Law of Gravity

The structure of the gravity field does not in any way come from the size of the planet’s mass. On the contrary, it is the intensity of this gravitational field (as one of the types of gravity), expressed by the magnitude of the field charge (gravitational acceleration), that forms the mass of the planet.

And this once again emphasizes the absurdity of expressing the force of gravity by a formula, called in traditional physical theory the formula of universal gravity, through the equality: Ft. = m*g= G*(m*Mз)/R 2, where “R” is the radius of the Earth plus the height of the body above the Earth’s surface, and Mz is the mass of the Earth, but actually denotes its weight (which is again absurd).

Please note that in addition to determining the “mass” of the Earth from the above equality, the charge of the gravity field (gravitational acceleration) is also expressed from it in the form “g = G*Mз/Rз. 2,” calling such a formula a kind of independent expression for the acceleration of free fall. At the same time, it is forgotten that the acceleration of free fall is expressed, naturally, without any consideration of masses, based on the formula for the path of fall of a body “ GT²/2" (And gOt²/4 in the physics of discrimination) and - from the formula of a reversible pendulum ( go=4piR/T 2).

Based on the absurd formula g=G*Mз/Rз. 2, accordingly, the absurd Schwarzschild formula was also derived, which states that stars tend to compress and, subsequently, to some kind of gravitational collapse. Such an absurd statement led to the absurd theory of certain “black holes”. And all these absurdities are expressed against the background of the facts of a decrease in the weight of bodies as they approach the center of the Earth and the independence of the nature of the fall of bodies from their mass.

Despite the fact that Newton, due to his time, was not familiar with the fact of physical fields, he actually designated the universal gravitational structure as a force or external manifestation of the entire space-time cosmic structure. After all, he revealed the dependence of the values ​​of spatial charges of rotation (called centripetal rotational acceleration for the Moon and gravitational acceleration for the Earth) on the square of the radius between them without any consideration of masses.

This structural spatial dependence expressing the mutually centric outward force interaction of fields and is the law of universal gravity. But, considering the interactions of bodies, and not fields denoting bodies and individual charges, I. Newton expressed the law of universal gravity not rotationally and structurally, but linearly and mathematically: by the product of the gravitational charges of bodies (then replaced by masses).

These charges in Coulomb's law are already electric charges, and in Cavendish's experiment they are external molecular charges of bodies. And here is a further replacement of I. Newton’s gravitational charges, denoting the outer field or spatial characteristics(including a specific body) into masses that characterize the internal field characteristics of bodies exclusively, and led to the absurdity of the equality “Ft. = m*g= G*(m*Mз)/R 2 ".

After all, mass (not actually distinguished in traditional physics from the force of gravity) is a derivative of the internal molecular charge of the substance of the body. Thus, on the initial distortion of the law of universal gravitation, expressed in a linear rather than a rotational structural consideration of force, a distortion was superimposed in the form of replacing the external concept of gravitational charge with the internal physical concept of mass.

This resulted in a double distortion of the law of universal gravity. In this regard, it has nothing to do with the formation of gravity, since, firstly, universal gravity or gravitation means a rotationally structural, rather than linear, consideration of force. And, secondly, the linear consideration of force does not express internal characteristics bodies and internal field interaction, and - external spatial-field interaction of gravitational charges (by considering their rotational field characteristic, in the dimension of rotational acceleration).

And, indeed, the force of gravity, acting only on large cosmic bodies, and not in space, has nothing to do with the universal or universal gravity. The formation of gravity, naturally, relates to gravity, but indirectly through mass.

At the same time, the formation of gravity, as well as any strength, based on the comparison of rotational field charges by Newton himself, it is necessary to consider not linearly or linear vectors, and - rotationally structurally or spiral vectors. Newton’s third law also speaks about the field or spherical origin of force, as spiral vectors of action and reaction.

And the very path of the fall of the body, which turns into the gravity vector, is the length of the unfolded circle with a radius equal to the arc of the semicircle described by the average radius of the Earth. Thus, in considering the law of universal gravity, relating to the circular mutually centric field space and to the rotational-structural expression of force, it was allowed to be combined with a linear expression of force (for example, in Coulomb’s law and in a similar expression of the force of external molecular interaction lead balls by G. Cavendish).

