Synthetic, analytical and syntactic ways of expressing grammatical meanings, means of expressing grammatical meanings. Means and methods of expressing the grammatical meanings of words

Grammatical meanings are expressed by certain linguistic means. For example: the meaning of the 1st person singular in a verb writing -y, A general meaning instrumental case in the word forest expressed using the ending -ohm. This expression of grammatical meanings by external linguistic means is called grammatical form.

Consequently, forms of a word are varieties of the same word that differ from each other in grammatical meanings. Outside of the grammatical form there is not a single GC.

Before we talk about ways of expressing grammatical meanings in Russian, we need to talk about means of expressing grammatical values.

Grammatical meanings are expressed using various means (grammatical indicators):

1) endings; 2) formative suffixes and prefixes; 3) accents; 4) alternation of sounds; 5) prepositions; 6) intonation; 7) auxiliary words.

By using graduation The meanings of gender, number and case of nouns are expressed: tree -u, -om, -e; tree; table-; board; arable land- arable land; eye - eyes; adjectives: green tree, green tree, green tree; Beautiful, -aya, -oe, -s; participles: flying bird, flying bird, flying bird, flying birds; pronouns: our country, our country; meaning of the case of numerals: two, two, two, two.

The meaning of person, number and gender of the verb: love, love, love, loved, loved, would love.

By using word-forming and formative affixes The past tense form of the verb is formed: drew; imperfect form of verbs: sketch- sris-ovy-vat, find out- uzn-ava-t; perfect form of verbs: build- build, read- pro-read; comparative and superlative forms of adjectives: red - red, important- important. Forms of pledge: learn- learn, cut - cut your hair. Superlative forms of adjectives - the most important.

WITH using stress species forms are formed: pour - pour, cut- cut; There are nouns of the nominative plural case and nouns of the genitive singular case. numbers: (none) stamps and (what?) brands (plural); (No) horses and (plural) horses.

Grammatical meanings also differ with using alternation sounds. They distinguish the type of verb: equip - equip, cool- cool.

Prepositions are used to express the grammatical meaning of case in nouns, numerals and pronouns: at the table, above the table, about the table, across the table.

Intonation helps to distinguish the imperative mood of a verb (imperative) from the infinitive: Get up! Be silent!

Auxiliary words form the forms of the imperative mood: May there always be sunshine! Forms of the future complex - I will look for; subjunctive mood - I would take a look.

Formative affixes can express several grammatical meanings at once, for example: in a verb are coming ending -ut expresses both person, number, and mood.

It should be especially noted that formal grammatical means are of two types: paradigmatic and syntagmatic. The morphological (inflectional) paradigm of a word is the totality of all grammatical varieties (word forms) of a given word. The ability of a word to form a paradigm is called inflection. Some words do not have inflection: they always appear in the same form (such as, for example, function words y, but, only). Such words have a zero paradigm. But most words in the Russian language do not have a zero paradigm. Thus, the morphological inflectional paradigm of the word school formed by word forms: school, schools, school, school, school, (about) school; schools, schools, schools, schools,(O) schools.

Inflectional affixes of all the above types and auxiliary words belong to the paradigmatic means of expressing the grammatical meaning of a word (since they participate in the formation of the inflectional paradigm of the word). In addition to the main paradigmatic means, some words also contain additional ones, often accompanying the main means of expressing grammatical meaning:

1) alternation (or alternation) of phonemes in the base ( I'm running-run; dream- sleep(“fluent” vowel);

2) extension, truncation or alternation of stem-forming suffixes in the stem [Brother- brothers (brother-]-a); peasant- peasants; give- I give; dance- dancing (dance-u]-u)];

3) suppletivism - alternation of roots (I'm going-walked; person people);

4) changing the place of stress (tree-trees; was-were).

The grammatical meanings of words are expressed not only paradigmatically, but also syntagmatically, those. in a phrase. For example, in phrases A new book, new books the meaning of a number is expressed not only by the endings of the noun, but also by the endings of the adjective that agrees with it. Here, paradigmatic and syntagmatic means of expressing grammatical meanings complement one another. And in cases where there are no paradigmatic means of expressing grammatical meaning, the only formal means of detecting given value becomes the grammatical syntagmatics (combinability) of the word. For example, if a noun does not have externally distinct endings, i.e. it is “indeclinable” (such as coat, thermal power plant), the grammatical meaning of a number can only be expressed “beyond” the noun itself, in consistent forms of the adjective (new/new coats; powerful/powerful thermal power plants). These examples show that morphology, as a grammatical study of a word that actually functions in speech, must take into account all means of expressing the grammatical meanings of a word, both paradigmatic and syntagmatic.

