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Teaching methods.

The history of the development of teaching methods is very peculiar. Scientists and teachers, observing the learning process at school, paid attention to huge variety types of activities of teachers and students in the classroom. They began to call these types of activities teaching methods. The term “method” comes from the Greek word “methodos”, which means the path, the way of moving towards truth.

In pedagogical practice, the method acts as an orderly way of activity to achieve educational goals. At the same time, the methods of teaching activity of the teacher (teaching) and the methods of educational activity of students (teaching) are closely related to each other and are in interaction. The concept of a teaching method also reflects the didactic goals and objectives of educational activity, in solving which the appropriate methods of the teacher’s educational work and the cognitive activity of students are used in the learning process. Thus, teaching methods are ways of joint activity between teacher and students aimed at solving learning problems.

An integral part or a separate aspect of the teaching method is the teaching method. Individual techniques may be part of various methods. For example, the technique of students writing down basic concepts is used when the teacher explains new material, when working independently with the original source, when doing practical work, etc.

In the learning process, methods and techniques are used in various combinations. The same method of student activity in some cases acts as an independent method, and in others as a teaching method. For example, explanation and conversation are independent teaching methods. If they are occasionally used by the teacher during practical work to attract the attention of students and correct mistakes, then explanation and conversation act as teaching techniques included in the exercise method.

The method and technique may be reversed. For example, if a teacher communicates new knowledge using the method of explanation, during which he sometimes demonstrates visual aids, then the demonstration acts as a technique. If a visual aid is the object of study, students gain basic knowledge by examining it, then verbal explanations act as a technique, and demonstration as a teaching method.

One of the problems of modern didactics is the problem of classifying teaching methods. Different authors use different characteristics as the basis for dividing teaching methods into groups and subgroups. There are a number of classifications. The earliest classification is the division of teaching methods into teacher methods (story, explanation, conversation) and student work methods (exercises, independent work). A common classification of teaching methods according to the source of knowledge acquisition is:

a) verbal methods (the source of knowledge is the spoken or printed word);

b) visual methods (the source of knowledge is observed objects, phenomena, visual aids);

c) practical methods (students gain knowledge and develop skills by performing practical actions).

Let us dwell on this classification in more detail.

Verbal methods occupy a leading place in the system of teaching methods. There were periods when they were almost the only way to transfer knowledge. Nowadays they are often called obsolete, “inactive”. The evaluation of this group of methods must be approached objectively. Verbal methods make it possible to convey a large amount of information in the shortest possible time, pose problems to students and indicate ways to solve them. With the help of words, a teacher can evoke in the minds of children vivid pictures of the past, present and future of humanity. The word activates the imagination, memory, and feelings of students. Verbal methods are divided into the following types: story, explanation, conversation, discussion, lecture, work with a book.

The story as a teaching method involves an oral narrative presentation of the content of educational material, uninterrupted by questions to students. It is used at all stages of school education. Only the nature of the story, its volume, and duration change.

Explanation should be understood as a verbal interpretation of patterns, essential properties of the object being studied, individual concepts, and phenomena. An explanation is a monologue form of presentation. Explanation is most often resorted to when studying theoretical material of various sciences, solving chemical, physical, mathematical problems, theorems; when revealing the root causes and consequences in natural phenomena and public life.

Using the explanation method requires:

Precise and clear formulation of the task or question;

Consistent disclosure of cause-and-effect relationships, argumentation and evidence;

Use of comparison, juxtaposition, analogy;

Attractions bright examples;

Impeccable logic of presentation.

Explanation as a teaching method is widely used in working with children of different age groups. However, in middle and high school age, due to the complexity of educational material and the increasing intellectual capabilities of students, the use of this method becomes more necessary than when working with younger students.

Conversation is a dialogic teaching method in which the teacher, by posing a carefully thought-out system of questions, leads students to understand new material or checks their understanding of what has already been learned. Conversation is one of the oldest methods of didactic work.

Depending on the specific tasks, the content of the educational material, the level of creative cognitive activity of students, and the place in the didactic process, different types of conversations are distinguished.

Widespread heuristic conversation(from the word “eureka” - I find, I open). During a heuristic conversation, the teacher, relying on the students’ existing knowledge and practical experience, leads them to understand and assimilate new knowledge, formulate rules and conclusions.

Used to communicate new knowledge informative conversations. If a conversation precedes the study of new material, it is called introductory or introductory. The purpose of such a conversation is to induce in students a state of readiness to learn new things. Reinforcing Conversations used after learning new material.

During the conversation, questions can be addressed to one student ( individual conversation) or students of the whole class ( frontal conversation).

One type of conversation is interview. It can be carried out both with the class as a whole and with individual groups of students. It is especially useful to organize an interview in high school, when students show more independence in judgment, can pose questions that require reasoning in the search for a solution, and express their opinion on certain topics put forward by the teacher for discussion.

The success of conversations largely depends on the correctness of asking questions. Questions are asked by the teacher in advance so that all students are prepared to answer. Questions should be short, clear, meaningful, and formulated in such a way as to make the student think.

Discussion as a teaching method is based on the exchange of views on a particular issue, and these views reflect the participants’ own opinions or are based on the opinions of others. This method is advisable to use when students have a significant degree of maturity and independence of thinking, and are able to argue, prove and substantiate their point of view. A well-conducted discussion has great educational and educational value: it teaches a deeper understanding of the problem, the ability to defend one’s position, and take into account the opinions of others.

A lecture is a systematic, monologue presentation of voluminous material by a teacher. It is used, as a rule, in high school and takes up the entire or almost the entire lesson. The advantage of a lecture is the ability to ensure the completeness and integrity of students’ perception of educational material in its logical mediation and relationships on the topic as a whole. A school lecture can also be used to review the material covered. Such lectures are called review lectures. They are conducted on one or several topics to summarize and systematize the material studied.

Working with a textbook and book - the most important teaching method. In primary school, it is carried out mainly in lessons under the guidance of a teacher. In the future, schoolchildren increasingly learn to work with the book independently. There are a number of techniques for working independently with printed sources, the main ones being:

Note-taking is a summary, a brief recording of the content of what was read; conducted from the first or third person. Taking notes in the first person better develops independent thinking;

Drawing up a text plan, which can be simple and complex; to draw up a plan, after reading the text, you need to break it into parts and title each part;

Writing a thesis is a brief summary of the main ideas of what you read;

Quotation – verbatim excerpt from the text; The output data must be indicated (author, title of the work, place of publication, publisher, year of publication, page);

Annotation is a brief condensed summary of the content of what has been read without loss of essential meaning;

Reviewing – writing a short review expressing your attitude to what you read;

Drawing up a certificate - information about something obtained after searching for information; certificates can be statistical, biographical, terminological, geographical, etc.;

Drawing up a formal logical model - a verbal and schematic representation of what has been read;

Drawing up a thematic thesaurus - an ordered set of basic concepts for a section or topic;

Drawing up a matrix of ideas - comparative characteristics of similar objects, phenomena in the works of different authors.

The second group in this classification consists of visual teaching methods. Visual teaching methods are understood as methods in which the assimilation of educational material is significantly dependent on the visual aids and technical means used in the learning process. Visual methods are used in conjunction with verbal and practical teaching methods. Visual teaching methods can be divided into two large groups: the illustration method and the demonstration method.

Illustration method involves showing students illustrative aids: posters, tables, paintings, maps, sketches on the board, etc. The demonstration method is usually associated with the demonstration of instruments, experiments, technical installations, films, filmstrips, etc. This division of visual aids into illustrative and demonstration is conditional. It does not exclude the possibility of classifying certain visual aids as both illustrative and demonstrative. In modern conditions, special attention is paid to the use of such a visual aid as a personal computer. Computers make it possible to simulate certain processes and situations, to select from a number of possible solutions the optimal ones according to certain criteria, i.e. significantly expand the possibilities of visual methods in the educational process.

Practical teaching methods are based on the practical activities of students and form practical skills. These include exercises, laboratory and practical work.

Exercises are understood as repeated (multiple) performance of a mental or practical action in order to master it or improve its quality. Exercises are used in the study of all subjects and at various stages of the educational process. The nature and methodology of the exercises depends on the characteristics of the subject, the specific material, the issue being studied and the age of the students.

Exercises by their nature are divided into:

- oral, promoting the development of logical thinking, memory, speech and attention of students; they are dynamic and do not require time spent on record keeping;

- written, used to consolidate knowledge and develop skills in their application and contribute to the development of logical thinking, written language culture, and independence in work; can be combined with oral and graphic;

- graphic– students’ work on drawing up diagrams, drawings, graphs, technological maps, making albums, posters, stands, making sketches during laboratory and practical work, excursions, etc. Graphic exercises are usually performed simultaneously with written ones and solve common educational problems; their use helps students better perceive, comprehend and remember educational material, promotes the development of spatial imagination;

- training and labor, which include practical work by students that has a production and labor orientation, the purpose of which is to apply the theoretical knowledge of students in their work activities.

When performing each type of exercise, students perform mental and practical work. According to the degree of independence of students when performing exercises, they are distinguished:

a) exercises to reproduce what is known for the purpose of consolidation – reproducing exercises;

b) exercises on applying knowledge in new conditions – training exercises.

If, while performing actions, a student speaks to himself or out loud and comments on upcoming operations, such exercises are called commented. Commenting on actions helps the teacher discover typical mistakes, make adjustments to the actions of students.

Exercises are effective only if a number of requirements are met: students’ conscious approach to their implementation; compliance with the didactic sequence in performing exercises - first, exercises on memorizing and memorizing educational material, then - on reproduction - on application of previously learned - on independent transfer of what has been learned to non-standard situations - on creative application, which ensures the inclusion of new material in the system of already acquired knowledge , skills and abilities. Problem-search exercises that develop students’ ability to guess and intuition are also extremely necessary.

Laboratory work is the carrying out by students, on the instructions of the teacher, of experiments and calculations using instruments, using tools and other technical devices, i.e. students studying any phenomena using special equipment. Laboratory work is carried out in an illustrative or research manner.

A type of research laboratory work can be long-term observations by students of individual phenomena: plant growth and animal development, weather, etc. In any case, the teacher draws up instructions, and students record the results of their work in the form of reports, numerical indicators, graphs, diagrams, tables. Laboratory work can be part of a lesson, take up the entire lesson or more.

Practical work is carried out after studying large sections, and the topics are general in nature. They can be carried out not only in the classroom, but also outside the school (measurements on the ground, work on the school site).

A special type of practical teaching methods consists of classes with teaching machines, simulator machines and tutors.

A common classification of teaching methods is the classification developed by M.N. Skatkin and I.Ya. Lerner. They propose dividing teaching methods depending on the nature of students’ cognitive activity in mastering the material being studied into explanatory and illustrative, reproductive, problem-based presentation, partially search and research.

The essence explanatory and illustrative teaching method consists in the fact that the teacher communicates ready-made information through various means, and students perceive it, realize it and record it in memory. The explanatory and illustrative method is one of the most economical ways to convey information. However, when using this teaching method, the skills and abilities to use the acquired knowledge are not formed.

To acquire skills and abilities by students, it is used reproductive method of teaching, the essence of which is the repeated repetition of a method of activity on the instructions of the teacher. The teacher’s activity is to develop and communicate a model, and the student’s activity is to carry out actions according to the model.