And this expression of force already applies to the pre-mass transition space (occupying about 20% of the total observable cosmic volume) and therefore applies to manifestation of the universal gravitational or external force structure, but not to the law of universal gravity. And then this linear designation of force was combined with the expression of gravity (and not in the form of “F=m*g0”, but in the form of “F=m*g” without distinguishing the meaning of the acceleration of gravity and the meaning of the concept of mass). The force of gravity, all the more, does not relate to the law of universal gravity, denoting only the direct mass space or the space of masses that occupies only around 5% of the entire observable cosmic volume.

And only in mass space do universal spherical lines receive a circumferential and then a rectilinear curvature. Therefore, a straight line, oddly enough, means the greatest, but precisely spatial curvature.

Also, I. Newton, due to his era, saw a universal category or universality, based only on the earthly environment, as from the indicated five percent. At the present time space research such a perception of gravity and the universal law of gravity is no longer acceptable.

In his declining years he spoke about how he discovered law universal gravity .

When young Isaac walked in the garden among the apple trees on his parents' estate, he saw the moon in the daytime sky. And next to him an apple fell to the ground, falling from its branch.

Since Newton was working on the laws of motion at that very time, he already knew that the apple fell under the influence of the Earth's gravitational field. And he knew that the Moon is not just in the sky, but revolves around the Earth in orbit, and, therefore, it is affected by some kind of force that keeps it from breaking out of orbit and flying in a straight line away into outer space. This is where the idea came to him that perhaps the same force makes the apple fall to the ground and the Moon remain in Earth orbit.

Before Newton, scientists believed that there were two types of gravity: terrestrial gravity (acting on Earth) and celestial gravity (acting in the heavens). This idea was firmly entrenched in the minds of people of that time.

Newton's insight was that he combined these two types of gravity in his mind. From this historical moment, the artificial and false separation of the Earth and the rest of the Universe ceased to exist.

This is how the law of universal gravitation was discovered, which is one of the universal laws of nature. According to the law, all material bodies attract each other, and the magnitude of the gravitational force does not depend on chemical and physical properties bodies, on the state of their motion, on the properties of the environment where the bodies are located. Gravity on Earth is manifested, first of all, in the existence of gravity, which is the result of the attraction of any material body by the Earth. The term associated with this “gravity” (from Latin gravitas - heaviness) , equivalent to the term "gravity".

The law of gravity states that the force of gravitational attraction between two material points of mass m1 and m2, separated by a distance R, is proportional to both masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

The very idea of ​​the universal force of gravity was repeatedly expressed before Newton. Previously, Huygens, Roberval, Descartes, Borelli, Kepler, Gassendi, Epicurus and others thought about it.

According to Kepler's assumption, gravity is inversely proportional to the distance to the Sun and extends only in the ecliptic plane; Descartes considered it the result of vortices in the ether.

There were, however, guesses with a correct dependence on distance, but before Newton no one was able to clearly and mathematically conclusively connect the law of gravity (a force inversely proportional to the square of the distance) and the laws of planetary motion (Kepler's laws).

In his main work "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" (1687) Isaac Newton derived the law of gravitation based on Kepler's empirical laws known at that time.
He showed that:

• • the observed movements of the planets indicate the presence of a central force;
  • conversely, the central force of attraction leads to elliptical (or hyperbolic) orbits.

Unlike the hypotheses of its predecessors, Newton's theory had a number of significant differences. Sir Isaac published not only the supposed formula of the law of universal gravitation, but actually proposed a complete mathematical model:

• • law of gravitation;
  • law of motion (Newton's second law);
  • system of methods for mathematical research (mathematical analysis).

Taken together, this triad is sufficient for full research the most complex movements of celestial bodies, thereby creating the foundations of celestial mechanics.

But Isaac Newton left open the question of the nature of gravity. The assumption about the instantaneous propagation of gravity in space (i.e., the assumption that with a change in the positions of bodies the gravitational force between them instantly changes), which is closely related to the nature of gravity, was also not explained. For more than two hundred years after Newton, physicists proposed various ways to improve Newton's theory of gravity. Only in 1915 these efforts were crowned with success by the creation Einstein's general theory of relativity , in which all these difficulties were overcome.

So, the movement of planets, for example the Moon around the Earth or the Earth around the Sun, is the same fall, but only a fall that lasts indefinitely (in any case, if we ignore the transition of energy into “non-mechanical” forms).

The conjecture about the unity of causes governing the movement of planets and the fall of earthly bodies was expressed by scientists long before Newton. Apparently, the first to clearly express this idea was the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras, a native of Asia Minor, who lived in Athens almost two thousand years ago. He said that the Moon, if it did not move, would fall to the Earth.