Synthetic ways of expressing GS:

1) Affixation is the use of affixes to express grammatical meaning (do - do, exchange - exchange, table - table - table). The most common way of expressing GZ.

2) Internal inflection - a grammatically significant change in the phonemic composition of the root (walked - walked, dik - game, dial - dial)

3) Reduplication (repetition) - expression of the GC by complete or partial repetition of the base (you walk and walk, barely, the very best).

4) Emphasis. Changing the stress serves as a way of expressing GZ. In RY, stress can differentiate the forms of nouns, mood and type of the verb (Windows - windows, love - love, pour - pour)

5) Suppletivism - combining words of different roots into one grammatical pair to express GC (good - better, bad - worse, I - me, child - children)

Analytical methods of expressing GS:

1) Word order. Distinguishes between the syntactic functions of words in a sentence (subject-object relations, relations of the defined and the definition) and the communicative types of the sentences themselves: Joy (S) replaces sadness (O) – Sadness (S) replaces joy (O); deaf scientists are deaf scientists.

2) Function words - units that accompany significant words and free them from the expression of grammar or accompany inflectional affixation.

Prepositions (or aftersyllables)

Particles

Articles

Reformatsky also highlights auxiliary verbs, words of degree (more, less)

3) Intonation. This method does not refer to a word, but to a phrase, so it is related to the sentence and its structure.

ü Distinguishes between communicative and modal characteristics of a sentence: distinguishes interrogative sentences from affirmative ones expressing doubt, surprise, motivation, etc. (You wrote. Did you write? You wrote!)

ü The arrangement and gradation of pauses can divide the sentence differently (I couldn’t walk for a long time and I couldn’t walk for a long time)

ü Pausing can distinguish between simple and complex sentences: I see a face in tears - I see: a face in tears.

Mixed (hybrid) way of expressing civil rights:

Combines characteristics of synthetic and analytical types.

GE of the prepositional and other cases is expressed in two ways - case inflection and preposition (to talk about the conference, to visit Botanical Garden, go fishing, meet an artist)

Means of expressing civil language (grammatical indicators):

1) Endings (beautiful)

2) Formative suffixes (verbs, adjectives: screaming, shouted, woven)

3) Alternation (friend-friends)

4) Accent (oknA - Windows)

5) Prepositions (without a hat, in a hat, under a hat)

6) Intonation (I hope you are sitting comfortably? Sit.)

7) Auxiliary words (I will study, stronger)

4. Basic concepts of morphology: grammatical meaning, grammatical method, grammatical form, grammatical category. The concept of morphological paradigm.

Grammatical meaning– a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic structures and finding its regular/standard expression in the language.

Grammatical method - a way of expressing GC

Grammatical form – regular modifications of a word, united by the identity of its TL and differing in morphological/grammatical meanings.

GK - a system of rows opposed to each other morphological forms with homogeneous values.

An example of a category that has a double position is the category of number in nouns. The GC can be recognized as a two-sided unit of the morphological level of language, since it has a plan for the content of PS and a plan for the expression of PV.

From a semantic point of view,GK is a set of homogeneous gram values. Thus, the general meaning of the case category includes the particular meaning of 6 cases. Private civil orders can also be composite. Using cases as an example: in R.p. stand out: meanings of belonging, part, subject, spatial. They are elementary and cannot be expanded into other meanings.

From a formal point of view, GK - a set of grammatical forms used to express private grammatic meanings.

GCs differ from each other:

By the nature of the relationship

By the number of opposing members

Binary opposition - number

Triple - time

Civil Code system in the Socialist Republic

Inflectional and non-inflectional GCs

Inflectional- categories, the forms of whose members can be represented by forms of the same word.

Non-inflectional (classificatory)- cannot be represented by forms of the same word.

A paradigm is an ordered set of grammatical forms of a word. Functional parts of speech do not have a paradigm.

The totality of all particular paradigms is a complete paradigm. The complete noun paradigm consists of all singular and plural forms.