The essence problematic method of presentation: The teacher poses a problem to the students - a complex theoretical or practical question, requiring research and resolution, and itself shows the way to solve it, revealing the contradictions that arise. The purpose of this method is to show examples of scientific knowledge and scientific problem solving. At the same time, students follow the logic of solving a problem, receiving a standard of scientific thinking and knowledge, an example of a culture of deploying cognitive actions.

In order to gradually bring students closer to independently solving cognitive problems, it is used partially search engine or heuristic teaching method. Its essence is that the teacher breaks down a problematic problem into subproblems, and students carry out individual steps to find its solution. Each step involves creative activity, but there is no holistic solution to the problem yet.

Serves this purpose research method of teaching, designed to provide creative application of knowledge. Students master the methods of scientific knowledge and develop experience in research activities.

Thus, according to this classification, teaching methods differ from each other in the nature of the cognitive activity carried out by students when mastering various types of material content, and in the nature of the activity of the teacher who organizes this diverse activity of the students.

A special group consists of active learning methods - methods in which the student’s activity is productive, creative, and exploratory in nature. They allow not only to reproduce acquired knowledge, but to use it in practice-oriented activities.

Active learning methods provide students with the opportunity to learn by doing and gain a variety of subjective experiences. Competent use of active methods by a teacher presupposes: deeply thought-out educational goals, a high level of involvement of participants, analysis and discussion of the experience gained by students or information received.

Didactic goals of active learning methods: expansion of horizons, cognitive activity; gaining experience in applying knowledge and skills in activities; development of creative activity traits and reflection skills.

Educational goals: development of independence, activity and will; formation of certain approaches, positions, moral and ideological attitudes; developing the ability to work in a team and communication skills.

Developmental goals: development of attention, memory, speech, thinking, skills to compare, juxtapose, connect together; creative abilities, the ability to find optimal or simplest solutions, predict the expected result, etc.

Socializing goals: familiarization with the norms and values ​​of society; adaptation to environmental conditions; stress control, self-regulation; communication training.

Communication goals: the ability to express one’s thoughts orally and in writing, the ability to establish and maintain psychological contact; the ability to listen to the interlocutor, understand his motives, current psychological state, skill in mastering a wide range of behavior; ability to prove, convince, express agreement (disagreement).

It should be taken into account that active learning methods involve the use of a certain sequence of tasks in the educational process: starting with individual analysis and assessment of specific situations, then you can move on to a collective assessment of the situation, didactic games: role-playing, operational, simulation, and then use business games. Thus, active methods should be used as they become more complex.

The group of active learning methods includes didactic games - specially designed games that simulate reality and are adapted for learning purposes. The main difference between a game and other activities is that its subject is human activity itself. In a didactic game, the main type of activity is educational, which is woven into the game and acquires the features of a joint game educational activity. Didactic game - this is a collective, purposeful educational activities when each participant and the team as a whole are united in solving the main problem and focus their behavior on winning. Its main structural elements are:

Simulated object of educational activity;

Joint activities of game participants;

Rules of the game;

Decision making in changing conditions;

- effectiveness of the applied solution.

Game-based educational activity has an important property: in it, the cognitive activity of students is self-movement, since information does not come from the outside, but is an internal product, the result of the activity itself. Information obtained in this way gives rise to new information, which, in turn, entails the next link until the final learning result is achieved.

The cycle of a didactic game is a continuous sequence of educational actions in the process of solving problems. This process is divided into the following stages:

Preparation for independent studies;

Statement of the main task;

Selecting a simulation model of the object;

Solving the problem based on it;

Checking, correction;

Implementation of the decision made;

Evaluation of its results;

Analysis of the results obtained and synthesis with existing experience.

There are two main ways to organize the collective cognitive activity of students when using didactic games - this is discussion and debate, characterized by the remoteness of the participants’ positions. During the discussion, the participants complement each other’s speeches, and in the discussion they present opposing points of view.

The following can be distinguished forms of discussion:

- “round table” - a conversation in which members of a small group of schoolchildren (usually about five people) participate as equals, during which an exchange of opinions occurs both between them and with the “audience” (the rest of the class);

- “expert group meeting” (usually four to six students with a pre-appointed chairman), at which first all group members discuss the intended problem, and then they present their positions to the “audience”; in this case, each member of the expert group speaks with a short message;

- “forum” - a discussion similar to an “expert group meeting”, during which the group exchanges opinions with the “audience” (study group);

- “symposium” - a more formalized discussion than the previous one, during which participants make presentations representing their points of view, after which they answer questions from the “audience”;

- “consilium” - analysis of the problem under consideration from various role positions of the participants in the discussion. At the consultation, various aspects of the problem are considered, complementary to each other as a result of a pedagogically appropriate distribution of roles;

- “brainstorming” and its educational version - synectics - involve searching for a solution to a problem by putting forward ideas by the participants in the discussion. Each student has the opportunity to propose an original solution, which will be discussed. In this case, the discussion should be structured so that each student can participate in it as part of a working group. To do this, the class is divided into several small subgroups (5 - 7 people). At the end of the discussion, representatives of each subgroup present their message.

Discussion can precede discussion.

Discussion represents a purposeful, orderly exchange of ideas, judgments, opinions in a group for the sake of searching for truth and solving a problem.

The use of discussion allows students to gain new information, increase competence, test their own ideas and evaluate their reliability. It allows you to develop communication skills and the ability to use your intellect, test your feelings and their interpretation by others. Discussion forms the habit of taking responsibility for your words and decisions, and teaches you to avoid mistakes made by others.

In the pedagogical literature there are the following forms of discussion:

- “debate” - an obviously formalized discussion, built on the basis of pre-fixed speeches of participants - representatives of two opposing, rival teams;

- “court hearing” - a discussion simulating a trial (hearing a case);

- “aquarium technique” - discussion of material, the content of which is associated with contradictory approaches, conflicts, disagreements. The emphasis in it is on the very process of presenting a point of view and its argumentation. The group is divided into subgroups, each of which selects a representative who introduces the group’s position to the rest of the audience. After discussing the problem in groups, representatives gather at the board, express and try to defend the position of their group. No one except the representatives has the right to speak, but group members are allowed to convey instructions to their representatives in notes. Both representatives and groups may request a “time out” for consultation. The “aquarium” discussion of the problem between group representatives ends either after a predetermined time has elapsed or after a solution has been reached. It is then critiqued by the entire audience. This form of discussion is interesting because the students have only five or six speakers in their field of attention, which allows them to focus on the main positions.

Didactic games as a teaching method contain great potential for activating the learning process. At the same time, school practice and the results of experiments have shown that didactic games can play a positive role in learning only when they are used as a generalization of a wide arsenal of traditional methods, and not as a substitute for them.

There are other classifications of teaching methods. The large number of approaches to this issue is explained by the complexity of the object of research and the seriousness of the tasks posed by society to the modern school. In light of new requirements for school, scientists and teachers are looking for teaching methods and techniques that would best contribute to their solution.

Teaching methods(from ancient Greek μέθοδος - path) - the process of interaction between the teacher and students, as a result of which the transfer and assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities provided for by the content of training occurs. Teaching technique (teaching technique)- short-term interaction between the teacher and students, aimed at the transfer and assimilation of specific knowledge, skills, abilities.

According to the established tradition in domestic pedagogy, METHODS of teaching are divided into three groups:

- Methods of organization and implementation of educational and cognitive activities:

1. Verbal, visual, practical (According to the source of presentation of educational material).

2. Reproductive, explanatory and illustrative, search, research, problem, etc. (according to the nature of educational and cognitive activity).

3. Inductive and deductive (according to the logic of presentation and perception of educational material);

- Control methods for the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities: Oral, written checking and self-testing the effectiveness of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities;

- Stimulation methods educational and cognitive activity: Certain incentives in the formation of motivation, a sense of responsibility, obligation, interests in mastering knowledge, skills and abilities.

In teaching practice, there are other approaches to determining teaching methods that are based on the degree of awareness of the perception of educational material: passive, active, interactive, heuristic and others. These definitions require further clarification, because the learning process cannot be passive and is not always a discovery (eureka) for students.

Passive method

Passive method(Diagram 1) is a form of interaction between students and teachers, in which the teacher is the main actor and manager of the lesson, and students act as passive listeners, subject to the teacher’s directives. Communication between the teacher and students in passive lessons is carried out through surveys, independent work, tests, tests, etc. From the point of view of modern pedagogical technologies and the effectiveness of students’ assimilation of educational material, the passive method is considered the most ineffective, but despite this, it also has some pros. This is a relatively easy preparation for the lesson on the part of the teacher and an opportunity to present a relatively larger amount of educational material in the limited time frame of the lesson. Given these advantages, many teachers prefer the passive method to other methods. It must be said that in some cases this approach works successfully in the hands of an experienced teacher, especially if students have clear goals aimed at thoroughly studying the subject. Lecture is the most common type of passive lesson. This type of lesson is widespread in universities, where adults, fully formed people, who have clear goals to deeply study the subject, study.

Active method

Active method(Diagram 2) is a form of interaction between students and teachers, in which the teacher and students interact with each other during the lesson and students here are not passive listeners, but active participants in the lesson. If in a passive lesson the main character and manager of the lesson was the teacher, then here the teacher and students are on equal terms. If passive methods assumed an authoritarian style of interaction, then active ones assume more democratic style. Many equate active and interactive methods; however, despite their commonality, they have differences. Interactive methods can be considered as the most modern form of active methods.

Interactive method

Interactive method(Scheme 3). Interactive (“Inter” is mutual, “act” is to act) - means to interact, to be in the mode of conversation, dialogue with someone. In other words, unlike active methods, interactive ones are focused on broader interaction of students not only with the teacher, but also with each other and on the dominance of student activity in the learning process. The teacher's place in interactive lessons comes down to directing the students' activities to achieve the lesson's goals. The teacher also develops a lesson plan (usually, these are interactive exercises and assignments during which the student learns the material).
Therefore, the main components of interactive lessons are interactive exercises and tasks that students complete. Important difference interactive exercises and assignments differ from ordinary ones in that by completing them, students not only and not so much consolidate already learned material, but learn new ones.

Literature

1. Alekhin A.N. General teaching methods at school. - K.: Radyanskaya school, 1983. - 244 p.
2. Davydov V.V. Theory of developmental training. - M.: INTOR, 1996. - 544 p.
3. Zagvyazinsky V.I. Theory of learning: Modern interpretation: Textbook for universities. 3rd ed., rev. - M.: Academy, 2006. - 192 p.
4. Kraevsky V.V., Khutorskoy A.V. Fundamentals of teaching: Didactics and methodology. Textbook aid for students higher textbook establishments. - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2007. - 352 p.
5. Lyaudis V. Ya. Methods of teaching psychology: Textbook. 3rd ed., rev. and additional - M.: Publishing house URAO, 2000. - 128 p.
6. Mikhailichenko O.V. Methods of teaching social disciplines in higher education: a textbook. – Sumy: SumDPU, 2009. – 122 p.
7. Pedagogy: Textbook. manual for pedagogical students. Institute / Ed. Yu.K. Babansky. - 2nd ed., add. and processed - M.: Education, 1988. - P.385-409.