However, Anaxagoras’s brilliant guess, apparently, did not have any practical impact on the development of science. She was destined to be misunderstood by her contemporaries and forgotten by her descendants. Ancient and medieval thinkers, whose attention was attracted by the movement of the planets, were very far from the correct (and more often than not any) interpretation of the causes of this movement. After all, even the great Kepler, who, at the cost of enormous labor, was able to formulate the exact mathematical laws of planetary motion, believed that the cause of this motion was the rotation of the Sun.

According to Kepler's ideas, the Sun, rotating, constantly pushes the planets into rotation. True, it remained unclear why the time of revolution of the planets around the Sun differs from the period of revolution of the Sun around its own axis. Kepler wrote about this: “if the planets did not have natural resistance, then it would be impossible to give reasons why they should not follow exactly the rotation of the Sun. But although in reality all the planets move in the same direction in which the rotation of the Sun occurs, the speed of their movement is not the same. The fact is that they mix, in certain proportions, the inertia of their own mass with the speed of their movement.”

Kepler failed to understand that the coincidence of the directions of motion of the planets around the Sun with the direction of rotation of the Sun around its axis is not associated with the laws of planetary motion, but with the origin of our solar system. An artificial planet can be launched both in the direction of rotation of the Sun and against this rotation.

Robert Hooke came much closer than Kepler to the discovery of the law of attraction of bodies. Here are his actual words from a work entitled An Attempt to Study the Motion of the Earth, published in 1674: “I will develop a theory which is in every respect consistent with the generally accepted rules of mechanics. This theory is based on three assumptions: firstly, that all celestial bodies, without exception, have a gravity directed towards their center, due to which they attract not only their own parts, but also all celestial bodies within their sphere of action. According to the second assumption, all bodies moving in a rectilinear and uniform manner will move in a straight line until they are deflected by some force and begin to describe trajectories in a circle, an ellipse, or some other less simple curve. According to the third assumption, the forces of attraction act the more strongly, the closer to them the bodies on which they act are located. I have not yet been able to establish by experience what various degrees attraction. But if we develop this idea further, astronomers will be able to determine the law according to which all celestial bodies move.”

Truly, one can only be amazed that Hooke himself did not want to engage in the development of these ideas, citing being busy with other work. But a scientist appeared who made a breakthrough in this area

The history of Newton's discovery of the law of universal gravitation is quite well known. For the first time, the idea that the nature of the forces that make a stone fall and determine the movement of celestial bodies is one and the same arose with Newton the student, which the first calculations did not give correct results, since the data available at that time about the distance from the Earth to the Moon was inaccurate, that 16 years later new, corrected information about this distance appeared. To explain the laws of planetary motion, Newton applied the laws of dynamics he created and the law of universal gravitation that he himself established.

He named the Galilean principle of inertia as the first law of dynamics, including it in the system of basic laws-postulates of his theory.

At the same time, Newton had to eliminate the mistake of Galileo, who believed that uniform motion in a circle was motion by inertia. Newton pointed out (and this is the second law of dynamics) that the only way To change the movement of a body - the value or direction of speed - is to act on it with some force. In this case, the acceleration with which a body moves under the influence of a force is inversely proportional to the mass of the body.

According to Newton's third law of dynamics, “to every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction.”

Consistently applying the principles - the laws of dynamics, he first calculated the centripetal acceleration of the Moon as it moves in orbit around the Earth, and then was able to show that the ratio of this acceleration to the acceleration of free fall of bodies at the Earth's surface is equal to the ratio of the squares of the radii of the Earth and the lunar orbit. From this Newton concluded that the nature of gravity and the force that holds the Moon in orbit are the same. In other words, according to his conclusions, the Earth and the Moon are attracted to each other with a force inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers Fg ≈ 1∕r2.

Newton was able to show that the only explanation for the independence of the acceleration of free fall of bodies from their mass is the proportionality of the force of gravity to the mass.

Summarizing the findings, Newton wrote: “there can be no doubt that the nature of gravity on other planets is the same as on Earth. In fact, let us imagine that the earth's bodies are raised to the orbit of the Moon and sent together with the Moon, also devoid of any movement, to fall to the Earth. Based on what has already been proven (meaning the experiments of Galileo), there is no doubt that at the same times they will pass through the same spaces as the Moon, for their masses are related to the mass of the Moon in the same way as their weights are to its weight.” So Newton discovered and then formulated the law of universal gravitation, which is rightfully the property of science.