At the head of each complete paradigm is the original form, which has a naming function and is recorded in the dictionary.

Incomplete (scissors, barefoot, vacuuming, getting dark) and redundant paradigms (tea - tea, years - summer) are also distinguished.

Words with a complete paradigm - table, fresh, run, etc.

With an incomplete (flawed) paradigm - milk, barefoot (has no degree of comparison), dawn (because it describes the state of nature, cannot be applied to humans).

With a zero paradigm - borrowed words, for example: metro, cliche, cockatoo, bordeaux, beige

With a redundant paradigm - word forms that have two paradigms (waving - waving)

Grammatical way is a set of classes of grammatical forms with homogeneous means of expressing grammatical meanings. There are no abstract grammatical methods without taking into account grammatical forms and meanings. Ways of expressing grammatical meanings are divided into two large groups: synthetic And analytical.

At synthetically the lexical and grammatical meaning of a word is expressed by its form. Synthetic ways of expressing grammatical meanings include affixation , agglutination , inflection And morpheme-operations . At analytical way expressions of grammatical meanings lexical and grammatical meanings are expressed apart. TO analytical methods of expressing grammatical meanings include function words And word order . Accordingly, in accordance with the predominance of synthetic or analytical methods of expressing grammatical meanings in a language, languages ​​are conventionally divided into synthetic And analytical .

Synthetic methods.

• 1. Affixation - this is the most commonly used method. With it, grammatical forms are formed with the help of affixes, materially expressed, or zero, attached to the formative basis: for example, house? - houseA , do - do - did.
• 2. Agglutination . With this method of expressing grammatical meanings, each grammatical meaning is expressed by a separate standard affix, and each affix has its own function. The formative basis remains, as a rule, unchanged. For example, in Kazakh language suffix - lar- denotes the plural, and the suffix - ha- dative. Then if a child, in Kazakh, - ball, then the children - balalar, and for children - balalarga, if the girl is kyz, then the girls - kyzlar, and for girls - kyzlarga. This method is used in agglutinative languages ​​(Turkic, Finno-Ugric, Japanese, etc.)
• 3. Inflection . With inflection, word change is carried out through affixes or inflections . The same inflection can convey several grammatical meanings. Here we also encounter the phenomenon fusions - interpenetration between the formative basis and affixes. This can be considered a tautology, but inflection is characteristic of languages ​​of the inflectional type, which include most Indo-European languages. For example: fly - I'm flying, man - peasant(man + sk + y = peasant).
• 4. Morphemes - operations. When implementing this method of expressing grammatical meanings, grammatical meanings are conveyed by suprasegmental morphemes:
  • A) Accent . In this case, grammatical meanings are expressed by shifting the stress. For example, sprinkle us - sprinkle, cut - cut. This method can in some cases be observed even in languages ​​with a fixed accent.
  • B) Alternations (internal inflection). In internal inflection, grammatical meanings are expressed by alternating the root morpheme. Most shining example: English Sing - sang - sung - song; foot - feet; man - men. In Russian, friend [k] - friend [g] - friends - friendly; naked [l] - bare [l"]; look - look. In French doux - douce; oeil - yeux.
  • IN) Reduplication (repeats). When implementing this type of morphemes - operations, grammatical meaning is expressed through the complete or partial construction of a root, stem or whole word. For example: Russian. Barely, barely, a little, big-big, thought-thought express an increase in the intensity of an action or sign. Latin Mordeo (I bite) - momordi (I bit). In a number of languages, reduplication is a normative way of forming the plural: Chinese ren (person) - ren-zhen (people), Armenian gund (regiment) - gund - gund (many regiments). Reduplication as a grammatical phenomenon is widespread in Polynesian and other Austronesian languages: beat - beat, beat - beat, take - take, lava - lava.
  • G) Suppletivism . When implementing this grammatical method, grammatical methods are formed by completely changing the stem. For example, in Russian: good - better, bad - worse, I - me, etc. In many Indo European languages the phenomenon of suppletivism is observed in verbs meaning “to be” and “to go”.

When implementing analytical method formation of grammatical meanings, lexical and grammatical meanings are expressed separately. The analytical method includes way of function words And word order method .