• Educational technologies
• Heuristic learning
• Interactive approaches
• Multimedia training
• Schechter method
• Flask model
• van Hiele model of geometry learning
• Flask model in class
• Active learning
• Teacher
• Business game
• Contour map
• Lerner, Isaac Yakovlevich

Links

Teaching methods and their classification

An essential component of pedagogical technologies are teaching methods - ways of orderly interconnected activities of the teacher and students. In the pedagogical literature there is no consensus regarding the role and definition of the concept of “teaching method”. So, Yu.K. Babansky believes that “a teaching method is a method of orderly interconnected activity of a teacher and students, aimed at solving educational problems.” T.A. Ilyina understands teaching method as “a way of organizing students’ cognitive activity.” In the history of didactics, various classifications of teaching methods have developed, the most common of which are:

by external signs of the activity of the teacher and students:

• briefing;

  demonstration;

  exercises;

  problem solving;

  working with a book;

by source of knowledge:

• verbal;

  visual:

  • demonstration of posters, diagrams, tables, diagrams, models;

    use of technical means;

    watching films and television programs;

practical:

• practical tasks;

  trainings;

  business games;

  analysis and resolution of conflict situations, etc.;

according to the degree of activity of students’ cognitive activity:

• explanatory;

  illustrative;

  problem;

  partial search;

  research;

according to the logic of the approach:

• inductive;

  deductive;

  analytical;

  synthetic.

Close to this classification is the classification of teaching methods, compiled according to the criterion of the degree of independence and creativity in the activities of students. Since the success of training depends to a decisive extent on the orientation and internal activity of the students, on the nature of their activity, it is the nature of the activity, the degree of independence and creativity that should serve as an important criterion for choosing a method. In this classification, it is proposed to distinguish five teaching methods:

explanatory and illustrative method;

reproductive method;

problem presentation method;

partial search, or heuristic, method;

research method.

In each of the subsequent methods, the degree of activity and independence in the activities of students increases. Explanatory and illustrative teaching method - a method in which students gain knowledge at a lecture, from educational or methodological literature, through an on-screen manual in a “ready” form. Perceiving and comprehending facts, assessments, conclusions, students remain within the framework of reproductive (reproducing) thinking. At universities, this method is widely used for transmitting a large amount of information. Reproductive teaching method - a method where the application of what has been learned is carried out on the basis of a sample or rule. Here, the activities of the students are algorithmic in nature, i.e. is carried out according to instructions, regulations, rules in situations similar to those shown in the example. Method of problem presentation in teaching - a method in which, using a variety of sources and means, the teacher, before presenting the material, poses a problem, formulates a cognitive task, and then, revealing a system of evidence, comparing points of view, different approaches, shows a way to solve the problem. Students become witnesses and participants in scientific research. This approach has been widely used both in the past and in the present. Partial search , or heuristic, teaching method consists in organizing an active search for solutions to cognitive tasks put forward in training (or independently formulated) either under the guidance of a teacher or on the basis of heuristic programs and instructions. The thinking process becomes productive, but at the same time it is gradually directed and controlled by the teacher or the students themselves based on work on programs (including computer ones) and textbooks. - a method in which, after analyzing the material, setting problems and tasks, and brief oral or written instructions, students independently study literature, sources, make observations and measurements, and perform other search activities. Initiative, independence, and creative search are most fully manifested in research activities. Methods of educational work directly develop into methods of scientific research. Techniques and teaching aids

In the learning process, the method acts as an orderly way of interconnected activities of the teacher and students to achieve certain educational goals, as a way of organizing the educational and cognitive activities of students. The application of each teaching method is usually accompanied by techniques and tools. Wherein reception of training acts only as an element integral part teaching method, and teaching aids (pedagogical aids) are all those materials with the help of which the teacher carries out the teaching impact (educational process).

Pedagogical tools did not immediately become an obligatory component of the pedagogical process. For a long time, traditional teaching methods were based on the word, but “the era of chalk and conversation is over,” due to the growth of information and the technologization of society, there is a need to use other means of teaching, for example technical ones. Pedagogical means include:

educational and laboratory equipment;

training and production equipment;

didactic technology;

educational visual aids;

technical training aids and automated training systems;

computer classes;

organizational and pedagogical means (curricula, exam papers, task cards, teaching aids, etc.).

In world and domestic practice, many efforts have been made to classify teaching methods. Since the category method is universal, “multidimensional formation”, has many characteristics, they act as the basis for classifications. Different authors use different bases for classifying teaching methods. Many classifications have been proposed, based on one or more characteristics. Each of the authors provides arguments to justify their classification model. Let's look at some of them. 1. Classification of methods according to the source of transmission and the nature of information perception (E.Ya. Golant, E.I. Perovsky). The following features and methods are distinguished: a) passive perception - listen and watch (story, lecture, explanation; demonstration); b) active perception - working with a book, visual sources; laboratory method. 2. Classification of methods based on didactic tasks (M.A. Danilov, B.P. Esipov.). The classification is based on the sequence of knowledge acquisition at a specific stage (lesson): a) knowledge acquisition; b) formation of skills and abilities; c) application of acquired knowledge; d) creative activity; e) fastening; f) testing knowledge, skills and abilities. 3. Classification of methods according to sources of information transfer and knowledge acquisition (N.M. Verzilin, D.O. Lordkinanidze, I.T. Ogorodnikov, etc.). The methods of this classification are: a) verbal - the living word of the teacher, working with a book; b) practical - studying the surrounding reality (observation, experiment, exercises). 4. Classification of methods according to the type (nature) of cognitive activity (M.N. Skatkin, I.Ya. Lerner). The nature of cognitive activity reflects the level of independent activity of students. This classification is characterized by the following methods: a) explanatory and illustrative (information and reproductive); b) reproductive (boundaries of skill and creativity); c) problematic presentation of knowledge; d) partially search (heuristic); e) research. 5. Classification of methods, combining teaching methods and corresponding teaching methods or binary ones (M.I. Makhmutov). This classification is represented by the following methods: a) teaching methods: informational - informative, explanatory, instructive-practical, explanatory-stimulating, stimulating; b) teaching methods: executive, reproductive, productive-practical, partially exploratory, search. 6. Classification of methods for organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities; methods of its stimulation and motivation; methods of control and self-control (Yu. K. Babansky). This classification is represented by three groups of methods: a) methods of organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities: verbal (story, lecture, seminar, conversation), visual (illustration, demonstration, etc.), practical (exercises, laboratory experiments, work activities, etc.) .r.), reproductive and problem-search (from particular to general, from general to particular), methods of independent work and work under the guidance of a teacher; b) methods of stimulating and motivating educational and cognitive activity: methods of stimulating and motivating interest in learning (the entire arsenal of methods for organizing and carrying out educational activities is used for the purpose of psychological adjustment, motivation to learn), methods of stimulating and motivating duty and responsibility in learning; c) methods of control and self-control over the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities: methods of oral control and self-control, methods of written control and self-control, methods of laboratory and practical control and self-control. 7. Classification of teaching methods, which combines sources of knowledge, the level of cognitive activity and independence of students, as well as the logical path of educational modeling (V.F. Palamarchuk and V.I. Palamarchuk). 8. The classification of methods in combination with forms of cooperation in teaching was proposed by the German didactician L. Klingberg. a) Monologue methods: - lecture; - story; - demonstration. b) Forms of cooperation: - individual; - group; - frontal; - collective. c) Dialogical methods: – conversations. 9. Classification of methods by K. Sosnicki (Poland) assumes the existence of two teaching methods: a) artificial (school); b) natural (occasional). These methods correspond to two teaching methods: a) presenting; b) search. 10. The classification (typology) of teaching methods, set out in “Introduction to General Didactics” by V. Okon (Poland), is represented by four groups: a) methods of acquiring knowledge, based mainly on cognitive activity of a reproductive nature (conversation, discussion, lecture, work with a book); b) methods of independent acquisition of knowledge, called problem-based, based on creative cognitive activity in the process of solving problems: - the classic problem-based method (according to Dewey), modified for the Polish education system, it contains four important points: the creation of a problem situation; formation of problems and hypotheses for their solution; organizing and applying the results obtained in new problems of a theoretical and practical nature; - the chance method (England and the USA) is relatively simple and is based on the consideration by a small group of students of a description of a case: students formulate questions to explain this case, search for an answer, a number of possible solutions, compare solutions, detect errors in reasoning, etc. ; - the situational method is based on introducing students into a difficult situation, the task is to understand and make the right decision, anticipate the consequences of this decision, and find others possible solutions; - a bank of ideas is a brainstorming method; based on the group formation of ideas for solving a problem, testing, evaluation and selection of the right ideas; - micro-teaching - a method of creative teaching of complex practical activities, used mainly in pedagogical universities; For example, a fragment of a school lesson is recorded on a video recorder, and then a group analysis and evaluation of this fragment is carried out; - didactic games - the use of game moments in the educational process serves the process of cognition, teaches respect for accepted norms, promotes cooperation, accustoms both winning and losing. These include: staged fun, i.e. games, simulation games, business games (they didn't get widespread in a Polish school); c) evaluative methods, also called exhibiting methods with the dominance of emotional and artistic activity: - impressive methods; - expressive methods; - practical methods; - teaching methods; d) practical methods (methods for implementing creative tasks), characterized by the predominance of practical and technical activities that change the world around us and create new forms: they are associated with the performance of various types of work (for example, woodworking, glass, growing plants and animals, making fabrics and etc.), development of work models (drawings), formation of approaches to solution and choice best options, building a model and checking its functioning, designing specified parameters, individual and group assessment of task completion. The basis for this typology of methods is V. Okon’s idea of ​​​​the constant development of the creative foundations of the individual through the structuring of the taught knowledge and teaching methods. “The information that a person needs is always intended for some purpose, namely to understand the structure of reality, the way of the natural world around us, society, and culture. Structural thinking is the kind of thinking that combines the elements of this world known to us. If, thanks to a successful teaching method, these structures fit into the consciousness of a young person, then each of the elements in these structures has its own place and is connected with other structures. Thus, a kind of hierarchy is formed in the student’s mind - from the simplest structures to the most general to complex. Understanding the basic structures that take place in living and inanimate nature, in society, in technology and art, can contribute to creative activity based on the knowledge of new structures, the selection of elements and the establishment of connections between them.” 11. Based on the fact that the holistic pedagogical process is ensured by a unified classification of methods, which in a generalized form includes all other classification characteristics of B.T. Likhachev calls a number of classifications as if constituting a classification as a classification. He takes the following as its basis: - Classification according to the correspondence of teaching methods to the logic of socio-historical development. - Classification according to the correspondence of teaching methods to the specifics of the material being studied and forms of thinking. - Classification of teaching methods according to their role and significance in the development of essential forces, mental processes, spiritual and creative activity. - Classification of teaching methods according to their compliance with the age characteristics of children. - Classification of teaching methods according to methods of transmitting and receiving information. - Classification of teaching methods according to the degree of effectiveness of their ideological and educational impact, “influence on the formation of children’s consciousness, internal motives” and behavioral incentives. - Classification of teaching methods according to the main stages of the educational-cognitive process (methods of the perception stage - primary assimilation; methods of the assimilation-reproduction stage; methods of the stage of educational and creative expression). In the classifications identified by B.T. Likhachev, preference is given to the latter as scientific and practical, synthesizing in a generalized form the characteristics of teaching methods of all other classifications. To the number of named classifications of teaching methods one could add two or three more. All of them are not without shortcomings, and at the same time have many positive aspects. There are no universal classifications and there cannot be. The learning process is a dynamic construct, this should be understood. In the living pedagogical process, methods develop and take on new properties. Uniting them into groups according to a rigid scheme is not justified, since this hinders the improvement of the educational process. Apparently, one should follow the path of their universal combination and application in order to achieve a high degree of adequacy to the educational tasks being solved. At each stage of the educational process, some methods occupy a dominant position, while others occupy a subordinate position. Some methods provide solutions to educational problems to a greater extent, others to a lesser extent. We also note that failure to include at least one of the methods, even in its subordinate position, in solving the problems of the lesson significantly reduces its effectiveness. Perhaps this is comparable to the absence of at least one of the components, even in a very small dose, in the composition of the drug (this reduces or completely changes its medicinal properties). The methods used in the educational process also perform their functions. These include: teaching, developing, nurturing, stimulating (motivational), control and correction functions. Knowledge of the functionality of certain methods allows you to consciously apply them.