2. Properties of gravitational forces.

One of the most remarkable properties of the forces of universal gravitation, or, as they are often called, gravitational forces, is reflected in the very name given by Newton: universal. These forces, so to speak, are “the most universal” among all the forces of nature. Everything that has mass - and mass is inherent in any form, any kind of matter - must experience gravitational influences. Even light is no exception. If we visualize gravitational forces with the help of strings that stretch from one body to another, then an innumerable number of such strings would have to permeate space anywhere. At the same time, it is worth noting that it is impossible to break such a thread and protect yourself from gravitational forces. There are no barriers to universal gravity; their radius of action is unlimited (r = ∞). Gravitational forces are long-range forces. This is " official name"of these forces in physics. Due to long-range action, gravity connects all bodies of the Universe.

The relative slowness of the decrease of forces with distance at each step is manifested in our earthly conditions: after all, all bodies do not change their weight when transferred from one height to another (or, to be more precise, they change, but extremely insignificantly), precisely because with a relatively small change in distance - in this case from the center of the Earth - gravitational forces practically do not change.

By the way, it is for this reason that the law of measuring gravitational forces with distance was discovered “in the sky.” All the necessary data was drawn from astronomy. One should not, however, think that a decrease in gravity with height cannot be detected under terrestrial conditions. So, for example, a pendulum clock with an oscillation period of one second will fall behind a day by almost three seconds if it is raised from the basement to the top floor of Moscow University (200 meters) - and this is only due to a decrease in gravity.

Heights at which they move artificial satellites, are already comparable to the radius of the Earth, so to calculate their trajectory, taking into account the change in the force of gravity with distance is absolutely necessary.

Gravitational forces have another very interesting and extraordinary property, which will be discussed now.

For many centuries, medieval science accepted as an unshakable dogma Aristotle's statement that a body falls the faster the greater its weight. Even everyday experience confirms this: it is known that a piece of fluff falls slower than a stone. However, as Galileo was able to show for the first time, the whole point here is that air resistance, coming into play, radically distorts the picture that would be if only earthly gravity acted on all bodies. There is a remarkable experiment with the so-called Newton tube, which makes it possible to very easily evaluate the role of air resistance. Here is a short description of this experience. Imagine an ordinary glass tube (so that you can see what is happening inside) in which various items: pellets, pieces of cork, feathers or fluffs, etc. If you turn the tube over so that all this can fall, then the pellet will flash quickly, followed by pieces of cork and, finally, the fluff will smoothly fall. But let’s try to monitor the fall of the same objects when the air is pumped out of the tube. The fluff, having lost its former slowness, rushes along, keeping pace with the pellet and the cork. This means that its movement was delayed by air resistance, which had a lesser effect on the movement of the plug and even less on the movement of the pellet. Consequently, if it were not for air resistance, if only the forces of universal gravity acted on bodies - in a particular case, gravity - then all bodies would fall exactly the same, accelerating at the same pace.

But “there is nothing new under the sun.” Two thousand years ago, Lucretius Carus wrote in his famous poem “On the Nature of Things”:

everything that falls in rare air,

Should fall faster according to its own weight

Only because water or air is a subtle essence

I am not able to put obstacles in the way of things that are the same,

But it is more likely to yield to those with greater severity.

On the contrary, I am never capable of anything anywhere

The thing holds the emptiness and appears as some kind of support,

By nature, constantly giving in to everything.

Therefore, everything, rushing through the void without obstacles,

Have the same speed despite the difference in weight.

Of course, these wonderful words were a great guess. To turn this guess into a well-established law required many experiments, starting with famous experiments Galileo, who studied the fall of balls of the same size, but made of various materials(marble, wood, lead, etc.), and ending with the most complex modern measurements of the influence of gravity on light. And all this variety of experimental data persistently strengthens us in the belief that gravitational forces impart equal acceleration to all bodies; in particular, the acceleration of free fall caused by gravity is the same for all bodies and does not depend on the composition, structure, or mass of the bodies themselves.

This seemingly simple law expresses perhaps the most remarkable feature of gravitational forces. There are literally no other forces that accelerate all bodies equally, regardless of their mass.

So, this property of the forces of universal gravity can be compressed into one short statement: the gravitational force is proportional to the mass of bodies. Let us emphasize that here we are talking about the very mass that acts as a measure of inertia in Newton’s laws. It is even called inert mass.

The four words “gravitational force is proportional to mass” contain a surprisingly deep meaning. Large and small bodies, hot and cold, of all kinds chemical composition, any structure - they all experience the same gravitational interaction if their masses are equal.