With the method of function words, the grammatical meaning is conveyed using a combination of a significant and a function word. For example, I will read- meaning of the future tense, I would read it- the value of the conditional mood, more beautiful- the value of the degree of comparison.

The function words are:

• A) Articles : English a/the apple(def. undefined)
• B) Prepositions : went to my sister, I'm looking at you, know her- clarify case relations.
• IN) Postpositions . They are functionally identical to prepositions, but they appear after the significant word to which they refer. For example, Azerbaijani Yer balalar uchun (kindergarten) - literally - "a place for children." " Wuchun" - postposition with the meaning " For".
• G) Particles : I would like to, Where " would" is a particle expressing the category of the conditional mood of the verb.
• D) Auxiliary verbs - these are full-meaning words that have undergone desemantization: will read.

Word order, as a way of expressing grammatical meanings, is most productive in languages ​​with a fixed word order, such as French and English. However, this method can also be found in Russian: compare twenty people(exactly) and twenty people(approximately).

A hybrid or mixed way of expressing grammatical meanings allows you to use simultaneously analytical and synthetic methods of expressing grammatical meanings in a complex. For example, in the Russian language the meaning of the prepositional case (if it is not specified) is expressed both synthetically - by case inflection, and analytically - by a preposition: on the ground.

Grammar field - this is a set of grammatical units united by a common content or formal indicators and reflecting the conceptual, subject or functional similarity of the designated phenomena. Grammatical fields, for example, the voice field, represented in the language by both grammatical (morphologized) units and units located on the verge paradigmatics And syntagmatics ( free and semi-free phrases); syntagmatic fields - phrases and other syntactic units as manifestations of the semantic compatibility of their components, for example, “go” - “legs”, “bark” - “dog”; sets of structural models of sentences, united by a common semantic task; for example, in the syntactic field of imperativeness all models with the help of which an order is expressed are included. The term “field” is often used undifferentiated along with the terms “group” (lexical-semantic group, thematic group), “paradigm” (lexical-semantic, syntactic paradigm), etc.

Unit h.pl.

hot-hot-them

want-eat-hot-ite

he wants to-yat

Forms want, wants; want, want, want arise under the influence of the mutual analogy of the singular and plural forms and all turn out to be erroneous.

For science, especially for morphology, the means and methods of expressing grammatical meanings are very important.

Grammatical meaning– this is a meaning that acts as an addition to the lexical meaning of the word and expresses different relationships(attitude to other words in phrases and sentences; attitude to the person performing the action; attitude of the reported fact to reality and time; attitude of the speaker to what is being communicated, etc.). Usually a word has several grammatical meanings. Among ways expressions of grammatical meanings are called the following: synthetic, analytical, mixed, agglutination and incorporation. In a diagram it can be represented like this:

Synthetic or fusion method expressions of grammatical meanings (gr. Synthesis “compound”) means the expression of meanings in the word itself. The synthetic method includes:

Affixation – formation of word forms using prefixes, endings, formative suffixes: table, table A, table at; do - With do; write - on write; justify - justify yva t, exchange - exchange willow etc. Affixation in this case has the character of a fusion (Latin fusio “casting”, fusion “merging”). With fusion, the affixes attached to the root are polysemantic, their phonemic composition interacts with the phonemic composition of the root, and the root is sometimes not independent. For example, inflection -a in the word Earth immediately expresses the meaning of zh.r., im.p., singular; in dialects, stressed inflection -a can cause distactic assimilation: zamla; Earth root is not used on its own. This is a striking example of fusion, characteristic of many Indo-European languages.

Internal inflection– alternation of phonemes in the root. Zap e roar - zap And army, nab And army - recruit, etc.

Emphasis. Some languages ​​use stress to express grammatical meanings: rus. city A- G O kind; Komi-Perm.: O lan-you - live, ol A n – life.

Suppletivism(French Suppletif “additional”). Supplemental forms are called forms of the same word, formed from different roots or stems. Man - people, take - take, child - children, go - walked, good - better. In lat. language: ego- I, mei- me. It contains language. Gut- Fine, besser- better .

Reduplication(Latin reduplicatio “doubling”) – repetition of morphemes and words: barely, quietly, willy-nilly; in Malay orange- Human, orang-orang- People; in Kazakh Kyzyl- red, kyzyl-kyzyl- the most red; in Chinese lanlan-sansan - very lazy. Based on this model, Russian combinations with partial changes in phonemes were created: tara-bars, shur-murs, shurum-burum.

