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Modern poetic techniques. Literary and poetic devices

Lexical devices of modern poetry. Realities, vernacular, jargon, prosaisms, archaisms, terms. Stylization: historical stylization and historical poetry.
Examples of lexical devices. Modern poetic devices, part 5.

Poetic dictionary.

Modern poetic devices, part 5

Poetry is impossible without figurative speech, i.e. speech is lively (not clerical), bright, expressive, and has aesthetic value. The selection of vocabulary plays a big role in creating figurative speech, i.e. a specific layer of words from the entire vast context of the language, a layer that is organically suitable for fulfilling the author’s task when writing a specific work. You should not assume that it does not matter what vocabulary and in what context is used in poems: each layer of language has its own coloring and its own effect when used, especially if words from different layers of vocabulary are combined in the context. This is what they are based on lexical devices in poetry - the conscious use of certain layers of language in works and the variation of their combinations in context.
Each poet above the average level has his own individual author's style, a special creative style - this is what distinguishes him even among those who write in the same vein and makes him recognizable. Lexical devices typical for a particular author greatly help this recognition and individuality.
In poetry, the following lexical devices are used to create expression::

Realities

Realities are purely modern life concepts, signs of everyday life, cultural facts, political life, significant recent events, etc.; a lexical device that helps to establish a close emotional connection between the author and the contemporary reader:

Where the days melt away at stops.
Where is not “Stop tap”, but “Delete”.
(Alexey Torkhov)

The word “Delete” mentioned in this example is known to absolutely all computer users, which includes the majority of poetry fans.

Vernacular.

Colloquialism is a lexical device based on the use of folk colloquial words and expressions that impart a character of ease and rough humor:

Yes, good Polyakov, laziness is our mother.
But there is no limit to a clever word.
For the horse mackerel of all Taurida to understand?
He chews his own food, biting every now and then.
(Stanislav Minakov)

Poets love to inadvertently twist a colloquial expression into the context of high style. When it is appropriate for the tone, mood of the work and content, the lexical device of using vernaculars emphasizes the natural flow colloquial speech. However, unfortunately, the use of vernacular and vulgarisms - especially in parodies and humorous works - is often “overdone”, trying to “be closer to the people.” It looks tasteless and primitive.

Local color.

Local flavor - the introduction of elements characterizing local life, customs, nature, etc., including characteristic local words.
“Whose words are combined into speech like an amber low” (Stanislav Minakov) - the Ukrainian word “low” (beads, necklace) is used here.

At least for the duration of the verse,
The movements of a living thing across the sky, across the sky,
Let us be saved from the powerful embrace of sin,
Leaving the day - its anger and malice.
(Ibid.)

Ukrainian “zrada” means “treason, betrayal.”

I had it for myself. And she grew up big.
And you appeared, so great -
knocked me off my thoughts, off my feet, off my path and off my pantalyk.
And so I live, with a torn soul.
(Elena Buevich)

Here the author uses a Ukrainian phraseological unit, which also has a colloquial sound and means “to confuse.” Colloquialism, a lively and expressive word, very inherent in everyday Ukrainian speech, moreover, in the same series of enumerations with a literal rather than figurative meaning (knock down), contributes to the strong expressive coloring of this piercing lyrical poem.
The Russian lyrics of Ukraine are very characterized by the use of local realities and Ukrainianisms (“surzhikov” words formed from a Russian root in Ukrainian grammatical rules, or words that sound the same in both languages, but have accents in different places):

Oh, it’s fun on the river!
Dangled a towel
Until the pimply water - the hair of the hands - willows A...
And in rye stripes -
Sets hair on fire
A dahlia flame on a steep forehead!
(Igor Litvinenko)

The lexical device of local color can help achieve several goals at once: creating spiritual closeness with readers - representatives of a given linguistic community that uses these realities; introduction of the reader - a native of other places into a specific language environment, familiarization with interesting features speech in a given area, which allows you to “plunge into live speech”; and also - sometimes - creating a light comic effect - for example, in recent years in Russian poetry in Ukraine there has been a clearly visible tendency to write satirical or political poetry in the so-called “Ukr-Rus” (Mikhail Perchenko’s term). Those. combine lines in Russian and Ukrainian in one poem, as well as sentences of a mixed type (with words from two languages and with the author’s new formations in Surzhik).

Ukrainomovny, do not shout the words Rus!
Russian-speaking, don’t be afraid and don’t be afraid!
I put my shoulders under the future.
Yes, I undertake to recreate unity:
Rus', Ukraine, Belarus –
Slavic unity of strength and speech.
(Mikhail Perchenko “Ukr-Russian language”)

“Don’t blurt out” - in Ukrainian “don’t be afraid”, “maybutne” - “future”.

Jargonisms.

Jargons are words from the lexical layer used by different social groups: youth, criminal elements, social lower classes, etc.

This is such a whim. Such a fool.
Doesn't let you sleep, crushes you like a dose.
I would like to become a horse. Dear Sivka-Burka.
And rush you away from mirrors and prose.
(Alexey Torkhov)

Goose, shout, goose, shout.
Cheerful, shout, little gander!
While the owner, growing gloomy towards night,
I didn't hook you.
Until the prunes hit the goose...
(Stanislav Minakov)

The lexical technique of using jargon in these specific cases clearly gives the poems a strong modern effect, although - I warn you - of course, there is always the danger of “overplaying”, of using too much, which can damage the impression of the work.

Prosaisms.