Concepts of method, technique and teaching aid. Classification of teaching methods. Selection of teaching methods

The success of the educational process largely depends on the teaching methods used.

Teaching methods These are ways of joint activity between the teacher and students, aimed at achieving their educational goals. There are other definitions of teaching methods.

Teaching methods are ways of working for teachers and students, with the help of which the latter acquires knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as the formation of their worldview and the development of cognitive powers (M. A. Danilov, B. P. Esipov).

Teaching methods are ways of interrelated activities of teachers and students to implement the tasks of education, upbringing and development ( Yu. K. Babansky).

Teaching methods are ways of teaching the teacher and organizing educational and cognitive activities of students to solve various didactic tasks aimed at mastering the material being studied ( I. F. Kharlamov).

Teaching methods are a system of consistent, interconnected actions of the teacher and students, ensuring the assimilation of the content of education, the development of mental strength and abilities of students, and their mastery of the means of self-education and self-study (G. M. Kodzhaspirova).

Despite the various definitions given to this concept by didactics, the common thing is that most authors tend to consider the teaching method as a way of collaboration between the teacher and students in organizing educational activities. If we are talking only about the activities of the teacher, then it is appropriate to talk about teaching methods, if only about the activities of students, then about teaching methods.

Reflecting the dual nature of the learning process, methods are one of the mechanisms, ways of implementing pedagogically appropriate interaction between the teacher and students. The essence of teaching methods is considered as an integral system of methods that collectively provide a pedagogically appropriate organization of educational and cognitive activity of students.

Thus, the concept of a teaching method reflects in the interrelation the methods and specifics of the teaching work of the teacher and the educational activities of students to achieve learning goals.

Widely used concepts in didactics are also the concepts of “learning method” and “learning rule”.

Reception training This component or separate aspect of a teaching method, i.e. a particular concept in relation to the general concept of “method”. The boundaries between the concepts of “method” and “technique” are very fluid and changeable. Each teaching method consists of individual elements (parts, techniques). With the help of a technique, a pedagogical or educational task is not completely solved, but only its stage, some part of it.

Teaching methods and methodological techniques can change places and replace each other in specific pedagogical situations. The same methodological techniques can be used in different methods. Conversely, the same method for different teachers may include different techniques.

In some situations, the method acts as an independent way to solve a pedagogical problem, in others as a technique that has a particular purpose. For example, if a teacher conveys new knowledge using a verbal method (explanation, story, conversation), during which he sometimes demonstrates visual aids, then their demonstration acts as a technique. If a visual aid is the object of study, students receive basic knowledge based on its consideration, then verbal explanations act as a technique, and demonstration as a teaching method.

Thus, the method includes a number of techniques, but it itself is not their simple sum. Techniques determine the uniqueness of the methods of work of the teacher and students and give an individual character to their activities.

Learning Rule This normative prescription or indication of how one should optimally act in order to carry out an activity corresponding to the method. In other words, learning rule (didactic rule) this is a specific instruction on how to act in a typical pedagogical situation of the learning process.

A rule acts as a descriptive, normative model of a technique, and a system of rules for solving a specific problem is already a normative-descriptive model of a method.

The teaching method is a historical category. The level of development of the productive forces and the nature of production relations influence the goals, content, and means of the pedagogical process. As they change, so do teaching methods.

In the early stages social development the transfer of social experience to younger generations was carried out spontaneously in the process of joint activities of children and adults. By observing and repeating certain actions, mainly labor ones, with adults, children mastered them through direct participation in life social group, of which they were members.

Teaching methods based on imitation prevailed. Imitating adults, children mastered the methods and techniques of obtaining food, making fire, making clothes, etc. It was based on reproductive method training (“do as I do”). This is the most ancient teaching method , from which all others developed.

As the volume of accumulated knowledge expanded and the actions mastered by man became more complex, simple imitation could not provide a sufficient level of assimilation of cultural experience. Since the organization of schools there have appeared verbal methods training. The teacher, using words, conveyed ready-made information to the children, who assimilated it. With the advent of writing and then printing, it became possible to express, accumulate and transmit knowledge in symbolic form. The word becomes the main carrier of information, and learning from books becomes a massive way of interaction between teacher and student.

Books were used in different ways. In medieval school, students mechanically memorized texts, mainly of religious content. This is how it arose dogmatic, or catechism, method training. Its more advanced form is associated with posing questions and presenting ready-made answers.

In the era of great discoveries and inventions, verbal methods are gradually losing their importance as the only way to transfer knowledge to students. Society needed people who not only knew the laws of nature, but also knew how to use them in their activities. The learning process organically included such methods as observation, experiment, independent work, exercise aimed at developing independence, activity, consciousness, and initiative of the child. Development is received visual methods training, as well as methods that help to apply the acquired knowledge in practice.

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. began to occupy an important place heuristic method as a verbal option, which more fully took into account the needs and interests of the child, the development of his independence. “Book” methods of study were contrasted with “natural” methods, that is, learning through direct contact with reality. The concept of “learning through activity” using practical methods training. The main place in the learning process was given to manual labor, various kinds of practical exercises, as well as students’ work with literature, during which children developed the skills of independent work and the use of their own experience. Approved partially search, research methods.

Over time, they are becoming more widespread methods problem-based learning, based on posing a problem and on students’ independent movement towards knowledge. Gradually, society is increasingly beginning to realize that a child needs not only education, the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities, but also the development of his abilities and individual characteristics. Getting distribution methods developmental education. The widespread introduction of technology into the educational process, computerization of teaching leads to the emergence of new methods.

American educator K. Kerr identifies four “revolutions in the field of teaching methods.” In the early stages of human society, parents were the main teachers of children. The first revolution occurred when they were replaced by professional teachers. The second revolution is associated with the replacement of the spoken word with the written word. The third revolution led to the introduction of the printed word into learning, and the fourth is aimed at partial automation and computerization of learning.

The search for methods to improve the learning process remains constant. However, regardless of the role assigned to one or another teaching method at different periods in the development of education, none of them, when used exclusively on its own, provides the desired results. No teaching method is universal. A variety of teaching methods should be used in the educational process.

1. Characteristics of teaching methods, their pedagogical capabilities. Conditions for using teaching methods and tools. Methods and means of developmental education.

In modern pedagogical practice, a large number of teaching methods are used. When selecting them, the teacher faces significant difficulties. In this regard, there is a need for a classification that helps to identify the general and the special, the essential and the accidental in teaching methods, and thereby contributes to their expedient and more effective use.

Unified classification teaching methods does not exist. This is due to the fact that different authors base the division of teaching methods into groups and subgroups on different characteristics and individual aspects of the learning process.

Let's look at the most common classification of teaching methods.

Classification of teaching methods by student activity level (Golant E. Ya.). This is one of the earliest classifications of teaching methods. According to this classification, teaching methods are divided into passive and active, depending on the degree of student involvement in learning activities. TO passive include methods in which students only listen and watch ( story, lecture, explanation, excursion, demonstration, observation), To active methods that organize independent work of students ( laboratory method, practical method, working with a book).

Classification of teaching methods by source of knowledge (Verzilin N. M., Perovsky E. I., Lordkipanidze D. O.)

There are three sources of knowledge: word, visualization, practice. Accordingly, they allocate verbal methods(the source of knowledge is the spoken or printed word); visual methods(sources of knowledge are observed objects, phenomena, visual aids); practical methods(knowledge and skills are formed in the process of performing practical actions).

Verbal methods occupy a central place in the system of teaching methods. These include story, explanation, conversation, discussion, lecture, working with a book.

The second group according to this classification consists of visual teaching methods, in which the assimilation of educational material is significantly dependent on the visual aids, diagrams, tables, drawings, models, devices, and technical means used. Visual methods are conventionally divided into two groups: demonstration method and illustration method.

Practical teaching methods are based on the practical activities of students. The main purpose of this group of methods is the formation of practical skills. Practical methods include exercises, practical And laboratory works.

This classification has become quite widespread, which is obviously due to its simplicity.

Classification of teaching methods for didactic purposes (Danilov M. A., Esipov B. P.).

This classification identifies the following teaching methods:

- methods of acquiring new knowledge;

- methods of developing skills and abilities;

- methods of applying knowledge;

- methods of consolidating and testing knowledge, abilities, skills.

The criterion for dividing methods into groups according to this classification are learning objectives. This criterion better reflects the teacher’s activities to achieve the teaching goal. For example, if the goal is to introduce students to something, then to achieve it, the teacher will obviously use the verbal, visual and other methods available to him, and to consolidate, he will ask students to complete oral or written tasks.

With this classification of methods, the gap between their individual groups is eliminated to a certain extent; The teacher’s activities are aimed at solving didactic problems.

Classification of teaching methods by the nature of students’ cognitive activity (Lerner I. Ya., Skatkin M. N.).

According to this classification, teaching methods are divided depending on the nature of the cognitive activity of students when mastering the material being studied. The nature of cognitive activity is the level of mental activity of students.

The following methods are distinguished:

- explanatory and illustrative (information-receptive);

- reproductive;

- problematic presentation;

- partially search engines (heuristic);

- research.

Essence explanatory-illustrative method consists in the fact that the teacher communicates ready-made information using various means, and students perceive it, understand it and record it in memory. The teacher conveys information using the spoken word (story, conversation, explanation, lecture), the printed word (textbook, additional manuals), visual aids (tables, diagrams, pictures, films and filmstrips), practical demonstration of methods of activity (showing experience, work on a machine, a method for solving a problem, etc.).

The cognitive activity of students comes down to memorizing (which may be unconscious) ready-made knowledge. There is a fairly low level of mental activity here.

Reproductive method assumes that the teacher communicates and explains knowledge in a ready-made form, and students assimilate it and can reproduce and repeat the method of activity on the instructions of the teacher. The criterion for assimilation is the correct reproduction (reproduction) of knowledge.

The main advantage of this method, as well as the explanatory and illustrative method discussed above, is cost-effectiveness. This method provides the opportunity to transfer a significant amount of knowledge and skills in a minimally short time and with little effort. The durability of knowledge due to the possibility of its repeated repetition can be significant.

Both of these methods are characterized by the fact that they enrich knowledge and skills, form special mental operations, but do not guarantee the development of students’ creative abilities. This goal is achieved by other methods, in particular the method of problem presentation.