Or maybe this law is really simple? After all, Galileo, for example, considered it almost self-evident. Here is his reasoning. Let two bodies fall different weights. According to Aristotle, a heavy body should fall faster even in vacuum. Now let's connect the bodies. Then, on the one hand, the bodies should fall faster, since total weight increased. But, on the other hand, adding a part to a heavy body that falls more slowly should slow down this body. There is a contradiction that can be eliminated only if we assume that all bodies under the influence of gravity alone fall with the same acceleration. It's like everything is consistent! However, let us think again about the above reasoning. It is based on the common method of proof by contradiction: by assuming that the heavier body falls faster than light, we have arrived at a contradiction. And from the very beginning there was an assumption that the acceleration of free fall is determined by weight and only weight. (Strictly speaking, not by weight, but by mass.)

But this is not at all obvious in advance (i.e., before the experiment). What if this acceleration was determined by the volume of the bodies? Or temperature? Let's imagine that there is a gravitational charge, similar to an electric charge and, like the latter, completely unrelated directly to mass. Comparison with electric charge very helpful. Here are two specks of dust between the charged plates of a capacitor. Let these dust grains have equal charges, and the masses are in the ratio 1 to 2. Then the accelerations should differ by a factor of two: the forces determined by the charges are equal, and with equal forces the body is twice greater mass accelerates at half the speed. If you connect dust particles, then, obviously, the acceleration will have a new, intermediate value. No speculative approach without an experimental study of electrical forces can give anything here. The picture would be exactly the same if the gravitational charge were not associated with mass. But only experience can answer the question of whether such a connection exists. And we now understand that it was the experiments that proved the identical acceleration due to gravity for all bodies that essentially showed that the gravitational charge (gravitational or heavy mass) is equal to the inertial mass.

Experience and only experience can serve both as a basis for physical laws and as a criterion for their validity. Let us at least recall the record-breaking precision experiments conducted under the leadership of V.B. Braginsky at Moscow State University. These experiments, in which an accuracy of about 10-12 was obtained, once again confirmed the equality of heavy and inert mass.

It is on experience, on the wide testing of nature - from the modest scale of a small laboratory of a scientist to the grandiose cosmic scale - that the law of universal gravitation is based, which (to summarize everything said above) says:

The force of mutual attraction of any two bodies whose dimensions are much smaller than the distance between them is proportional to the product of the masses of these bodies and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between these bodies.

The proportionality coefficient is called the gravitational constant. If we measure length in meters, time in seconds, and mass in kilograms, the gravitational force will always be equal to 6.673*10-11, and its dimension will be m3/kg*s2 or N*m2/kg2, respectively.

G=6.673*10-11 N*m2/kg2

3. Gravitational waves.

Newton's law of universal gravitation does not say anything about the time of transmission of gravitational interaction. It is implicitly assumed that it occurs instantly, no matter how large the distances between the interacting bodies are. This view is generally typical of supporters of action at a distance. But from Einstein’s “special theory of relativity” it follows that gravity is transmitted from one body to another at the same speed as the light signal. If some body moves from its place, then the curvature of space and time caused by it does not change instantly. First, this will affect the immediate vicinity of the body, then the change will affect more and more distant areas, and, finally, a new distribution of curvature will be established throughout space, corresponding to the changed position of the body.

And here we come to a problem that has caused and continues to cause greatest number disputes and disagreements - the problem of gravitational radiation.

Can gravity exist if there is no mass creating it? According to Newton's law, definitely not. It makes no sense to even raise such a question there. However, as soon as we agreed that gravitational signals are transmitted, although at a very high, but still not infinite speed, everything changes radically. Indeed, imagine that at first the mass causing gravity, for example a ball, was at rest. All bodies around the ball will be affected by ordinary Newtonian forces. Now let’s remove the ball from its original place with great speed. At first, the surrounding bodies will not feel this. After all, gravitational forces do not change instantly. It takes time for changes in the curvature of space to spread in all directions. This means that the surrounding bodies will experience the same influence of the ball for some time, when the ball itself is no longer there (at least, in the same place).

It turns out that the curvatures of space acquire a certain independence, that it is possible to tear a body out of the area of ​​space where it caused the curvatures, and in such a way that these curvatures themselves, at least over large distances, will remain and develop according to their internal laws. Here is gravity without gravitating mass! We can go further. If you make the ball oscillate, then, as it turns out from Einstein’s theory, a kind of ripple is superimposed on the Newtonian picture of gravity - gravitational waves. To better imagine these waves, you need to use a model - a rubber film. If you not only press your finger on this film, but simultaneously make oscillatory movements with it, then these vibrations will begin to be transmitted along the stretched film in all directions. This is an analogue of gravitational waves. The further away from the source, the weaker such waves are.