Prosaisms are expressions from everyday, clerical, scientific and other prosaic vocabulary, used in a poem as externally foreign elements, but with an internal motivation of validity and plot integrity:

“I asked every morning about the uselessness of the day” (Elena Morozova), “I signed the landscape with a turquoise willow branch, / So it’s March redeemed my travel ticket until spring" (Lyudmila Nekrasovskaya). The lexical technique of using prosaisms requires the author to have a developed sense of language and the ability to combine it with high style. For an author who does not possess these properties, arbitrarily introduced prosaisms reduce the high sound and give the situation a touch of absurdity and comedy, even when we are talking about romantic and pathetic things. More details here: .

Stylization.

Stylization is the reproduction of the features of the style of another era, literary movement, writing style, features of the language of a particular social class or nationality:

On the! The hammer struck his right hand on the table,
And the face of the rival intellectual was blown away.
And what? We recently tucked into our belts
Two candidates of science from apartments eight and thirty!..
(Stanislav Minakov)

It seems to us like a hoof shot:
“Tug-taritam. Tug-taritam."
(Svetlana Skorik)

And this is an excerpt from my poem-dilogy “Trizna”, from the cycle “Polovchanka”. I used stylization for Turkic languages and at the same time for the clatter of horse hooves (although the latter is already a technique of onomatopoeia).

In this regard, it is appropriate to recall the film “The Diamond Arm”, where actor Andrei Mironov very similarly imitates English language, without uttering a single phrase in English.

A common technique in plot poetry is historical stylization.
A good example of historical stylization is Lyudmila Nekrasovskaya’s poem “The Storehouse of Fire,” which is plot-related to the ban on love for the priestesses serving the Fire Temple. To the heroine of the poem - high priestess temple - you have to make a life choice: either a calling, or finding a loved one, moreover, with the help of bribery. Bringing into the plot problems and ideas inherent in modern times, without interfering with the description historical era, helps the author’s main idea - to consider in an original way situations encountered in life:

The Storage of Fire is your path.
Don't you know, O Great One,
What is it that you are not allowed to love?
If the wrath of your angry gods,
Like the gardener, it foretells death,
I prefer novices to love,
Because I can have a family with her.

However, the technique of historical stylization does not require the author to have good knowledge of historical realities, settings, culture, or reproduction of details of events, therefore such poetry should be distinguished from historical poetry as such.

The crowd was streaming into the Ides of March.
Look, Spurinna: the Ides have begun!
Pompey laughs in the statue like an idol:
Oh, Caesar, you don’t value your life!

But Caesar was not fit to be a coward,
And if death only happens once,
Then let her secretly prepare a sting,
And the one to whom it is appointed will betray.

Not every Guy will cherish Brutus, -
Gaius Cassius and Gaius Casca do not count here.
Your child at the last minute
The thread of life will be cut off by betrayal...
(Yuri Gridasov “Caesar. Finale”)

In this case, this is purely historical poetry, considering the issue of betrayal of loved ones - a universal human question and inherent in any historical period - from the height of a universal human approach and with a very good knowledge of this particular historical era.

Archaisms.

Archaisms - obsolete and old words grammatical forms, mainly Slavicisms. The lexical technique of using archaisms is used in historical poetry and in plot poetry - in the case of historical stylization - to convey the flavor of the era, and in high-style lyrics - to enhance solemnity:

Pray, little one, pray to the number!
Lean toward the numbers with your shaky neck!
Keep your eyes open!.. But don't miss it
that hour, that moment when Khodyna
will lay “things fingers”
on the strings and in the feather grass squad
will shake the “scarlet shields”.
(Stanislav Minakov)

When using archaisms in an ordinary lyrical work that is not ironic or romantic, the author must coordinate them with the lexical context, otherwise these words will look ridiculous and alien, and next to prosaisms and jargon, they will simply be funny. Of course, authors with a developed sense of language completely organically combine archaisms and jargons or colloquialisms side by side without negative consequences and without even a hint of irony. But sometimes they deliberately organize incongruous juxtapositions in order to achieve an ironic sound:

Should I say more? My friend, you are quite a penguin.
(Ibid.)

And two maternity mothers
carrying chickens from the store,
and chickens prophetic fingers
sticking out, pointing up at the sky,
they threaten from bags and string bags.
(Ibid.)

Here, the colloquial phrase “maternity mothers” and prosaic realities (“chickens”, “shop”, “bags and string bags”) are side by side with the archaic phrase “prophetic fingers” (in combination with the emotionally charged verb “threaten”), which gives a magnificent ironic shade the entire work declared as “poetry”.

Terms.

Terms are a narrowly professional lexical layer, usually used only by representatives of a particular profession in communication with each other. Terms can be mathematical, medical, computer, philological, etc., etc. The lexical method of using terms is used for “professional flavor” (my expression, by analogy with the concept of “local flavor”), as well as for the effect of modernity or irony.

Your copyright is protected
In all living languages.
(Natalia Belchenko)

Where is the chip that indelibly stores in me
A code of love that protects a child's soul...
(Ibid.)

And you need an audit of your soul
Have time to finish before the New Year.
Passive with active lead to zero
Showing all your naivety,
When in the passive: I love you,
In the asset: without hope of reciprocity.
(Lyudmila Nekrasovskaya)

And the doctor, subject to autumn,
Writes recipes to everyone:
“A moment of beauty. Three drops of happiness.
Glass of dawn. Leaf fall."
(Ibid.)

Pasta.

Macaroniisms are foreign words and catchphrases, inserted into the text.

(My term is derived from the concept of “macaronic poetry” by A. Kvyatkovsky - comic or satirical poetry sprinkled with foreign vocabulary for a comic effect.) The lexical device of using macaroonisms is characterized by the notation foreign words and expressions both in Latin letters, in their original form, and using the Russian alphabet. Nowadays, a lexical device based on the use of macaroonisms is not always used for irony - on the contrary, it is used to increase tension in emotional moments or in the context of “smart”, intellectual words used for the sake of modernity of sound: “I don’t argue, love story strange. Especially – up close” (Stanislav Minakov). In this case, the relevance of macaroonism is also due to the internal rhyme: dispute yu – love story (love store And).