Method of problem presentation is a transition from performing to creative activity. The essence of the problem presentation method is that the teacher poses a problem and solves it himself, thereby showing the train of thought in the process of cognition. At the same time, students follow the logic of presentation, mastering the stages of solving holistic problems.

At the same time, they not only perceive, realize and remember ready-made knowledge and conclusions, but also follow the logic of evidence, the movement of thought of the teacher or a substitute medium (cinema, television, books, etc.). And although students with this method of teaching are not participants, but merely observers of the process of thinking, they learn to resolve cognitive difficulties.

A higher level of cognitive activity carries with it partially search engine (heuristic) method.

The method was called partially search because students independently solve a complex educational problem not from beginning to end, but only partially. The teacher involves students in performing individual search steps. Some of the knowledge is imparted by the teacher, and some of the knowledge is acquired by students on their own, answering questions or solving problematic tasks. Educational activities develops according to the scheme: teacher - students - teacher - students, etc.

Thus, the essence of the partially search method of teaching comes down to the fact that:

Not all knowledge is offered to students in a ready-made form; some of it needs to be acquired on their own;

The teacher’s activity consists of operational management of the process of solving problematic problems.

One of the modifications of this method is heuristic conversation.

Research method of teaching provides for creative learning by students.

Its essence is as follows:

The teacher, together with the students, formulates the problem;

Students resolve it independently;

The teacher provides assistance only when difficulties arise in solving the problem.

Thus, the research method is used not only to generalize knowledge, but mainly so that the student learns to acquire knowledge, investigate an object or phenomenon, draw conclusions and apply the acquired knowledge and skills in life. Its essence comes down to organizing the search and creative activities of students to solve problems that are new to them.

The main disadvantage of this teaching method is that it requires a significant amount of time and a high level of pedagogical qualifications of the teacher.

Classification of teaching methods based on a holistic approach to the learning process (Babansky Yu. K.).

According to this classification, teaching methods are divided into three groups:

1) methods of organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities;

2) methods of stimulation and motivation of educational and cognitive activity;

3) methods of monitoring and self-monitoring of the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities.

First group includes the following methods:

Perceptual (transmission and perception of educational information through the senses);

Verbal (lecture, story, conversation, etc.);

Visual (demonstration, illustration);

Practical (experiments, exercises, completing assignments);

Logical, i.e. organization and implementation of logical operations (inductive, deductive, analogies, etc.);

Gnostic (research, problem-search, reproductive);

Self-management of educational activities (independent work with a book, equipment, etc.).

To the second group methods include:

Methods of developing interest in learning (cognitive games, educational discussions, creating problem situations, etc.);

Methods of forming duty and responsibility in teaching (encouragement, approval, censure, etc.).

To the third group various methods of oral, written and machine testing of knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as methods of self-monitoring of the effectiveness of one’s own educational and cognitive activity are included.

Binary classification of teaching methods based on on combination of methods of activity of the teacher and students (Makhmutov M. I.).

The basis binary And polynar Classifications of teaching methods are based on two or more general characteristics.

The binary classification of teaching methods by M. I. Makhmutov includes two groups of methods:

1) teaching methods (information-reporting; explanatory; instructive-practical; explanatory-motivating; stimulating);

2) teaching methods (executive; reproductive; productive-practical; partially exploratory; search).

Classification, based on four signs (logical-substantive, source, procedural and organizational-managerial), suggested by S. G. Shapovalenko.

There are other classifications of teaching methods.

As we can see, at present there is no single view on the problem of classifying teaching methods, and any of the classifications considered has both advantages and disadvantages that must be taken into account at the selection stage and in the process of implementing specific teaching methods. The presence of different points of view on the problem of classifying teaching methods reflects the objective, real versatility of teaching methods, the natural process of differentiation and integration of knowledge about them.

Let us dwell in more detail on individual teaching methods included in various classifications.

Story. This is a monologue, sequential presentation of material in a descriptive or narrative form. The story is used to convey factual information that requires imagery and consistency of presentation. The story is used at all stages of learning, only the objectives of the presentation, style and volume of the story change.

The greatest developmental effect comes from storytelling when teaching younger schoolchildren who are prone to imaginative thinking. The developing meaning of the story is that it brings mental processes into a state of activity: imagination, thinking, memory, emotional experiences. By influencing a person’s feelings, the story helps to understand and assimilate the meaning of the moral assessments and norms of behavior contained in it.

The goals are distinguished:

- story-introduction, the purpose of which is to prepare students to learn new material;

- story-narration used to present intended content;

- story-conclusion summarizes the material studied.

There are certain requirements for the story as a teaching method: the story must ensure the achievement of didactic goals; contain reliable facts; have clear logic; the presentation must be evidential, figurative, emotional, taking into account the age characteristics of the students.

In its pure form, the story is used relatively rarely. More often it is used in combination with other teaching methods illustration, discussion, conversation.

If with the help of a story it is not possible to provide a clear and precise understanding of certain provisions, then the method of explanation is used.

Explanation this is the interpretation of patterns, essential properties of the object being studied, individual concepts, phenomena. The explanation is characterized by an evidential form of presentation, based on the use of logically related inferences that establish the basis for the truth of a given judgment. Explanation is most often resorted to when studying the theoretical material of various sciences. As a teaching method, explanation is widely used in working with people of different age groups.

There are certain requirements for explanation: precise and clear formulation of the essence of the problem; consistent disclosure of cause-and-effect relationships, reasoning, and evidence; use of comparison, analogy, juxtaposition; impeccable logic of presentation.

In many cases, the explanation is combined with observations, with questions asked by both the trainer and the learner, and can develop into a conversation.

Conversation a dialogical teaching method in which the teacher, by asking a system of questions, leads students to understand new material or checks their understanding of what has already been learned. Conversation as a teaching method can be used to solve any didactic problem. Distinguish individual conversations(questions addressed to one student) , group conversations(questions are addressed to a specific group) and frontal(questions are addressed to everyone).

Depending on the tasks set by the teacher in the learning process, the content of the educational material, the level of creative cognitive activity of students, and the place of conversation in the didactic process, different types of conversations are distinguished:

- introductory or introductory conversations. Conducted before learning new material for updating previously acquired knowledge and determining the degree of readiness of students for knowledge and inclusion in upcoming educational and cognitive activities;

- conversations communication of new knowledge. There are catechetical(reproduction of answers in the wording given in the textbook or by the teacher); Socratic(involving reflection) and heuristic(involving students in the process of actively searching for new knowledge and formulating conclusions);

- synthesizing, or consolidating conversations. Serve to generalize and systematize students’ existing knowledge and ways of applying it in non-standard situations;

- control and correction conversations. They are used for diagnostic purposes, as well as to clarify and supplement students’ existing knowledge with new information.

One type of conversation is interview, which can be carried out with an individual or a group of people.

When conducting a conversation, it is important to formulate and ask questions correctly. They should be short, clear, meaningful; have a logical connection with each other; reveal in aggregate the essence of the issue being studied; promote the assimilation of knowledge in the system.

In terms of content and form, questions must correspond to the level of development of students (questions that are too easy and very difficult do not stimulate active cognitive activity or a serious attitude towards knowledge). You should not ask double, suggestive questions containing ready-made answers; formulate alternative questions that allow “yes” or “no” answers.

Conversation as a teaching method has undoubted dignity:

Activates the educational and cognitive activity of students;

Develops them speech, memory, thinking;

Has great educational power;

It is a good diagnostic tool and helps to monitor students' knowledge.

At the same time, this method also has flaws:

Requires a lot of time;

If students do not have a certain stock of ideas and concepts, then the conversation turns out to be ineffective.

In addition, the conversation does not provide practical skills; contains an element of risk (the student may give an incorrect answer, which is perceived by others and recorded in their memory).

Lecture This is a monologue way of presenting voluminous material. It differs from other verbal methods of presenting material in its more strict structure; abundance of information provided; logic of presentation of the material; the systematic nature of knowledge coverage.

Distinguish popular science And academic lectures. Popular science lectures are used to popularize knowledge. Academic lectures are used in senior secondary schools, secondary specialized and higher educational institutions. Lectures are devoted to large and fundamentally important sections of the curriculum. They differ in their structure and methods of presenting the material. The lecture can be used to summarize and repeat the material covered.

The logical center of the lecture is some theoretical generalization related to the sphere of scientific knowledge. Specific facts forming the basis conversations or story, here serve only as an illustration or as a starting point.

The relevance of using lectures in modern conditions is increasing due to the use of block study of new material on topics or large sections.

Educational discussion as a teaching method is based on the exchange of views on a particular issue. Moreover, these views either reflect the participants’ own opinions or are based on the opinions of others. The main function of educational discussion is to stimulate cognitive interest. With the help of the discussion, its participants acquire new knowledge, strengthen their own opinions, learn to defend their position, and take into account the views of others.

This method is advisable to use if students have the necessary knowledge on the topic of the upcoming discussion, have a significant degree of maturity and independence of thinking, and are able to argue, prove and substantiate their point of view. Therefore, it is necessary to prepare students for the discussion in advance, both in content and in formal terms.

Working with a textbook and book one of the most important teaching methods. The main advantage of this method is the ability for the student to repeatedly access educational information at a pace that is accessible to him and at a convenient time. When using programmed educational books, which, in addition to educational information, also contain control information, issues of control, correction, and diagnostics of knowledge and skills are effectively resolved.

Work with the book can be organized under the direct supervision of the teacher (teacher) and in the form of independent work by the student with the text. This method accomplishes two tasks: students learn educational material and accumulate experience working with texts, and master various techniques for working with printed sources.

Let's look at some techniques for working independently with texts.

Note taking a short note, a summary of the content of what was read. There are continuous, selective, complete, and short notes. You can take notes on the material in the first (yourself) or third person. It is preferable to take notes in the first person, since in this case independence develops better thinking.

Testing a summary of the main ideas in a specific sequence.

Abstracting review of a number of sources on the topic with your own assessment of their content and form.

Drawing up a text plan After reading the text, you need to break it into parts and title each of them. The plan can be simple or complex.

Citation verbatim excerpt from the text.

When quoting, the following conditions must be met:

a) the quotation should be correct, without distorting the meaning;

b) an accurate record of the output data is required (author, title of work, place of publication, publisher, year of publication, page).

Annotation a brief, condensed summary of the content of what was read without losing the essential meaning.

Review writing a review, i.e. a short review expressing your attitude about what you read.

Drawing up a certificate. Help information about something obtained after searching. Certificates can be biographical, statistical, geographical, terminological, etc.

Drawing up a formal logical model verbal-schematic representation of what was read.

Compiling a thematic thesaurus an ordered set of basic concepts on a topic, section, or entire discipline.

Drawing up a matrix of ideas (grid of ideas, repertoire grid) compilation in the form of a table of comparative characteristics of similar objects and phenomena in the works of different authors.

Pictographic recording wordless image.

These are the basic techniques for working independently with printed sources. It has been established that mastery of a variety of techniques for working with texts increases the productivity of cognitive work and allows you to save time on mastering the content of the material. The transition from one method of working with text to another changes the mode of operation of the brain, which prevents its rapid fatigue.

Demonstration as a teaching method, it involves the display of experiments, technical installations, television programs, videos, filmstrips, code positives, computer programs, etc. The demonstration method serves primarily to reveal the dynamics of the phenomena being studied, but is also used to familiarize oneself with the appearance of an object and its internal structure. This method is most effective when students themselves study objects, processes and phenomena, carry out the necessary measurements, establish dependencies, due to which an active cognitive process is carried out, their horizons broaden, and a sensory-empirical basis for knowledge is created.