And now at some point we will stop putting pressure on the film. The waves won't go away. They will exist independently, scattering further and further across the film, causing geometry to bend along the way.

In exactly the same way, waves of space curvature - gravitational waves - can exist independently. Many researchers draw this conclusion from Einstein’s theory.

Of course, all these effects are very weak. For example, the energy released when one match burns is many times greater than the energy of gravitational waves emitted by our entire solar system during the same time. But what is important here is not the quantitative, but the principled side of the matter.

Proponents of gravitational waves - and they seem to be in the majority now - predict another amazing phenomenon; the transformation of gravity into particles such as electrons and positrons (they must be born in pairs), protons, antitrons, etc. (Ivanenko, Wheeler, etc.).

It should look something like this. A wave of gravity reached a certain area of ​​space. At a certain moment, this gravity sharply, abruptly, decreases and at the same time, say, an electron-positron pair appears there. The same can be described as an abrupt decrease in the curvature of space with the simultaneous birth of a pair.

There are many attempts to translate this into quantum mechanical language. Particles are introduced into consideration - gravitons, which are compared to the non-quantum image of a gravitational wave. In the physical literature, the term “transmutation of gravitons into other particles” is in circulation, and these transmutations - mutual transformations - are possible between gravitons and, in principle, any other particles. After all, there are no particles that are insensitive to gravity.

Even though such transformations are unlikely, that is, they happen extremely rarely, on a cosmic scale they can turn out to be fundamental.

4. Curvature of space-time by gravity,

"Eddington's Parable"

A parable by the English physicist Eddington from the book “Space, Time and Gravity” (retelling):

“In an ocean that has only two dimensions, there once lived a breed of flat fish. It was observed that the fish generally swam in straight lines as long as they did not encounter obvious obstacles in their path. This behavior seemed quite natural. But there was a mysterious area in the ocean; when the fish fell into it, they seemed enchanted; some sailed through this area but changed the direction of their movement, others endlessly circled around this area. One fish (almost Descartes) proposed a theory of vortices; she said that in this area there are whirlpools that make everything that gets into them spin. Over time, a much more advanced theory was proposed (Newton's theory); they said that all fish are attracted to a very large fish - the sun fish, dormant in the middle of the region - and this explained the deviation of their paths. At first this theory seemed perhaps a little strange; but it was confirmed with amazing accuracy by a wide variety of observations. All fish have been found to have this attractive property, proportionate to their size; the law of attraction (analogous to the law of universal gravitation) was extremely simple, but despite this, it explained all movements with such precision that precision had never reached before scientific research. True, some fish, grumbling, declared that they did not understand how such an action at a distance was possible; but everyone agreed that this action was carried out by the ocean, and that it would be easier to understand when the nature of water was better studied. Therefore, almost every fish that wanted to explain gravity began by suggesting some mechanism by which it spread through water.

But there was a fish who looked at things differently. She drew attention to the fact that big fish and the little ones always moved along the same paths, although it might seem that to deviate big fish it will take a lot of strength to get out of her way. (The sunfish imparted equal accelerations to all bodies.) Therefore, instead of trying, she began to study in detail the paths of movement of fish and thus came to an astonishing solution to the problem. There was a high place in the world where the sunfish lay. The fish could not directly notice this because they were two-dimensional; but when the fish in its movement fell on the slope of this elevation, then although it tried to swim in a straight line, it involuntarily turned a little to the side. This was the secret of the mysterious attraction or curvature of paths that occurred in the mysterious area. »

This parable shows how the curvature of the world in which we live can give the illusion of gravity, and we see that an effect like gravity is the only way such curvature can manifest itself.

Briefly, this can be formulated as follows. Since gravity bends the paths of all bodies in the same way, we can think of gravity as the curvature of space-time.

5. Gravity on Earth.

If you think about the role that gravitational forces play in the life of our planet, entire oceans open up. And not only oceans of phenomena, but also oceans in the literal sense of the word. Oceans of water. air ocean. Without gravity they would not exist.

A wave in the sea, the movement of every drop of water in the rivers that feed this sea, all currents, all winds, clouds, the entire climate of the planet are determined by the play of two main factors: solar activity and gravity.

Gravity not only holds people, animals, water and air on Earth, but also compresses them. This compression at the Earth's surface is not so great, but its role is important.