Don't trust the pillars and don't trust the scribes:
at finita la comedia sunset
like a celestial being you are mortal, like a beast
vulnerable, and bright, like an emperor.
(Irina Ivanchenko)

A patch of sand and ant traffic.
(Gennady Semenchenko)

And Raikhelson sonata. CD
The honey from the melodies bothers my chest...
(Lyudmila Nekrasovskaya)

Very great importance in the creation of figurative poetic works with an original, unique author's sound, the author's neologisms have. This is such an important issue that it requires detailed, comprehensive consideration in a separate article.

S. I. Skorik. School of Poses, 2012.

Allegory

Allegory is the expression of abstract concepts through concrete artistic images.

Examples of allegory:

The stupid and stubborn are often called the Donkey, the coward - the Hare, the cunning - the Fox.

Alliteration (sound writing)

Alliteration (sound writing) is the repetition of identical or homogeneous consonants in a verse, giving it a special sound expressiveness (in versification). In this case, the high frequency of these sounds in a relatively small speech area is of great importance.

However, if entire words or word forms are repeated, as a rule, we are not talking about alliteration. Alliteration is characterized by irregular repetition of sounds, and this is precisely the main feature of this literary device.

Alliteration differs from rhyme primarily in that the repeating sounds are not concentrated at the beginning and end of the line, but are absolutely derivative, albeit with high frequency. The second difference is the fact that, as a rule, consonant sounds are alliterated. The main functions of the literary device of alliteration include onomatopoeia and the subordination of the semantics of words to associations that evoke sounds in humans.

Examples of alliteration:

"Where the grove neighs, guns neigh."

"About a hundred years
grow
we don't need old age.
Year to year
grow
our vigor.
Praise,
hammer and verse,
land of youth."

(V.V. Mayakovsky)

Anaphora

Repeating words, phrases, or combinations of sounds at the beginning of a sentence, line, or paragraph.

For example :

« Not intentionally the winds were blowing,

Not intentionally there was a thunderstorm"

(S. Yesenin).

Black ogling the girl

Black maned horse!

(M. Lermontov)

Quite often, anaphora, as a literary device, forms a symbiosis with such a literary device as gradation, that is, an increase emotional nature words in the text.

For example :

“Cattle die, a friend dies, a man himself dies.”

Antithesis (opposition)

Antithesis (or opposition) is a comparison of words or phrases that are sharply different or opposite in meaning.

Antithesis makes it possible to make a particularly strong impression on the reader, to convey to him the strong excitement of the author due to the rapid change of concepts of opposite meanings used in the text of the poem. Also, opposing emotions, feelings and experiences of the author or his hero can be used as an object of opposition.

Examples of antithesis:

I swear first on the day of creation, I swear by it last in the afternoon (M. Lermontov).

Who was nothing, he will become everyone.

Antonomasia

Antonomasia - means of expression, when used, the author uses a proper name instead of a common noun to figuratively reveal the character’s character.

Examples of antonomasia:

He is Othello (instead of "He is very jealous")

A stingy person is often called Plyushkin, an empty dreamer - Manilov, a man with excessive ambitions - Napoleon, etc.

Apostrophe, address

Assonance

Assonance is a special literary device that consists of repeating vowel sounds in a particular statement. This is the main difference between assonance and alliteration, where consonant sounds are repeated. There are two slightly different uses of assonance.

1) Assonance is used as an original tool that gives literary text, especially poetic, has a special flavor. For example :

Our ears are on top of our heads,
A little morning the guns lit up
And the forests are blue tops -
The French are right there.

(M.Yu. Lermontov)

2) Assonance is widely used to create imprecise rhyme. For example, “hammer city”, “incomparable princess”.

One of the textbook examples of the use of both rhyme and assonance in one quatrain is an excerpt from the poetic work of V. Mayakovsky:

I won’t turn into Tolstoy, but into a fat man -
I eat, I write, I’m a fool from the heat.
Who hasn't philosophized over the sea?
Water.

Exclamation

An exclamation can appear anywhere in a work of poetry, but, as a rule, authors use it to intonationally highlight particularly emotional moments in the verse. At the same time, the author focuses the reader’s attention on the moment that particularly excited him, telling him his experiences and feelings.

Hyperbola

Hyperbole is a figurative expression containing an exorbitant exaggeration of the size, strength, or significance of an object or phenomenon.

Example of a hyperbole:

Some houses are as long as the stars, others as long as the moon; baobabs to the skies (Mayakovsky).

Inversion

From lat. inversio - permutation.

Changing the traditional order of words in a sentence to give the phrase a more expressive shade, intonation highlighting of a word.

Inversion examples:

The lonely sail is white
In the blue sea fog... (M.Yu. Lermontov)

The traditional order requires a different structure: A lonely sail is white in the blue fog of the sea. But this will no longer be Lermontov or his great creation.

Another great Russian poet Pushkin considered inversion one of the main figures poetic speech, and often the poet used not only contact, but also distance inversion, when, when rearranging words, other words are wedged between them: “An old man obedient to Perun alone...”.

Inversion in poetic texts performs an accent or semantic function, a rhythm-forming function for building a poetic text, as well as the function of creating a verbal-figurative picture. In prose works, inversion serves to place logical stresses, to express the author’s attitude towards the characters and to convey their emotional state.

Irony

Irony is a powerful means of expression that has a hint of mockery, sometimes slight mockery. When using irony, the author uses words with opposite meanings so that the reader himself guesses about the true properties of the described object, object or action.

Pun

A play on words. A witty expression, a joke based on the use of words that sound similar but have different meanings or different meanings one word.