The demonstration of real objects, phenomena or processes occurring in natural conditions has didactic value. But such a demonstration is not always possible. In this case, they use either a demonstration of natural objects in an artificial environment (animals in a zoo), or a demonstration of artificially created objects in a natural environment (small copies of mechanisms).

Three-dimensional models play an important role in the study of all subjects, as they allow one to become familiar with the design and principles of operation of mechanisms (the operation of an internal combustion engine, a blast furnace). Many modern models make it possible to carry out direct measurements and determine technical or technological characteristics. At the same time, it is important to correctly select objects for demonstration and skillfully direct students’ attention to the essential aspects of the phenomena being demonstrated.

Closely related to method demonstrations method illustrations . Sometimes these methods are identified and not distinguished as independent.

The illustration method involves showing objects, processes and phenomena in their symbolic representation using posters, maps, portraits, photographs, drawings, diagrams, reproductions, flat models, etc. Recently, the practice of visualization has been enriched with a number of new means (multicolor maps with plastic covering, albums, atlases, etc.).

The methods of demonstration and illustration are closely interrelated. Demonstration, as a rule, is used when students must perceive a process or phenomenon as a whole. When it is necessary to understand the essence of a phenomenon, the relationships between its components, they resort to illustrations.

When using these methods, certain requirements must be met:

Use clarity in moderation;

Coordinate the demonstrated clarity with the content of the material;

The visualization used must be appropriate for the age of the students;

The item on display must be clearly visible to all students;

It is necessary to clearly highlight the main, essential in the demonstrated object.

A special group consists of teaching methods, the main purpose of which is the formation of practical skills. This group of methods includes exercises, practical And laboratory methods.

Exercise repeated (repeated) performance of educational actions (mental or practical) in order to master them or improve their quality.

Distinguish oral, written, graphic And educational and labor exercises.

Oral exercises contribute to the development of speech culture, logical thinking, memory, attention, and cognitive abilities of students.

Main purpose writing exercises consists of consolidating knowledge, developing the necessary skills and abilities to apply them.

Closely related to written graphic exercises. Their use helps to better perceive, comprehend and remember educational material; promotes the development of spatial imagination. TO graphic exercises include work on drawing up graphs, drawings, diagrams, technological maps, sketches, etc.

A special group consists of training exercises, the purpose of which is to apply theoretical knowledge in work. They promote mastery of skills in handling tools, laboratory equipment (instruments, measuring equipment), and develop design and technical skills.

Any exercises, depending on the degree of independence of students, can be worn reproductive, training or creative in nature.

To activate the educational process and consciously complete educational tasks, they are used commented exercises. Their essence lies in the fact that students comment on the actions being performed, as a result of which they are better understood and assimilated.

For exercises to be effective, they must meet a number of requirements. These include students' conscious approach to performing exercises; knowledge of the rules for performing actions; compliance with the didactic sequence in performing the exercises; taking into account the results achieved; distribution of repetitions over time.

Laboratory method is based on independent conduct by students experiments, experiments using instruments, tools, i.e. using special equipment. Work can be done individually or in groups. Students are required to be more active and independent than during a demonstration, where they act as passive observers rather than participants and performers of research.

The laboratory method not only ensures that students acquire knowledge, but also contributes to the formation of practical skills, which, of course, is its advantage. But the laboratory method requires a special, often expensive equipment, its use involves significant expenditures of energy and time.

Practical methods These are teaching methods aimed at applying acquired knowledge to solving practical problems. They perform the functions of deepening knowledge, skills, control and correction, stimulate cognitive activity, contribute to the formation of such qualities as thrift, economy, organizational skills, etc.

Some authors in special group allocate active And intensive teaching methods . Scientists and practitioners began to pay close attention to these teaching methods in the 60s. twentieth century, and this was connected with the search for ways to activate students in the learning process. The cognitive activity of students is expressed in a stable interest in knowledge and in a variety of independent learning activities. Traditional teaching technology, aimed at ensuring that the student listens, remembers, and reproduces what the teacher says, poorly develops cognitive activity student.

Active learning methods These are teaching methods in which the student’s activity is productive, creative, and exploratory in nature. Active learning methods include didactic games, analysis of specific situations, problem solving, learning using an algorithm, brainstorming, out-of-context operations with concepts and etc.

Intensive teaching methods are used to organize training in a short time with long one-time sessions (“immersion method”). These methods are used in teaching business, marketing, foreign languages, practical psychology and pedagogy.

Let's look at some of these methods.

Method of didactic games. Didactic (educational) games as a teaching method became very popular in the second half of the twentieth century. Some scientists classify them as practical teaching methods, while others place them in a special group. There are reasons for classifying didactic games into a separate group: firstly, they, absorbing elements of visual, verbal, and practical methods, go beyond them; secondly, they have peculiarities unique to them.

Didactic game This is a collective, purposeful educational activity when each participant and the team as a whole are united in solving the main problem and focus their behavior on winning.

The purpose of didactic games is training, development and education of students. A didactic game is an active educational activity involving simulation of the phenomena, processes, and systems being studied. The game reproduces and simulates reality and the operations of participants in a simplified form, simulating real actions.

Didactic games as a teaching method contain great potential for activation learning process.

Brain attack (brainstorming) a teaching method aimed at activating thought processes through a joint search for a solution to a difficult problem. This method was proposed by the American psychologist A. Osborne. Its essence is that participants put forward their ideas and proposals on the problem. All ideas, even the most unexpected ones, are accepted and undergo group examination and discussion. This method teaches a culture of joint discussion of ideas, overcoming stereotypes and patterns in thinking; reveals a person's creative potential.

Algorithm training as a teaching method used in programmed learning technology. An algorithm in pedagogy is understood as an instruction for performing strictly sequential actions with educational material, which guarantees the solution of educational problems on high level. (For more details, see the lecture “Teaching Technologies”.)

Currently, directions in pedagogy are being actively developed that use the hidden capabilities of students: suggestopedia And cyberneticosuggestopedia (G. Lazanov, V.V. Petrusinsky) teaching by means of suggestion; hypnopaedia sleep learning; pharmacopedia training with pharmaceuticals. Certain results have been achieved in their application in the process of studying foreign languages ​​and some special disciplines.

Teaching methods are used in conjunction with specific teaching aids.

Means of education ( didactic aids) These are sources of acquiring knowledge and developing skills.

The concept of “learning tools” is used in wide And in the narrow sense. When using this concept in in the narrow sense Teaching aids are understood as educational and visual aids, demonstration devices, technical means, etc. Broad meaning assumes that by means of teaching we understand everything that contributes to the achievement of the goals of education, i.e. the entire set of methods, forms, content, as well as special teaching aids.

Teaching aids are designed to facilitate direct and indirect knowledge of the world. They, like methods, perform teaching, educational and developmental functions, and also serve to motivate, manage and control the educational and cognitive activity of students.

In science there is no strict classification of teaching aids. Some scientists divide teaching aids into means used by the teacher to effectively achieve educational goals (visual aids, technical aids) and individual means of students (school textbooks, notebooks, writing materials, etc.). The number of didactic means also includes those with which both the activities of the teacher and the students are connected (sports equipment, classrooms, computers, etc.).

Sensory modality is often used as a basis for classifying didactic means.

In this case, didactic means are divided into:

- visual (visual), which include tables, maps, natural objects, etc.;

- auditory (auditory) radios, tape recorders, musical instruments, etc.;

- audiovisual (visual-auditory) sound film, television, etc.

Polish didactic V. Okon proposed a classification in which teaching aids are arranged in order of increasing ability to replace the actions of the teacher and automate the actions of the student. He identified simple and complex means.

Simple remedies:

Verbal (textbooks and other texts);

Visual (real objects, models, paintings, etc.).

Complex means:

Mechanical visual instruments (diascope, microscope, overhead projector, etc.);

Auditory aids (player, tape recorder, radio);

Audiovisual (sound film, television, video);

Tools that automate the learning process (language labs, computers, information systems, telecommunication networks).

Didactic tools become a valuable element of the learning process if they are used in close connection with the other components of this process.

The choice of educational methods and teaching aids depends on many objective and subjective reasons, namely:

Patterns and principles of learning arising from them;

General goals of training, education and human development;

Specific educational tasks;

Level of learning motivation;

Features of the teaching methodology of a specific academic discipline;

The time allocated for studying this or that material;

Quantity and complexity of educational material;

Level of preparedness of students;

Age and individual characteristics of students;

Students' educational skills are developed;

Type and structure of the lesson;

Number of students;

Student interest;

The relationship between the teacher and students that developed in the process of educational work (cooperation or authoritarianism);

Logistics, availability of equipment, visual aids, technical means;

Peculiarities of the teacher's personality and qualifications.

Taking into account the complex of these circumstances and conditions, the teacher makes a decision on choosing a specific teaching method or their combination for conducting a lesson.

Control questions:

1. Define methods, techniques and teaching aids

2. List the main classifications of teaching methods

3. Expand the classification of teaching methods according to the nature of students’ cognitive activity (Lerner I. Ya., Skatkin M. N.)

4. What are the conditions for using teaching methods and tools?

3. Pedagogical methods

Like any science, pedagogy is characterized not only by its own subject, but also by a specific set of methods. It is necessary to distinguish, firstly, methods of training and education , with the help of which control is carried out pedagogical process, pedagogical goals are realized, and secondly, actual research methods, those. methods of obtaining pedagogical knowledge itself, which allows us to develop these goals and means of achieving them.

Methods of scientific and pedagogical research – these are ways of obtaining information in order to establish patterns, relationships, dependencies and build scientific theories.

Empirical research methods aimed at accumulating pedagogical facts, their selection, analysis, synthesis, quantitative processing: these are observation, survey methods, studying the products and processes of the activities of students and teachers, documentation and archival materials; compilation of monographic characteristics.

Theoretical level methods: selection and classification of material, study, analysis and synthesis of scientific literature on the topic of research, modeling, content analysis, etc.

Observation - this is a purposeful, relatively long-term, organized according to a special program perception of the pedagogical process, its individual species, parties in natural conditions.

Observation can be continuous or selective. Selectivity can be determined in relation to the subjects of the activity (when observation in a lesson is not carried out for all students in the class, but only, for example, for “excellent students”) or in relation to the content of the activity and the forms of its organization (for example, explaining new material or exercising control) .

Based on observations, an expert assessment can be given. Their results are necessarily recorded. They are recorded in special protocols or observation diaries, where the names of the observed (observed), date, time and purpose are noted. The obtained data is subjected to quantitative and qualitative processing.

The main specific feature of observation is that it does not influence the object of study, does not cause phenomena of interest to it, but waits for their natural expression. This, on the one hand, is an advantage of the observation method (since it allows one to record natural human behavior), and on the other hand, it creates certain difficulties for the researcher (since he is forced to wait until he can observe the phenomenon of interest to him, and therefore must remain indefinitely In standby"). Another disadvantage of this method is that its results are influenced by personal characteristics (attitudes, interests, mental states) researcher.

Observation requires a special, pre-planned plan, which includes the following steps:

determining the purpose and objectives of observation (why observe);

choice of object, subject and situation (what to observe);

choosing an observation method (how to observe);

choosing registration methods (how to keep records);

processing and interpretation of the information received (what is the result).