The ship is sailing on the sea. What prevents him from drowning is known to everyone. This is the famous buoyant force of Archimedes. But it appears only because water is compressed by gravity with a force that increases with increasing depth. Inside a spacecraft in flight, there is no buoyant force, and there is no weight either. The globe itself is compressed by gravitational forces to colossal pressures. At the center of the Earth, the pressure appears to exceed 3 million atmospheres.

Under the influence of long-acting pressure forces under these conditions, all substances that we are accustomed to consider solid behave like pitch or resin. Heavy materials sink to the bottom (if you can call the center of the Earth that way), and light materials float to the surface. This process has been going on for billions of years. It has not ended, as follows from Schmidt’s theory, even now. The concentration of heavy elements in the region of the Earth's center is slowly increasing.

Well, how does the attraction of the Sun and the closest celestial body of the Moon manifest itself on Earth? Watch this attraction without special devices only residents of the ocean coasts can.

The sun acts in almost the same way on everything on and inside the Earth. The force with which the Sun attracts a person at noon, when he is closest to the Sun, is almost the same as the force acting on him at midnight. After all, the distance from the Earth to the Sun is ten thousand times greater than the Earth’s diameter, and an increase in the distance by one ten-thousandth when the Earth rotates half a turn around its axis practically does not change the force of gravity. Therefore, the Sun imparts almost identical accelerations to all parts globe and all bodies on its surface. Almost, but still not quite the same. Because of this difference, the ebb and flow of the ocean occurs.

In an area facing the sun earth's surface the force of attraction is somewhat greater than that necessary for the movement of this section along an elliptical orbit, and on the opposite side of the Earth it is somewhat less. As a result, according to Newton's laws of mechanics, the water in the ocean bulges slightly in the direction facing the Sun, and on the opposite side it recedes from the Earth's surface. Tidal forces, as they say, arise, stretching the globe and giving, roughly speaking, the surface of the oceans the shape of an ellipsoid.

The smaller the distances between interacting bodies, the greater the tidal forces. That's why the shape of the world's oceans greater influence renders the Moon than the Sun. More precisely, tidal influence is determined by the ratio of the mass of a body to the cube of its distance from the Earth; this ratio for the Moon is approximately twice that for the Sun.

If there were no cohesion between the parts of the globe, then tidal forces would tear it apart.

Perhaps this happened to one of Saturn's satellites when it came close to this big planet. That fragmented ring that makes Saturn such a remarkable planet may be debris from the satellite.

So, the surface of the world's oceans is like an ellipsoid, the major axis of which faces the Moon. The earth rotates around its axis. Therefore, a tidal wave moves along the surface of the ocean towards the direction of rotation of the Earth. When it approaches the shore, the tide begins. In some places the water level rises to 18 meters. Then the tidal wave goes away and the tide begins to ebb. The water level in the ocean fluctuates, on average, with a period of 12 hours. 25min. (half a lunar day).

This simple picture is greatly distorted by the simultaneous tidal action of the Sun, water friction, continental resistance, the complexity of the configuration of ocean shores and bottom in coastal zones, and some other particular effects.

It is important that the tidal wave slows down the Earth's rotation.

True, the effect is very small. Over 100 years, the day increases by a thousandth of a second. But, acting for billions of years, the braking forces will lead to the fact that the Earth will be turned to the Moon all the time with one side, and the Earth’s days will become equal lunar month. This has already happened to Luna. The Moon is slowed down so much that it always faces the Earth with one side. To "look" at reverse side Moon, we had to send a spaceship around it.

This article will focus on the history of the discovery of the law of universal gravitation. Here we will get acquainted with biographical information from the life of the scientist who discovered this physical dogma, consider its main provisions, the relationship with quantum gravity, the course of development and much more.

Genius

Sir Isaac Newton is a scientist originally from England. At one time, he devoted a lot of attention and effort to such sciences as physics and mathematics, and also brought a lot of new things to mechanics and astronomy. He is rightfully considered one of the first founders of physics in its classical model. He is the author of the fundamental work “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy,” where he presented information about the three laws of mechanics and the law of universal gravitation. Isaac Newton laid the foundations of classical mechanics with these works. He also developed an integral type, light theory. He also contributed huge contribution in physical optics and developed many other theories in physics and mathematics.

Law

The law of universal gravitation and the history of its discovery go back to the distant past. Its classical form is a law that describes gravitational-type interactions that do not go beyond the framework of mechanics.