Analytical method(gr. analysis “dismemberment, decomposition”) – expression of grammatical meanings outside the word.

Function words: reading - will read, beautiful - more Beautiful. Functional words – prepositions, particles, conjunctions, articles, connectives – play a major role in expressing grammatical meanings. In general, it must be said that function words do not have a real, lexical meaning. Their only meaning is grammatical, because it is connected with the grammatical meaning of significant words. Prepositions and particles, as a rule, express meanings of a syntactic nature and show relationships between members of a sentence or between sentences (adversative, disjunctive, etc.). In languages ​​such as English, function words, in particular prepositions, are the predominant means of expressing grammatical meanings. From Slavic languages Bulgarian language lost the system of change case endings nouns, and the expression of grammatical meanings fell to the lot of prepositions: with a gun v'v r'ka (with a revolver in hand). There are articles in Arabic, Germanic, and Romance languages. Articles express generics (in German: der, die, das), numeric (German: die– plural) and case meanings of names (German: I. der, R. des, D. dem, IN. den), as well as the meaning of certainty: in it. der –ein, die - eine, das – ein. Connectives are verbs that have lost their lexical meanings and retained only their grammatical meanings. In Russian, the copula became the verb be, in him. haben. Connectives express verbal grammatical meanings of tense, mood, person.

Word order. In Romance and Germanic languages, word order plays a large role in expressing grammatical meanings. In the Malay language it is defining. The word order is also used in Russian. Let's compare the expression for the approximate value: two days (exactly 2), two days (maybe 1-3). Expressing the meaning of the case in the phrase day replaces night - night replaces day.

Intonation. We pay for travel! In all languages the most important means expressions of relational meanings is intonation. She holds everything together language means and gives them a single communicative focus: question, exclamation, motivation, etc. IN Chinese intonation is one of the main grammatical means of expressing grammatical meanings.

Syntax. The grammatical expression in a word can also be expressed using other words with which the word is associated in a sentence. The tram went to the depot . – The tram left the depot (the meanings of the accusative case of the indeclinable word depo in the first sentence and the genitive case in the second are created in both cases by different connections of this word with other words).

Mixed method(synthetic and analytical). TO rivers e(the meaning of the dative case is expressed by a preposition and a case form.

Agglutination (Latin agglutinare “to stick”). Agglutination is observed in most languages ​​of Asia, Africa and Oceania. Its essence lies in the opposite of the qualities of fusion, i.e. affixes in these languages ​​are unambiguous, there is no phonemic interaction between affixes and roots, and, finally, roots are in independent words. A.A. Reformatsky presented the process of agglutination very figuratively: a word constructed on the principle of agglutination is like a long train, where the root is a locomotive, and the chain of affixes are cars, the “gaps” between which are always clearly visible. For example, in the Kazakh language the morpheme at– root meaning “horse”, ha- expresses only the meaning of the dative case, lar– plural meaning only. To say “horses”, you need to put all these forms in a simple sequence: atlarga. Always like this.

In an interesting way morphemic expression of grammatical meanings is incorporation , characteristic of the languages ​​of the American Indians and Paleo-Asian languages ​​(Latin incorporatio - inclusion in one’s composition). A feature of incorporation is the agglutination of roots into a single whole, formalized by function words or affixation. An incorporated unit is a word, a phrase, and a sentence. For example, in Chukotka: na-kora-pelya-myk means: our comrades left us the deer; you-may-ny-kopra-ntyvat-y-rkyn: I’m installing a large network.

Literature

Durnovo N.N.. Selected works on the history of the Russian language. – M.: Languages ​​of Slavic culture, 2000.

Zaliznyak A.A.. Russian nominal inflection. – M.: Languages ​​of Slavic culture, 2002.

Kamchatnov A.M.. Introduction to linguistics: Tutorial. – 3rd ed. - M.: Flinta: Science, 2001.

Kochergina V.A.. Introduction to linguistics: Textbook for universities. - M.: Gaudeamus: Academic Project, 2004.

Maslov Yu.S. Introduction to linguistics: A textbook for students of philological and linguistic faculties of higher education educational institutions. – 4th ed., erased. - SPb., M.: Philological Faculty of St. Petersburg State University: Academy, 2005.