Types of observation: direct And indirect.

Direct observation characterized by direct observation of the process and, in turn, is divided into two types (included and non-included).

During participant observation, the researcher acts as the direct organizer of educational or educational work, activities and communication of students, which allows him to penetrate deeper into the essence of the phenomena being studied.

In non-participant observation, the researcher is outside the object being studied. With the help of non-participant observation, facts of overt behavior are recorded.

At indirect observation the researcher learns about the characteristics of the subject being studied through other persons.

To obtain the most objective data, observation must be carried out in compliance with certain rules: have a goal, a program, be carried out systematically and over a long period of time. Recording the process and results of observation must be continuous, thorough and detailed.

Survey methods : interviewing and questioning.

An interview is a method of oral conversation according to a program compiled by the researcher.

Types of interviews:

1) non-standardized (informal), in which the researcher, thinking through the questions in advance, can change them and clarify them during the conversation, depending on the circumstances;

2) a standardized interview, when the researcher asks the subject to precisely formulate answers in a certain sequence. The results of such an interview are quite accurate and easier to record. However this type the interview does not sufficiently take into account the diversity of life situations;

3) a semi-standardized interview includes precisely formulated questions that can be changed.

Questionnaire – a method that is widely used in pedagogy.

A questionnaire is a written survey that is a set of precisely selected questions.

The method has age restrictions, as it cannot be applied to those who do not have reading and writing skills. Therefore, questioning in the practice of the educational process is used starting from the middle level of secondary schools.

One of its main advantages is the massive nature of information collection. An open questionnaire contains questions without accompanying ready-made answers. The closed-type questionnaire is structured in such a way that for each question the respondent is asked to choose one of the answer options (often the choice is “yes” or “no”). A mixed questionnaire contains elements of both types.

In pedagogical practice, up to 30-40 minutes are allotted for questioning. The order of questions is most often determined by the random number method. The obtained data is subjected to quantitative and qualitative processing. However, when processing closed questionnaires, qualitative analysis is practically impossible, since if the choices are similar (“yes” or “no”) different people the reasons for such choices remain unclear and cannot be compared.

The main requirements that a survey must meet are representativeness and homogeneity of the sample.

Representativeness of the sample – this property of a sample population to represent the main characteristics of the general population totality.

General population – it is the entire population or that part of it that the sociologist intends to study.

Sample population (sample) is a part of the population being studied or a set of people whom a sociologist interviews.

The survey method assumes the possibility of using the principle of anonymity, which can influence the degree of frankness in answers (for example, a questionnaire revealing students’ attitudes towards academic subjects and teachers).

The questionnaire can also be designed to obtain material concerning other individuals (for example, a survey of teachers or parents about the characteristics of children’s learning).

Sociometry – a method of scientific research that allows, based on surveys or recording behavior, to identify the structure of relationships; used to study the structure of groups and teams, organizational and communicative properties of the individual.

Based on the sociometric diagnostic procedure, the founder of which is J. Moreno, in educational practice it is possible to determine the informal leader of a group, class, teaching staff, status hierarchy in the group, group cohesion, etc.

Each individual in the group has his own sociometric status, which can be determined by analyzing the sum of preferences and rejections received from other members.

The totality of all statuses specifies status hierarchy in Group:

Sociometric stars - the highest status members of the group, having the maximum number of positive choices with a small number of negative choices. These are the people to whom the sympathies of the majority, or at least many, members of the group are directed.

High status, average status and low status members of the group, determined by the number of positive choices and not having large number negative elections. There are groups in which there are no sociometric stars, but only high-, medium-, and low-status members.

Isolated – subjects who lack any choices, both positive and negative. The position of an isolated person in a group is one of the most unfavorable, since it indicates that other group members are completely indifferent to this individual.

Les Misérables – those group members who have a large number of negative choices and a small number of preferences.

Neglected or outcasts – members of a group who do not have a single positive choice while having negative ones.

An example of a sociometric technique . Each group member is given a group list and a questionnaire with instructions and two criteria for emotional content such as:

Who from the group do you communicate with or would like to communicate with in your free time?

Which member of the group do you communicate with least often or would least like to communicate with in your free time?

Processing the results:

Based on the questionnaire data, a sociometric matrix is ​​filled out according to the criterion of emotional gravity.

The number of positive (“+”) choices for each group member is counted. It is equal to the number of “+” choices in each column of the matrix.

The number of positive (“+”) points for each participant is calculated. For the first choice the subject is assigned 2 points, for the second - 1 point, for all subsequent choices - 0.5 points.

The number of rejections (“-” choices) for each participant is counted.

The number of points for rejections (“-” points) is calculated for each participant (points are assigned in the same way as points for positive choices only with a “-” sign).

If the application of the five listed criteria for an unambiguous determination of status is not enough, then the participant’s serial number in the alphabetical list is used as an additional one. So, for example, if two or more participants have the same values, then the higher place is taken by the participant who has a lower place in the group list.

A sociogram is being constructed. It is a graphic representation of the (usually) emotional connections between group members. In the diagram, the group members are symbolically designated (by codes), their choices and the direction of these choices are indicated (by arrows).

the value of the indicator of emotional cohesion of the group is determined: C = N B /(N(N – 1)), where C is the emotional cohesion of the group; N B – number of mutual elections in the group; N – number of group members; N(N – 1) – the total possible number of mutual elections in the group.

Pedagogical experiment – scientifically conducted experience in the field of educational or educational work with the aim of identifying the interdependence between the phenomena under study.

The main difference between an experiment and an observation is that the experimenter influences the object under study in accordance with the research hypothesis.

The study of pedagogical phenomena is carried out in specially created controlled conditions. A pedagogical experiment offers active intervention in the educational process.

Types of experiment:

1) laboratory, which is carried out in specially created conditions and allows you to accurately record the nature of the impact on the subjects and their responses;

2) a natural experiment conducted under normal educational conditions, when the subjects do not know that they are taking part in an experiment.

The introduction of an experiment makes it possible to test the effectiveness of curricula, programs for educational work, forms and methods of education and training, etc.

The following stages are usually distinguished in an experiment:

1) theoretical– formulation of the problem, definition of the goal, object, subject, tasks and hypothesis, which can be tested experimentally;

2) methodical– development of research methodology for the plan, program, methods of processing the received data;

3) the experiment itself– creation of experimental situations, observation, management and correction of experimental effects;

4) analytical– quantitative and qualitative analysis, interpretation of the data obtained, formulation of conclusions and practical recommendations.

To establish general patterns of development, the experiment is carried out on large samples. And then it becomes extremely important to comply with the general, identical conditions for its implementation (wording of instructions, appearance and placement of stimulus material, time to complete buildings, etc.).

The results of the experiment, as well as during observation, are recorded in special protocols, where, in addition to information about each subject (last name, first name, age, etc.), his reactions (emotional and behavioral), verbatim speech statements, and time for completing tasks are recorded.

A properly designed experiment allows you to test hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships and relationships, without limiting yourself to stating correlations between variables.

There are traditional and factorial types of experimental designs. The traditional one assumes changes in only one independent variable, while the factorial one assumes changes in several. In the second option, it becomes possible to assess the interaction of factors - changes in the nature of the influence of one of the variables depending on the value of the other. In this case, analysis of variance is used to statistically process the experimental results.

If the area under study is relatively unknown and there is no system of hypotheses, then a pilot experiment is used, the results of which can help clarify the direction of further analysis.

When planning and conducting an experiment, it is necessary to take into account the socio-psychological effects that influence its course and results. The most noticeable effects include:

Audience effect . It is determined by the fact that the presence of an audience, even a passive one, in itself affects the rate of learning of the subject or his performance of the proposed task. Typically, the presence of spectators at the initial stages of training rather confuses the subject, and at the stage of performing an already mastered action (or an action that requires physical effort), on the contrary, it facilitates its implementation. This effect must be taken into account in psychological and pedagogical research and in pedagogical practice, since training, as a rule, takes place in a group form.

Boomerang effect. It consists in the fact that with some influences of a source of information on individuals or a group, a result opposite to the expected one is obtained. As a rule, this is observed if:

1. trust in the source of information has been undermined;

   the transmitted information for a long time has a monotonous character that does not correspond to the changed conditions;

   the subject transmitting information causes hostility among those who perceive it.

In pedagogical practice, this effect can be observed in the “teacher-student” relationship and negatively affect students’ assimilation of educational material.

3. First impression effect . It is expressed in the fact that often when perceiving a person, his appearance and character, the greatest importance is attached to the first impression and subsequent information about this person, if it contradicts it, can be ignored, and observed manifestations that do not fit into the created image are considered random and uncharacteristic. The first impression effect is very close in content to the halo effect.

4. Halo effect . Acts as a dissemination of the general evaluative impression of a person on the perception of his actions and personal qualities. It is observed, as a rule, in conditions of a lack of information about a person. In other words, the first impression of a person determines his subsequent perception and assessment, allowing into the consciousness of the perceiver only that which corresponds to the first impression, and filtering out what is contradictory. When forming a first impression, the halo effect can act as:

"positive halo"- positive evaluative bias, i.e. if the first impression of a person is generally favorable, then all his behavior is overestimated in a positive direction, positive aspects are exaggerated, and negative ones are underestimated or ignored;

"negative halo"- negative evaluative bias, i.e. if the first impression of a person was unfavorable, then even his positive traits and actions are later not noticed or underestimated against the background of hypertrophied attention to shortcomings.

The effect of the first impression and the halo effect must be taken into account by the organizers of experimental studies and especially by teachers, since, due to the specifics of their professional activities, they must constantly assess the level of learning of students; a rigid assessment can be a psychologically traumatic factor. Overcoming these effects (as, indeed, many others) requires a certain amount of work from the teacher, primarily a constant reflexive analysis of his activities.

5. Hawthorne effect . It says that If subjects know the hypothesis accepted by the experimenter, then it is likely that they will involuntarily or intentionally behave in accordance with the experimenter's expectations. In general, just participating in an experiment has such an impact on the subjects that they often perform as the experimenters expect them to. To reduce the Hawthorne effect, it is enough to keep subjects unaware of the accepted hypotheses and give them instructions in as emotionally neutral a tone as possible.

6. Pygmalion effect (Rosenthal effect). Associated with the experimenter's expectations. When he is deeply convinced that the reactions of the subjects will change, then, even with his desire to maintain objectivity, there is a high probability of involuntary transmission of these expectations to the subjects, and this can affect their behavior. American psychologist Rosenthal so called the phenomenon that an experimenter, firmly convinced of the validity of his assumptions, involuntarily acts in such a way that he receives confirmation of them.

Simulation method , which is based on the creation of models of the object of study.

A special role in the development of science is played by mathematical models, the importance of which in research is increasingly expanding. In pedagogical research, objective models of objects and subjects of scientific research are distinguished: models of the process of teaching and upbringing, school lessons, university forms and methods of teaching and upbringing, control and assessment of knowledge, skills, models of a student of a certain level of performance, etc.

Studying school documentation (personal files of students, medical records, class registers, student diaries, minutes of meetings) equips the researcher with some objective data characterizing the actual practice of organizing the educational process.

Theoretical methods are related to studying literature : works of classics on issues of human science in general and pedagogy in particular; general and special works on pedagogy; historical and pedagogical works and documents from periodical pedagogical press; fiction about school, education, teacher; reference pedagogical literature, textbooks and teaching aids on pedagogy and related sciences.