Examples of puns in literature:

A year for three clicks for you on the forehead,
Give me some boiled food spelt.
(A.S. Pushkin)

And previously served me poem,
Broken string, poem.
(D.D. Minaev)

Spring will drive anyone crazy. Ice - and that got under way.
(E. Meek)

Litotes

The opposite of hyperbole, a figurative expression containing an exorbitant understatement of the size, strength, or significance of any object or phenomenon.

Example of litotes:

The horse is led by the bridle by a peasant in big boots, a short sheepskin coat, and large mittens... and he himself from marigold! (Nekrasov)

Metaphor

Metaphor is the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense based on some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison. Metaphor is based on similarity or resemblance.

Transferring the properties of one object or phenomenon to another based on their similarity.

Examples of metaphors:

Sea problems.

Eyes are burning.

Boiling wish .

Noon was burning.

Metonymy

Examples of metonymy:

All flags will be visiting us.

(here flags replace countries).

I'm three dishes ate.

(here the plate replaces the food).

Address, apostrophe

Oxymoron

A deliberate combination of contradictory concepts.

Look, she it's fun to be sad

Such elegantly naked

(A. Akhmatova)

Personification

Personification is transference human feelings, thoughts and speech on inanimate objects and phenomena, as well as on animals.

These signs are selected according to the same principle as when using metaphor. Ultimately, the reader has a special perception of the described object, in which the inanimate object has the image of a certain living being or is endowed with qualities inherent in living beings.

Impersonation examples:

What, a dense forest,

Got thoughtful,
Sadness dark
Foggy?

(A.V. Koltsov)

Be careful of the wind
From the gate came out,

Knocked through the window,
Ran on the roof...

(M.V.Isakovsky)

Parcellation

Parcellation is syntactic device, in which the sentence is intonationally divided into independent segments and stands out in writing as independent sentences.

Parcelation example:

“He went too. To the store. Buy cigarettes” (Shukshin).

Periphrase

A paraphrase is an expression that conveys the meaning of another expression or word in a descriptive form.

Examples of paraphrase:

King of beasts(instead of a lion)
Mother of Russian rivers(instead of Volga)

Pleonasm

Verbosity, the use of logically unnecessary words.

Examples of pleonasm in everyday life:

In May month(suffice it to say: in May).

Local aborigine (suffice it to say: aborigine).

White albino (suffice it to say: albino).

I was there personally(suffice it to say: I was there).

In literature, pleonasm is often used as a stylistic device, a means of expression.

For example:

Sadness and melancholy.

Sea ocean.

Psychologism

An in-depth depiction of the hero’s mental and emotional experiences.

Refrain

A repeated verse or group of verses at the end of a song verse. When a refrain extends to an entire stanza, it is usually called a chorus.

A rhetorical question

A sentence in the form of a question to which no answer is expected.

Example:

Or is it new for us to argue with Europe?

Or is the Russian unaccustomed to victories?

(A.S. Pushkin)

Rhetorical appeal

An appeal addressed to an abstract concept, an inanimate object, an absent person. A way to enhance the expressiveness of speech, to express an attitude towards a particular person or object.

Example:

Rus! where are you going?

(N.V. Gogol)

Comparisons

Comparison is one of the expressive techniques, when used, certain properties that are most characteristic of an object or process are revealed through similar qualities of another object or process. In this case, such an analogy is drawn so that the object whose properties are used in comparison is better known than the object described by the author. Also, inanimate objects, as a rule, are compared with animate ones, and the abstract or spiritual with the material.

Comparison example:

then my life sang - howled -

Buzzed - like the autumn surf –

And she cried to herself.

(M. Tsvetaeva)

Symbol

Symbol- an object or word that conventionally expresses the essence of a phenomenon.

The symbol contains figurative meaning, and in this way it is close to metaphor. However, this closeness is relative. Symbol contains a certain secret, a hint that allows one to only guess what is meant, what the poet wanted to say. The interpretation of a symbol is possible not so much by reason as by intuition and feeling. The images created by symbolist writers have their own characteristics; they have a two-dimensional structure. In the foreground - a certain phenomenon and real details, in the second (hidden) plane - inner world the lyrical hero, his visions, memories, pictures born of his imagination.

Examples of symbols:

dawn, morning - symbols of youth, the beginning of life;

night is a symbol of death, the end of life;

snow is a symbol of cold, cold feeling, alienation.

Synecdoche

Replacing the name of an object or phenomenon with the name of a part of this object or phenomenon. In short, replacing the name of a whole with the name of a part of that whole.

Examples of synecdoche:

Native hearth (instead of “home”).

Floats sail (instead of “a sailboat is sailing”).

“...and it was heard until dawn,
how he rejoiced Frenchman..." (Lermontov)

(here “French” instead of “French soldiers”).

Tautology

Repeating in other words what has already been said, and therefore not containing new information.

Examples:

Car tires are tires for a car.

We have united as one.

Trope

A trope is an expression or word used by the author in a figurative, allegorical sense. Thanks to the use of tropes, the author gives the described object or process a vivid characteristic that evokes certain associations in the reader and, as a result, a more acute emotional reaction.

Types of trails:

metaphor, allegory, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, irony.

Default

Silence is a stylistic device in which the expression of a thought remains unfinished, is limited to a hint, and the speech that has begun is interrupted in anticipation of the reader’s guess; the speaker seems to announce that he will not talk about things that do not require detailed or additional explanation. Often the stylistic effect of silence is that unexpectedly interrupted speech is complemented by an expressive gesture.

Default examples:

This fable could be explained more -

Yes, so as not to irritate the geese...

Gain (gradation)

Gradation (or gain) is a series homogeneous words or expressions (images, comparisons, metaphors, etc.) that consistently intensify, increase or, conversely, reduce the semantic or emotional significance of the conveyed feelings, the expressed thought or the described event.