Reformatsky A.A. Introduction to linguistics. - M., 2003.

Sugar L.V.. How our language works. - M., 1978.

Selishchev A.M. Works on the Russian language. T.1. – M.: Languages ​​of Slavic culture, 2003.

Shmelev. D.N. Selected works on the Russian language. – M.: Languages ​​of Slavic culture, 2002.

Jacobson R.O. Selected works. - M., 1985.

Parts of speech.

Grammatical meaning is an abstract meaning that, determined by the belonging of a word to a certain class of words, manifests itself in the system of forms of a given word.

Lexical meanings in all languages ​​are expressed by root morphemes. Grammatical meanings (GV) in languages ​​can be expressed different ways. For all languages, grammatical methods are reduced to two types: synthetic and analytical.

Synthetic methods are called in those cases when the means of expressing GL are located inside the word and are combined with lexical ones.

Analytical methods are called in cases where the means of expressing the GL are outside the word, that is, separated from the lexical meaning.

Synthetic modes of expression

Grammatical meaning

1. Affixation– expression of civil rights using a prefix, suffix, postfix or inflection, that is, affixes. This method is widespread in Indo-European, Semitic and Turkic languages.

book – books (singular – plural)

decide – decide (non-owl. species – owl. species)

2. Internal inflection– alternation of sounds within a root to express grammatical differences. The method is common in modern Germanic, Indo-Iranian languages ​​and Russian.

(English) foot - feet (leg - legs)

sing - sang (sings - sang)

(Russian) to pick – to pick (nesov.vid – sov.vid)

collect – collect (non-sov.view – owl.view)

However, not every change in the sound composition of morphemes can be recognized as alternation. The grammatical method is that alternation that leads to a change in grammatical meaning.

Internal inflection often appears in a word in conjunction with an affixation: ask - ask (non-sov.view - sov.view); (English) child – children (child – children).

3. Accent - this is the expression of grammatical meaning due to the movement of stress in a word. Stress is a grammatical method only if it is mobile and unfixed (for example, in Russian).

cut – cut out (unsov.view – owl.view)

hands – hands (singular, Genitive– plural, nominative case)

Stress as a grammatical method can be combined with affixation:

house – houses (singular – plural)

scream – shout (non-sov.view – owl.view)

4. Repeat (reduplication) - this is a partial or complete doubling of a stem or a whole word without changing its sound composition or with its partial change to express the grammatical meaning. In Russian, repetitions sometimes appear to express the duration of an action: you work, you work, you walk, you walk. Repeating adjectives is a way of expressing superlatives: snow is white-white. The repetition may be accompanied by a prefix: the house is big, very big. Repeats are widely available in Indonesian, Vietnamese, Chinese and Japanese.

5. Suppletivism is the formation of grammatical forms of the same word from different roots or from different stems:

take – take (non-sov.view – owl.view)

person – people (singular – plural)

(English) good – better (good – best)

Supplementism is widely represented in Indo-European languages. In Russian, suppletivism is used in the formation of aspectual pairs of verbs along with affixation.

6. Incorporation (word formation) - this is a combination of roots located in a certain way to express grammatical meaning. Compounding is very developed in English, German, Indian, Iranian, Chinese, Vietnamese, and Japanese. For example, in Chinese the phrase “hao zhen” means “ a kind person", The word “hao”, finding itself in a postposition in relation to the main word, takes on a different meaning: “siyu hao” - “to do good.”

Analytical modes of expression

Grammatical meanings

1. Function words. They convey the relationships between significant words and express their grammatical meanings. Function words include articles, prepositions, postpositions, auxiliary verbs, words of degree, particles.

· Article – a function word whose grammatical functions are different. The article is not found in all languages. First of all, the article acts as an indicator of a noun. Attaching an article to unchangeable words and phrases turns them into nouns. This is observed in Germanic and Romance languages.

In some languages, such as German and French, the article is a way of expressing the categories of gender and number. In German, the article is a way of expressing relationships between words in a sentence, that is, it has the function of expressing the category of case.

· Prepositions and postpositions have the same grammatical functions: they express the relationships between words in a speech chain, clarifying the meaning of cases. A preposition is a function word that comes in position before a significant word. A postposition is a function word that comes in a position after a significant word.

