and then we will encounter stubbornness, behavior, where overcoming has become an end in itself, and the original motive has lost its meaning and even been forgotten” [Ibid.; With. 162]. “So, will is the need to overcome obstacles. Like any other need, it can be a source of positive or negative emotions, conditioned by the very fact of overcoming (or not overcoming) an obstacle before the final goal is achieved... Note that the intervention of the will does not cancel the universal regulatory function of emotions, since the will intervenes in competition of motives again at the level of emotions.” [Ibid; With. 162]