Example of ascending gradation:

Not I'm sorry Not I'm calling Not I'm crying...

(S. Yesenin)

In sweetly misty care

Not an hour, not a day, not a year will leave.

(E. Baratynsky)

Example of descending gradation:

He promises him half the world, and France only for himself.

Euphemism

A neutral word or expression that is used in conversation to replace other expressions that are considered indecent or inappropriate in a given case.

Examples:

I'm going to powder my nose (instead of going to the toilet).

He was asked to leave the restaurant (instead, He was kicked out).

Epithet

A figurative definition of an object, action, process, event. An epithet is a comparison. Grammatically, an epithet is most often an adjective. However, other parts of speech can also be used, for example, numerals, nouns or verbs.

Examples of epithets:

velvet leather, crystal ringing

Epiphora

Repeating the same word at the end of adjacent segments of speech. The opposite of anaphora, in which words are repeated at the beginning of a sentence, line, or paragraph.

Example:

“Scallops, all scallops: a cape from scallops, on the sleeves scallops, Epaulettes from scallops..." (N.V.Gogol).

What makes fiction different from other types of texts? If you think that this is a plot, then you are mistaken, because lyric poetry is a fundamentally “plotless” area of literature, and prose is often plotless (for example, a prose poem). Initial “entertainment” is also not a criterion, since in different eras Fiction performed functions that were very far from entertainment (and even the opposite of it).

“Artistic techniques in literature are, perhaps, the main attribute that characterizes fiction.”

Why are artistic techniques needed?

Techniques in literature are intended to give the text

various expressive qualities,
originality,
identify the author’s attitude to what is written,
and also to convey some hidden meanings and connections between parts of the text.

At the same time, outwardly no new information seems to be introduced into the text, because main role play various ways combinations of words and parts of phrases.

Artistic techniques in literature are usually divided into two categories:

trails,
figures.

A trope is the use of a word in an allegorical, figurative sense. The most common trails:

metaphor,
metonymy,
synecdoche.

Figures are ways of syntactically organizing sentences that differ from the standard arrangement of words and give the text one or another additional meaning. Examples of figures include

antithesis (opposition),
internal rhyme,
isocolon (rhythmic and syntactic similarity of parts of the text).

But there is no clear boundary between figures and paths. Techniques such as

comparison,
hyperbola,
litotes, etc.

Literary devices and the emergence of literature

Most artistic techniques generally originate from primitive

religious ideas,
will accept
superstitions

The same can be said about literary devices. And here the distinction between tropes and figures takes on a new meaning.

The trails are directly related to ancient magical beliefs and rituals. First of all, this is the imposition of a taboo on

name of the item,
animal,
pronouncing a person's name.

It was believed that when designating a bear by its direct name, one could bring it upon the one who pronounces this word. This is how they appeared

metonymy,
synecdoche

(bear – “brown”, “muzzle”, wolf – “gray”, etc.). These are euphemisms (“decent” replacement for an obscene concept) and dysphemisms (“obscene” designation of a neutral concept). The first is also associated with a system of taboos on certain concepts (for example, the designation of genital organs), and the prototypes of the second were originally used to avoid the evil eye (according to the ideas of the ancients) or to etiquettely humiliate the named object (for example, oneself before a deity or a representative of a higher class). Over time, religious and social ideas were “debunked” and subjected to a kind of profanation (that is, the removal of sacred status), and paths began to play an exclusively aesthetic role.

The figures appear to have a more “mundane” origin. They could serve the purpose of memorizing complex speech formulas:

rules
laws,
scientific definitions.

Similar techniques are still used in children's educational literature, as well as in advertising. And their most important function is rhetorical: to draw increased public attention to the content of the text by deliberately “violating” strict speech norms. These are

rhetorical questions
rhetorical exclamations
rhetorical appeals.

“The prototype of fiction in the modern sense of the word were prayers and spells, ritual chants, as well as speeches of ancient orators.”

Many centuries have passed, the “magic” formulas have lost their power, but in the subconscious and emotional level they continue to influence humans using our inner understanding of harmony and order.

Video: Visual and expressive means in literature

MODERN POETIC TECHNIQUES
ALLUSION

Allusion - artistic technique of quotation using the link to ok known fact or a person, a proverb, a saying, a quotation from a well-known work, the use of a popular expression in a poem.

Examples of allusion:

So will lie on the sleepers in Karenin style

Kyiv is like a Requiem for our separations.

(Irina Ivanchenko)

And lightning will come,

Like music, without words.

Like an impressionist

Into the grass, where you and breakfast are.

(Natalia Belchenko)

The last example of allusion plays on the title of the painting “Lunch on the Grass” by the French impressionist artist Claude Monet.

As you can see, citation often occurs in the form of comparison, although this is not necessary: widely famous images, parts of proverbs can naturally interspersed into the text, thus referring to its source and evoking lasting associations. Very often they are used as a joke:

What a quixote

did we forget there?

(Marina Matveeva)

The name used in this allusion is literary hero Cervantes Don Quixote, which in this case, softening the abusive expression “what the hell” (or “gosh”), gives the whole sentence an ironic connotation.

The artistic device of allusion is in very wide use among all modern “living classics”, since the original masters of words have always loved to conduct a dialogue with other poets - predecessors and contemporaries. Allusion is an artistic technique that is also popular among the intellectual reader, since it involves his memory and sense of linguistic harmony - in fact, the “center of aesthetic pleasure.”

However, all good things should be in moderation. An excessive abundance of allusions in a poem leads to a darkening of the meaning, distracts from the stated theme and actually turns the work into a collection beautiful phrases, a trinket devoid of original interesting thoughts. In such poems, allusion under the guise of demonstrating the author's erudition is intended to hide the fact that he has absolutely nothing to say.