In the ancient Indo-Iranian languages, prepositions and postpositions were not differentiated. Performing certain grammatical functions, they could stand in relation to a noun in both preposition and postposition. Later, a system of postpositions was formed in Indian languages. Modern Persian has a developed system of prepositions and one postposition. The system of prepositions is widely developed in English, French, German, and Indonesian; to a lesser extent - in Russian.

· Auxiliary verbs – These are function words that differ from other function words by being divided into morphemes. With the help of auxiliary verbs, complex (analytical) verb forms are formed in languages. In such forms, the main verb is the bearer of lexical meaning. It is used in an unchanged form (for example, an infinitive), and the totality of grammatical meanings (person, number, tense) is expressed by the forms of auxiliary verbs:

I will write

You you will write

He will write

The system of auxiliary verbs is widely developed in English, French, German languages, as well as in Russian, Iranian, Japanese, Chinese, Hindi.

· Words of degree. They form analytical forms of degrees of comparison of qualitative adjectives and adverbs. Degree words are present in languages ​​of various families: Indo-European, Tibetan and Polynesian languages. By origin, these are adverbs of degree (very, more) or pronominal formations (most, all).

· Functional words include particles . In grammar, they can express various modal meanings (target setting of the utterance): for example, convention (studied would) or motivation ( let honors).

2. Intonation. Intonation as a grammatical device relates not to a word, but to a phrase and is thus grammatically related to the sentence and its structure.

· First of all, intonation can create a modal form of a sentence: with the same order of the same words in many languages, it is possible to distinguish interrogative sentences from affirmative ones by intonation ( He came. - He came?), sentences expressing doubt, from sentences expressing surprise ( He came... - He... came?). These shades are expressed by gradation of pitch, intensity and tempo.

· The placement and gradation of pauses within a sentence can show the grouping of sentence members: I couldn’t work for a long time And I couldn’t work for a long time.

· Pausing can differentiate between a simple and a complex sentence: I see a face with wrinkles And I see: the face is covered in wrinkles.

· The acceleration of the tempo and the brittle normal intonation wave stand out introductory words and expressions, how they differ from members of a sentence: He might be here - He might be here.

However, not every language can easily use intonation as a grammatical device. So, for example, French intonation is very indifferent to the expression of grammar, so in French one can ask and answer with the same intonation wave.

3. Word order. The role of word order in a sentence is largely related to the use of the grammatical method of affixation in the language. The greater the role of affixation in a language, the less role word order plays. In a sentence I am reading a book Any rearrangement of words is possible without changing their grammatical meaning. Changing the order of words plays only a stylistic or logical role. This is due to the presence of affixes. In a sentence The anchor touches the chain the noun is perceived as a subject or an object depending on its position before or after the predicate; The subject comes first, the object comes last. Thus, Russian has a relatively free word order.

In a number of other languages, word order is fixed. For example, in English, French, German. Word order plays a big role in the Indonesian language. For example, the definition always follows the word being defined: guru kita (our teacher). When the word order is changed, the meaning of the statement changes: kita guru (we are teachers). Important role word order plays out in Chinese and Vietnamese.

Parts of speech

Parts of speech- these are the main lexical and grammatical classes of words into which the words of the language are distributed. The grammatical description of any language begins with clarification of the question of parts of speech. For the first time, Greek scientists established a harmonious diagram of parts of speech in relation to their language. With a slight modification, this scheme was repeated by the Romans in relation to the Latin language. Thanks to the role of the Latin language in the culture of the Middle Ages, this ancient scheme began to be used to describe the grammar of European languages, which has survived to this day. Scientists try to squeeze the grammatical categories of different languages ​​into a pre-developed ancient scheme, regardless of the real differences that exist in various languages. Individual parts of speech are determined based on lexical rather than grammatical meaning: names of objects refer to nouns, names of actions refer to verbs, etc. On the same basis, words such as first second Third, fall into numerals. However, the question of parts of speech is much more complex. IN different languages parts of speech relate to each other in different ways, and they should be defined grammatically, i.e. abstracting from the particular and the concrete. Thus, the usual scheme of parts of speech in Russian and other European languages ​​is completely unsuitable for many languages ​​of Asia and Africa. For example, in Chinese, what we define in Indo-European languages ​​as adjectives and verbs are combined under the broader category predicative. In Russian, adjectives are combined with nouns as names as opposed to verbs. The approach to defining parts of speech in Chinese differs from the corresponding approach in Russian, since words in Chinese, as a rule, do not have external, morphological features what the words of the Russian language are rich in. In order to determine which part of speech a particular word belongs to in Chinese, you should be guided by two signs:

What part of the sentence does this word serve as?