Studying the literature makes it possible to find out which aspects of the problem have already been sufficiently well studied, which scientific discussions are ongoing, what is outdated, and which issues have not yet been resolved.

Working with literature involves the use of methods such as:

compiling a bibliography - a list of sources selected for work in connection with the problem under study;

abstracting – summary the main content of one or more works on a general topic;

note-taking – keeping more detailed records, the basis of which is highlighting the main ideas and provisions of the work;

annotation – a brief record of the general content of a book or article;

citation – a verbatim recording of expressions, factual and numerical data contained in a literary source.

Mathematical and statistical methods in pedagogy they are used to process the data obtained by survey and experiment methods, as well as to establish quantitative dependencies between the phenomena being studied. They help evaluate the results of an experiment, increase the reliability of conclusions, and provide grounds for theoretical generalizations.

Examples of such statistical methods are:

factor analysis;

cluster analysis;

analysis of variance;

regression analysis;

latent structural analysis;

multidimensional scaling, etc.

Factor analysis is to identify and interpret factors. A factor is a generalized variable that allows you to collapse part of the information, i.e. present it in a convenient form. For example, the factor theory of personality identifies a number of generalized characteristics of behavior, which in this case are called personality traits.

Cluster analysis allows you to identify the leading feature and the hierarchy of feature relationships.

Analysis of variance – a static method used to study one or more simultaneously acting and independent variables for the variability of an observed characteristic. Its peculiarity is that the observed feature can only be quantitative, while at the same time the explanatory features can be both quantitative and qualitative.

Regression analysis allows you to identify the quantitative (numerical) dependence of the average value of changes in the resulting characteristic (explained) on changes in one or more characteristics (explanatory variables). As a rule, this type of analysis is used when it is necessary to find out how much the average value one characteristic when another characteristic changes by one.

Latent structure analysis is a set of analytical and statistical procedures for identifying hidden variables (signs), as well as the internal structure of connections between them. It makes it possible to explore the manifestations of complex relationships between directly unobservable characteristics of psychological and pedagogical phenomena. Latent analysis can become the basis for modeling these relationships.

Multidimensional scaling provides a visual assessment of the similarities or differences between certain objects described big amount various variables. These differences are represented as distances between the objects being assessed in multidimensional space.

The most common in pedagogy are also: grouping, ranking, scaling, etc.

Grouping – combining, according to essential characteristics, units of the object under study into homogeneous populations. The grouping procedure is preceded by a thorough analysis of the problem being studied. During this analysis, the basis of the grouping is determined, i.e. main features, semantic units, etc., according to which the studied population is divided into homogeneous groups. The selected groups can be easily compared, compared, which means it is possible to analyze more deeply this or that psychological and pedagogical statement.

The scientific validity of the grouping also depends on compliance with the basic principles of the grouping in the process of its implementation: the division of heterogeneous phenomena into homogeneous ones; finding common and similar phenomena; determining the characteristics by which types should be distinguished; determining the transition interval from one type to another.

In pedagogical research, the following types of grouping are used:

1) grouping using simple summation

homogeneous characteristics , due to which the absolute numbers of their manifestations in the studied population are determined;

2) ranging, i.e. groupings of the studied units of the population depending on the increase or decrease of the characteristic being studied;

3)scaling – grouping based on logically identified features using a pre-developed ordinal or interval scale. Scaling makes it possible to organize, quantify, and determine the lowest and highest levels of the phenomenon under study;

tabulation – construction of statistical tables.

The results of statistical work, in addition to tables, are often presented graphically in the form of diagrams, figures, etc. The main methods of graphically representing statistical quantities are: the method of points, the method of straight lines and the method of rectangles. They are simple and accessible to every researcher. The technique of using them is drawing coordinate axes, establishing a scale and writing out the designations of segments (points) on the horizontal and vertical axes.

Using statistical methods, the average values ​​of the obtained indicators are determined: arithmetic mean; median - indicator of the middle of the series; degree of dispersion - dispersion, or standard deviation, coefficient of variation, etc. To carry out these calculations, there are corresponding formulas and reference tables are used. The results processed using these methods make it possible to show a quantitative relationship in the form of graphs, diagrams, and tables.

3. The relationship between the concepts of “pedagogical technology” and “methods of teaching and education”

When defining the concept of “pedagogical technology”, we used the terms: method, technique, method, means. The same terms are used when defining the methodology of teaching a certain subject or the methodology of educational work. However, these concepts are different.

Under methodology usually understood a set of methods and means of carrying out pedagogical activities in the process of teaching and upbringing. At the same time, methodology is a pedagogical science that studies 1) the patterns, content, methods and means of teaching a specific academic subject (private methodology); 2) features of the organization of the educational process in various educational institutions (methodology of educational work). However m methodology studies a variety of methods (techniques) and means of the pedagogical process, without arranging them in a certain logic, according to a certain algorithm.

Technology differs from the methodology precisely in its algorithmic and targeting a specific diagnosable result. In passing, we note that pedagogical technology is not reduced to an algorithm as an exact reproduction of actions, since it takes into account and allows for within certain limits creativity of teachers and students.

There are other approaches to distinguishing the concepts under consideration. The technique reveals to a greater extent teacher activity system in a lesson or in extracurricular educational work (what to present and in what sequence, what means to use, how to organize the various stages of the lesson, etc.). Technology, along with the activities of the teacher, describes the activities of the students themselves. In addition, the methods have a soft, recommendatory nature, while technologies more strictly prescribe a certain sequence of actions for students and the teacher, deviation from which may hinder the achievement of planned results. Technologies provide the opportunity to reproduce them, but methods are much more difficult to reproduce. They are largely based on intuition, tradition, and personal qualities of the teacher. The technology is always scientifically substantiated, based on certain philosophical, psychological or pedagogical theories that do not depend on the personality of the teacher.

The question of which of these concepts is broader - pedagogical technology or methodology - is debatable. We should agree with N.I. Zaprudsky is that this question cannot be answered unambiguously. Within the framework of technology, a teacher can use local proprietary methods and, conversely, within the framework of the author’s methodology, he can use elements of well-known technologies.

4. Classification of pedagogical technologies

Exist different reasons for classification of educational technologies. Thus, it is possible to group technologies according to the level of application, according to the philosophical basis, according to the leading factor of mental development, according to the concept of assimilation, according to organizational forms, according to the approach to the child, according to the predominant method, according to the category of students, according to the nature of the content and structure, according to the direction of modernization of the existing traditional systems (G.K. Selevko, G.D. Levites, etc.), by the degree of generalization, by the level of subjectivity of the performer (S.S. Kashlev), by the type of organization and management of cognitive activity (V.P. Bespalko). Let us name some of the most important classifications from the point of view of a practicing teacher.

By level of application There are general pedagogical, specific methodological and local technologies. General pedagogical technology characterize the holistic pedagogical process (pedagogical system) in a given region or educational institution. Private methodological(subject or educational) technology characterizes the totality of goals, content, methods and means of activity of the teacher and students within the framework of one subject or area of ​​education. Local (narrow subject, modular) technology characterizes individual parts of the educational process, the process of solving individual didactic or educational problems.

By degree of generality distinguish macro-technologies, which determine the philosophy and strategy of the pedagogical process, and micro-technologies - the tactics of pedagogical interaction, its specific techniques. Examples of macro-technologies are the technology of collective creative activity, a system of developmental education, information technology, etc., micro-technologies - technology of discussion, travel game, etc.

By the nature of the content and structure technologies are: teaching and educational, secular and religious, general education and professionally oriented, humanitarian and technocratic, as well as monotechnologies, polytechnologies (complex) and penetrating technologies. For example, in monotechnologies the entire educational process is built on any one dominant, priority idea or concept. IN complex technologies use elements of various monotechnologies. Technologies whose elements are most often included in other technologies and at the same time play the role of catalysts are called penetrating.

According to the level of subjectivity of the performer Pedagogical technologies can be classified into production (reproductive), social (problematic) and humanitarian (creative). At the same time, under production or reproductive technology is understood as an algorithmic technology that can be fully reproduced, regardless of the user’s identity. These include, for example, technologies of programmed training, modular training, and university education. Social(problematic technology) involves taking into account the user’s identity. Social technologies are: project-based learning technology, cooperative learning technology, Dalton technology, etc. Humanitarian or creative technologies are the teacher’s own technologies created in the process of professional activity.

The basis of the classification by type of organization and management of cognitive activity the nature of the interaction between teacher and student is determined. This interaction, according to V.P. Fingerless, maybe open(uncontrolled and uncorrected activity of students); cyclical(with control, self-control and mutual control); absent-minded(front) or directed ( individual); manual(verbal) or automated(using educational tools). The combination of these features determines different types of technologies (learning systems):

1) classical lecture learning (open-ended, scattered, manual);

2) training with the help of audiovisual technical means (open-ended, scattered, automated);

3) “consultant” system (open-loop, directed, automated);

4) learning with the help of a textbook (open-ended, directed, automated);

5) system of “small groups” (cyclical, scattered, manual);

6) computer training (cyclical, scattered, automated);

7) “tutor” system (cyclical, directed, manual);

8) “programmed training” (cyclical, directed, automated).

In practice, various combinations of these monotechnologies are usually found: modern traditional training, programmed training, group and differentiated teaching methods, etc.

In the direction of modernizing the existing traditional system The following groups of technologies are distinguished:

A ) technologies based on humanization and democratization of pedagogical relations characterized by the priority of personal relationships, an individual approach, the democratic nature of management, the humanistic orientation of the content, and procedural orientation. These include: pedagogy (technology) of cooperation, humane-personal technology Sh.A. Amonashvili and others.

b) technologies based on the activation and intensification of student activities. These are, for example, gaming technologies, problem-based learning technology, learning technology based on circuit and symbolic models (reference signals) V.F. Shatalov, technology of project-based learning, etc.

V) technologies based on the effectiveness of organizing and managing the learning process. Examples are: technology of programmed learning, technology of differentiated learning, technology of individualization of learning, technology of advanced learning (S.N. Lysenkova), technology based on collective learning methods, information and computer technologies.

G) pedagogical technologies based on methodological improvement and didactic reconstruction of educational material: technology for enlarging didactic units (P.M. Erdniev), technology “Dialogue of Cultures” (V.S. Bibler, S.Yu. Kurganov), pedagogical system “Ecology and Dialectics” (L.V. Tarasov), etc.;

d) p nature-conforming, using folk pedagogy methods based on the natural processes of child development: training system L.N. Tolstoy, the pedagogical system of M. Montessori, etc.

e) alternativetechnologies: Waldorf pedagogy, technology of free labor S. Frenet and others.

With all the variety of pedagogical technologies in each of them, the following classification characteristics can be distinguished:

Level of application;

Philosophical basis;

Targets and orientations;

The main factor in personality development

Scientific concept of knowledge acquisition;

The child’s position in the pedagogical process;

Features of the content of education (focus on personal structures, volume and character, etc.);

The predominant method of teaching or upbringing;

Forms of the pedagogical process;

Management of the pedagogical process (diagnosis, planning, etc.);

When analyzing pedagogical technology, you should pay attention to its software and methodological support: curricula and programs, teaching aids, didactic materials, visual aids and technical teaching aids; diagnostic tools.