APPLICATION

Application - citation technique, artistic technique inclusion in the text of a poem of a direct quotation or a quotation in a slightly modified form. The line with a direct quotation is not put in quotation marks, but is organically included in the text of the poem, often serving as a supporting line from which some conclusions about the stated thought follow, and often not supporting, but on the contrary, refuting the quote. In such cases, direct quotation must be used by everyone. famous work famous classic or proverb. Otherwise, if the quotation is direct and belongs to a not very well-known author, it must first be placed as an epigraph before the poem, always indicating who it belongs to.

Application examples:

An example of an application as a direct quotation technique. Based on a stanza in a poem by Evgeny Pugachev

And lost at the bottom

Love's last coin...

Of course, with Her there is no need for light,

But is there still light in me? –

Tatyana Gordienko places a line from there as an epigraph above her eight-line line:

But is there still light in me...

E. Pugachev

and ends his poem with a direct quotation, refuting the idea embedded in it:

"But is there still light in me..."

Or maybe there is no need for light?

The last coin shines!

At least at the very bottom.

An example of an application as a modified citation technique:

Put a leash on my mouth,

you will pull the Word by the melodious tongue.

(Irina Ivanchenko)

This applique plays on the saying “You can’t put a scarf on someone else’s mouth.”

In the application by Natalia Belchenko “ In a china shop eternal meaning elephant" the comparison proverb “like a bull in a china shop” is played on, and in Yuri Kaplan’s appliqué “ Later Danube delta sleeves" - the expression "carelessly."

Application by Irina Ivanchenko “Stop, strange driver, / my wandering around the countries, / mine walking in the dark"is based on the playful use of the titles of the works - “Walking across Three Seas” by Afanasy Nikitin and “Walking Through Torment” by Alexei Tolstoy.

Usually, the quotation included in the appliqué actually has no direct relation to the subject discussed in the poem, and is included deliberately - as a joke. Therefore, it should not be confused with contamination (see below). The artistic technique of appliqué is very popular among well-read readers, as it engages their sense of subtle irony, imagination, and creative thinking.

In many ways, it was precisely because of the artistic technique of applique - as a parody of the previous style of traditional poetry - in the 60s and 70s of the twentieth century. new directions grew - neomodernism, underground and conceptualism.

It is appropriate to recall here such a type of poetic error as phraseological confusion, when the beginning of one phraseological turn unintentionally, out of ignorance, connects with the ending of another. This causes a completely unintended and undesirable humorous effect in a pathetic or emotional work.

Application of the artistic technique of appliqué testifies to a developed sense of language, since it requires the author to be able to play with the expression used, its sound, literal and figurative meanings.

CONTAMINATION

Contamination as an artistic technique of quotation- inclusion famous expression into the text of the poem not in the form of a quotation, but as an organically appropriate detail in this case.

Examples of contamination.

Mysterious digital codes

I want to put it in an iron verse...

(Natalia Belchenko)

This example of contamination goes back to Lermontov: “And boldly throw an iron verse into their eyes, / Doused with bitterness and anger.”

Not because it is necessary

But because next to him is another.

(L. Nekrasovskaya)

Compare this example of contamination with Innokenty Annensky: “Not because it makes it light, / But because there is no need for light with it.”

Get some ink and cry still...

It’s already March and there’s still no peace!

Compare this example contamination and its literary source– B. Pasternak: “February. Get some ink and cry!..”

Is it memento mori?! What is it, uncle, memento,

when there are five sixes in your hand, and Vaska is in!

(Stanislav Minakov)

– example of contamination in the description card game.

Contamination as a word creation and graphic device- combining several words into one.

My year! My tree! (S. Kirsanov) Significant whistling (Stanislav Minakov) - i.e. “whistle God knows what.”

What are you whispering, what are you whispering,

Branch-good-branch-evil?

Will I perish? barking,

Without crossing the Sabbath?

Particularly interesting here are the last two examples of contamination, which are graphic techniques, i.e. techniques that promote artistic expression thanks to the deliberate change in the accepted spelling of words and the distortion of their standard form. The “Whisper” contamination is based on the intersection of two “sh” and the cutting off of the matching sound: whisper shush sh then you. Such a connection is a method using continuous writing to convey an indistinct muttering, a whisper in which individual words are difficult to distinguish, one can hear one dull shu-shu-shu. The verb “zavo-zalaya” is a playful author’s neologism. It is formed by writing together (but with a hyphen) two different verbs, cutting off the ending of the first of them. An unexpected and very funny effect.

REMINISCENCE

Reminiscence (lat. reminiscentia, memory) is a citation technique, an artistic device in which the author reproduces rhythmic-syntactic structures from someone else’s poem.

Example of reminiscence

And we ourselves are still in good health,

And our children go to school in the morning

Along Kirov Street, Voykov Street,

Along Via Sacco-Vanceti.

(Konstantin Simonov)

Using a stanza from the classic of Soviet literature Konstantin Simonov, but describing the junction of the era of stagnation with the period of perestroika, when “new thinking” was introduced with difficulty, Yuri Kaplan writes:

After all, we ourselves are still in frail health,

And our children still go to school

Along Zhdanov and Voroshilov streets

And even on Brezhnev Square.

INTERTEXT

Intertext is an artistic technique in postmodernism, which consists in the implicit, hidden conscious construction by the author of his entire work on other people’s quotes or images of painting, music, cinema, theater and on reminiscences of other people’s texts that require solving. In this case, the quotation ceases to play the role of additional information, a reference to something, but, recalling the original meaning, serves to express a different meaning in a new context, sets dialogism, polyphony and makes the text open for multidimensional reader reading and understanding.