· with which categories of words this word can or cannot be combined.

Words like construction material, being at the disposal of grammar, first of all receive the meaning of one or another part of speech, which affects not only their syntactic use and the ability or inability to make certain combinations, but also their morphological properties. Therefore, for example, verbs in the Russian language are words that express, regardless of their lexical meaning, any actions or states. The noun has a completely different characteristic: its general grammatical meaning is “objectivity”. But this does not mean that nouns are only names of things or objects. On the contrary, overcoming all the diversity of things, beings, phenomena, a noun is able to represent in grammar any action and quality as “objectivity”.

Thus, parts of speech are grammatical categories(and not lexical or lexical-grammatical), the composition and arrangement of which are special in each language, and they are determined by the totality of morphological and syntactic differences and possibilities, and by no means by their lexical properties.

Being the central link in the system of morphological categories, parts of speech themselves represent a complex, ordered system. This system was studied in the most detail in the Russian language by academician V.V. Vinogradov, who identified four types of words:

independent parts of speech

· function words

modal words

· interjections

Independent parts of speech serve to designate objects, features, processes, states, etc. that exist in objective reality. In modern Russian language seven are contrasted independent parts speech: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, state category, adverb.

Noun

A noun is a part of speech that designates an object (substance) and expresses this meaning in the inflectional categories of number and case and in the non-inflectional category of gender.

Nouns name objects in the broad sense of the word: these are things (table, wall, trousers, book), persons (person, child, youth), substances (cereals, water, copper), living beings and organisms (dog, bacteria, snake , virus, fish), facts, events, phenomena (fire, performance, fear, vacation, thunderstorm). Nouns can also denote qualities, properties, actions, procedurally represented states (kindness, stupidity, blueness, running, decision, hustle).

Based on semantic characteristics, nouns are divided into lexical-grammatical categories . First of all, common and proper nouns are distinguished. Names common nouns serve as generalized names for homogeneous objects (furniture, computer, mountain). Names own serve as the names of individual objects isolated from a number of homogeneous ones (Ural, Tatyana, Mars, Volga). The boundary between proper names and common nouns is unstable and fluid. Common nouns easily become proper names, nicknames and nicknames (the dog Sharik, the city of Orel).

There are four types of common nouns: concrete, abstract, real and collective.

Specific nouns are words that name things, persons, facts and phenomena of reality. They can be presented separately and counted: pencil, engineer, duel. Varieties of concrete nouns include:

· personal (student, father, sister);

· objects (book, carpet, stone);

single (pearl, fluff, snowflake);

· event-related (hurricane, session, revolution).

Most concrete nouns have singular and plural forms.

Distracted(abstract) nouns are words that name abstract concepts, properties, qualities, actions and states: glory, laughter, good, proximity, travel, swimming. Most abstract nouns are made up of words motivated by adjectives and verbs (curvature, cowardice, massage, competition). A minority of abstract nouns are unmotivated words: trouble, mind, fear, comfort, sadness. Abstract nouns usually do not have a plural form.

Nouns real substances are called:

· food products(flour, sugar, fat);

· materials (gypsum, cement);

· types of fabrics (velvet, satin);

· fossil materials, metals (iron, coal, tin);

· chemical elements(uranium, aspirin);

· agricultural crops (oats, potatoes, wheat).

The meaning of materiality in such nouns is expressed only lexically. Real nouns are usually used either only in the singular, or only in plural: honey, tea; perfume, cream. If a material noun, usually used in the singular, takes the plural form, it changes lexical meaning: cereal – whole or crushed grain; cereals – different types of cereals.

Collective nouns are words that name a collection of homogeneous objects. The meaning of collectiveness in such nouns is usually expressed using special suffixes: -stv (students), -j (beast), -ot (poor). With a broad understanding of collectiveness, similar nouns can also include words that name a collection of objects: tops, small fry, trash, furniture. Such words express collectiveness lexically, but not word-formatively. Distinctive feature All collective nouns are that they do not form plural forms.