Osip Mandelstam wrote: “A quotation is not an extract. The quotation is a cicada - it is incessant." Anna Akhmatova expressed herself this way about the essence of twentieth-century poetry: “But perhaps poetry itself is One magnificent quote.” However, it is precisely the artistic technique of “intertext” that tends to suffer from the multidimensionality of supposedly embedded meanings and the deliberate demonstration of the author’s erudition in the real absence of any global, original differences the author's thoughts from the thoughts present in the quote. Thus, this artistic technique may completely lose its meaning, since it ceases to be a technique and turns into its imitation. What is destructive for a poem that is overly replete with allusions creates fertile ground for intertexts flourishing in postmodernism, which no longer fulfill the role of dialogue and polyphony, because dialogue cannot be based on one-dimensional replicas laid down in one mental plane, only confirming what was known and before that. Thus, the declared “polyphony” gradually slides into literary cacophony.

An example of intertext in postmodernism

Ismar killed Hippomedon, Leades killed Eteocles...

note: different, not that, because: Polyneices and Eteocles

(Oedipal vision) in the morning they are fortunately dead, shining with the stones of their wrists,

This is the news about the onset of the last winter

in the groves of rare olives outside the black color, where it seems.

Forget. White stones or teeth in a dream, or lilies

tart falls in the ice of pebbles through the hair of displacement.

But Amphidiac kills Parthenopeus. However,

according to sources smoldering on both rivers from the archive,

It was not he who killed Partenopeus, but a certain Periclymenes, the son of Poseidon.

Oh, just the names!.. that also needs to be taken into account

in the light of future events rolling like millstones across the plain.

Hollow Troy with a parched Helen inside. Troy, where

Elena child-and-soldier-and-peas - who built your walls

to the children's city of sore throat? Sisters in white coats

under which there is nothing like the heart of ashmavedha,

bright mercury at the barrier of dreams known to everyone.

Meanwhile, Melanippus - Tydia is wounded in the stomach.

(Arkady Dragomoshchenko. Excerpt from “Theban” Flashback”)

There is no need to quote the entire text, since even this passage shows what awaits the reader ahead.

Thus, when using artistic methods of quotation, it is necessary to observe the measure so that the “pendulum effect” does not result, as with the direction of “poetry for poetry”, when at first it was absolutized and brought to a complete separation from life, from reality, and later historical periods– precisely because of this – they were completely eliminated from the “ship of modernity”.

Literary and poetic devices

Allegory

Allegory is the expression of abstract concepts through concrete artistic images.

Examples of allegory:

The stupid and stubborn are often called the Donkey, the coward - the Hare, the cunning - the Fox.

Alliteration (sound writing)

Examples of alliteration:

"Where the grove neighs, guns neigh."

"About a hundred years
grow
we don't need old age.
Year to year
grow
our vigor.
Praise,
hammer and verse,
land of youth."

(V.V. Mayakovsky)

Repeating words, phrases, or combinations of sounds at the beginning of a sentence, line, or paragraph.

For example:

“The winds did not blow in vain,

It wasn’t in vain that the storm came.”

(S. Yesenin).

The black-eyed girl

Black-maned horse!

(M. Lermontov)

Quite often, anaphora, as a literary device, forms a symbiosis with such a literary device as gradation, that is, increasing the emotional character of words in the text.

For example:

“Cattle die, a friend dies, a man himself dies.”

Antithesis (opposition)

Antithesis (or opposition) is a comparison of words or phrases that are sharply different or opposite in meaning.

Examples of antithesis:

I swear by the first day of creation, I swear by its last day (M. Lermontov).

He who was nothing will become everything.

Antonomasia

Antonomasia is an expressive means, when used, the author uses a proper name instead of a common noun to figuratively reveal the character of the character.

Examples of antonomasia:

He is Othello (instead of "He is very jealous")

A stingy person is often called Plyushkin, an empty dreamer - Manilov, a man with excessive ambitions - Napoleon, etc.

Apostrophe, address

Assonance

1) Assonance is used as an original tool that gives an artistic text, especially poetic text, a special flavor. For example:

Our ears are on top of our heads,
A little morning the guns lit up
And the forests are blue tops -
The French are right there.

(M.Yu. Lermontov)

2) Assonance is widely used to create imprecise rhyme. For example, “hammer city”, “incomparable princess”.

One of the textbook examples of the use of both rhyme and assonance in one quatrain is an excerpt from the poetic work of V. Mayakovsky:

I won’t turn into Tolstoy, but into a fat man -
I eat, I write, I’m a fool from the heat.
Who hasn't philosophized over the sea?
Water.

Exclamation

Hyperbola

Hyperbole is a figurative expression containing an exorbitant exaggeration of the size, strength, or significance of an object or phenomenon.

Example of a hyperbole:

Some houses are as long as the stars, others as long as the moon; baobabs to the skies (Mayakovsky).

Inversion

From lat. inversio - permutation.

Changing the traditional order of words in a sentence to give the phrase a more expressive shade, intonation highlighting of a word.

Inversion examples:

The lonely sail is white
In the blue sea fog... (M.Yu. Lermontov)

The traditional order requires a different structure: A lonely sail is white in the blue fog of the sea. But this will no longer be Lermontov or his great creation.

Another great Russian poet, Pushkin, considered inversion one of the main figures of poetic speech, and often the poet used not only contact, but also remote inversion, when, when rearranging words, other words are wedged between them: “The old man obedient to Perun alone...”.

Pun

A play on words. A witty expression or joke based on the use of words that sound similar but have different meanings or different meanings of one word.

Examples of puns in literature:

In a year, for three clicks on your forehead,
Give me some boiled spelt.
(A.S. Pushkin)

And the verse that served me before,
A broken string, a verse.
(D.D. Minaev)

Spring will drive anyone crazy. The ice – and it started to move.
(E. Meek)

The opposite of hyperbole, a figurative expression containing an exorbitant understatement of the size, strength, or significance of any object or phenomenon.

Example of litotes:

The horse is led by the bridle by a man in big boots, in a short sheepskin coat, in big mittens... and he himself is as tall as a fingernail! (Nekrasov)

Metaphor

Metaphor is the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense based on some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison. Metaphor is based on similarity or resemblance.

Transferring the properties of one object or phenomenon to another based on their similarity.

Examples of metaphors:

A sea of problems.

The eyes are burning.

Desire is boiling.

The afternoon was blazing.

Metonymy

Examples of metonymy:

All flags will be visiting us.

(here flags replace countries).

I ate three plates.

(here the plate replaces the food).

Address, apostrophe

Oxymoron

A deliberate combination of contradictory concepts.

Look, she has fun being sad

So elegantly naked

(A. Akhmatova)

Personification

Personification is the transference of human feelings, thoughts and speech to inanimate objects and phenomena, as well as to animals.

Impersonation examples:

What, a dense forest,

Got thoughtful
Dark sadness
Foggy?

(A.V. Koltsov)

Be careful of the wind
Came out of the gate

Knocked on the window
Ran across the roof...

(M.V.Isakovsky)

Parcellation

Parcellation is a syntactic technique in which a sentence is intonationally divided into independent segments and highlighted in writing as independent sentences.

Parcelation example:

“He went too. To the store. Buy cigarettes” (Shukshin).

Periphrase

A paraphrase is an expression that conveys the meaning of another expression or word in a descriptive form.

Examples of paraphrase:

King of beasts (instead of lion)
Mother of Russian rivers (instead of Volga)

Pleonasm

Verbosity, the use of logically unnecessary words.

Examples of pleonasm in everyday life:

In the month of May (suffice it to say: in May).

Local aborigine (suffice it to say: aborigine).

White albino (suffice it to say: albino).

I was there personally (suffice it to say: I was there).

In literature, pleonasm is often used as a stylistic device, a means of expression.

For example:

Sadness and melancholy.

Sea ocean.

Psychologism

An in-depth depiction of the hero’s mental and emotional experiences.

A repeated verse or group of verses at the end of a song verse. When a refrain extends to an entire stanza, it is usually called a chorus.

A rhetorical question

A sentence in the form of a question to which no answer is expected.

Or is it new for us to argue with Europe?

Or is the Russian unaccustomed to victories?

(A.S. Pushkin)

Rhetorical appeal

An appeal addressed to an abstract concept, an inanimate object, an absent person. A way to enhance the expressiveness of speech, to express an attitude towards a particular person or object.

Rus! where are you going?

(N.V. Gogol)

Comparisons

Comparison example:

Then my life sang - howled -

It hummed like an autumn surf -

And she cried to herself.

(M. Tsvetaeva)

A symbol is an object or word that conventionally expresses the essence of a phenomenon.

The symbol contains a figurative meaning, and in this way it is close to a metaphor. However, this closeness is relative. The symbol contains a certain secret, a hint that allows one to only guess what is meant, what the poet wanted to say. The interpretation of a symbol is possible not so much by reason as by intuition and feeling. The images created by symbolist writers have their own characteristics; they have a two-dimensional structure. In the foreground there is a certain phenomenon and real details, in the second (hidden) plane there is the inner world of the lyrical hero, his visions, memories, pictures born of his imagination.

Examples of symbols:

Dawn, morning - symbols of youth, the beginning of life;

Night is a symbol of death, the end of life;

Snow is a symbol of cold, cold feeling, alienation.

Synecdoche

Replacing the name of an object or phenomenon with the name of a part of this object or phenomenon. In short, replacing the name of a whole with the name of a part of that whole.

Examples of synecdoche:

Native hearth (instead of “home”).

A sail floats (instead of “a sailboat floats”).

“...and it was heard until dawn,
how the Frenchman rejoiced..." (Lermontov)

(here “French” instead of “French soldiers”).

Tautology

Repetition in other words of what has already been said, which means it does not contain new information.

Examples:

Car tires are tires for a car.

We have united as one.

Types of trails:

Metaphor, allegory, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, irony.

Default

Default examples:

This fable could be explained more -

Yes, so as not to irritate the geese...

Gain (gradation)

Gradation (or amplification) is a series of homogeneous words or expressions (images, comparisons, metaphors, etc.) that consistently intensify, increase or, conversely, reduce the semantic or emotional significance of the conveyed feelings, expressed thoughts or described events.

Example of ascending gradation:

I do not regret, do not call, do not cry…

(S. Yesenin)

In sweetly misty care

It will not take an hour, not a day, not a year.

(E. Baratynsky)

Example of descending gradation:

He promises him half the world, and France only for himself.

Euphemism

A neutral word or expression that is used in conversation to replace other expressions that are considered indecent or inappropriate in a given case.

Examples:

I'm going to powder my nose (instead of going to the toilet).

He was asked to leave the restaurant (instead, He was kicked out).

Examples of epithets:

Velvet skin, crystal ringing.

Repeating the same word at the end of adjacent segments of speech. The opposite of anaphora, in which words are repeated at the beginning of a sentence, line, or paragraph.

“Scallops, all scallops: a cape made of scallops, scallops on the sleeves, epaulettes made of scallops...” (N.V. Gogol).

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Modern poetic techniques. Literary and poetic devices

Modern poetic devices, part 5

Realities

Vernacular.

Local color.

Jargonisms.

Prosaisms.

Stylization.

Archaisms.

Terms.

Pasta.

Why are artistic techniques needed?

Literary devices and the emergence of literature

Video: Visual and expressive means in literature

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