Its essence was that the indicator of the force F of gravitational thrust arising between 2 bodies or points of matter m1 and m2, separated from each other by a certain distance r, maintains proportionality in relation to both indicators of mass and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the bodies:

F = G, where the symbol G denotes the gravitational constant equal to 6.67408(31).10 -11 m 3 /kgf 2.

Newton's gravity

Before considering the history of the discovery of the law of universal gravitation, let us familiarize ourselves in more detail with its general characteristics.

In the theory created by Newton, all bodies with large mass should generate a special field around themselves that attracts other objects to itself. It's called a gravitational field, and it has potential.

A body with spherical symmetry forms a field outside itself, similar to that created by a material point of the same mass located at the center of the body.

The direction of the trajectory of such a point in the gravitational field created by a body with a much larger mass obeys. Objects of the universe, such as, for example, a planet or a comet, also obey it, moving along an ellipse or hyperbola. The distortion that other massive bodies create is taken into account using the provisions of perturbation theory.

Analyzing accuracy

After Newton discovered the law of universal gravitation, it had to be tested and proven many times. For this purpose, a series of calculations and observations were made. Having come to agreement with its provisions and based on the accuracy of its indicator, the experimental form of evaluation serves as a clear confirmation of general relativity. Measuring the quadrupole interactions of a body that rotates, but its antennas remain stationary, shows us that the process of increasing δ depends on the potential r -(1+δ), at a distance of several meters and is in the limit (2.1±6.2) .10 -3 . A number of other practical confirmations allowed this law to establish itself and take a single form, without modifications. In 2007, this dogma was rechecked at a distance of less than a centimeter (55 microns-9.59 mm). Taking into account the errors of the experiment, scientists examined the distance range and found no obvious deviations in this law.

Observation of the Moon's orbit in relation to the Earth also confirmed its validity.

Euclidean space

Newton's classical theory of gravity is associated with Euclidean space. The actual equality with a fairly high accuracy (10 -9) of the indicators of the distance measure in the denominator of the equality discussed above shows us the Euclidean basis of the space of Newtonian mechanics, with a three-dimensional physical form. At such a point of matter, the area of ​​the spherical surface has exact proportionality with respect to the square of its radius.

Data from history

Let's consider summary history of the discovery of the law of universal gravitation.

Ideas were put forward by other scientists who lived before Newton. Epicurus, Kepler, Descartes, Roberval, Gassendi, Huygens and others thought about it. Kepler hypothesized that the force of gravity is inversely proportional to the distance from the Sun and extends only in the ecliptic planes; according to Descartes, it was a consequence of the activity of vortices in the thickness of the ether. There were a number of guesses that reflected the correct guesses about the dependence on distance.

A letter from Newton to Halley contained information that the predecessors of Sir Isaac himself were Hooke, Wren and Buyot Ismael. However, before him, no one had been able to clearly, using mathematical methods, connect the law of gravity and planetary motion.

The history of the discovery of the law of universal gravitation is closely connected with the work “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” (1687). In this work, Newton was able to derive the law in question thanks to Kepler's empirical law, which was already known by that time. He shows us that:

• the form of movement of any visible planet indicates the presence of a central force;
• the force of attraction of the central type forms elliptical or hyperbolic orbits.

About Newton's theory

Inspection brief history The discovery of the law of universal gravitation can also point us to a number of differences that set it apart from previous hypotheses. Newton not only published the proposed formula for the phenomenon under consideration, but also proposed a mathematical model in its entirety:

• position on the law of gravity;
• provision on the law of motion;
• systematics of methods of mathematical research.

This triad could fairly accurately study even the most complex movements of celestial objects, thus creating the basis for celestial mechanics. Until Einstein began his work, this model did not require a fundamental set of corrections. Only the mathematical apparatus had to be significantly improved.

Object for discussion

The discovered and proven law throughout the eighteenth century became famous subject active disputes and scrupulous checks. However, the century ended with general agreement with his postulates and statements. Using the calculations of the law, it was possible to accurately determine the paths of movement of bodies in the heavens. Direct verification was carried out in 1798. He did this using a torsion type balance with great sensitivity. In the history of the discovery of the universal law of gravity, it is necessary to give a special place to the interpretations introduced by Poisson. He developed the concept of gravitational potential and the Poisson equation, with which it was possible to calculate this potential. This type of model made it possible to study the gravitational field in the presence of an arbitrary distribution of matter.

Newton's theory had many difficulties. The main one could be considered the inexplicability of long-range action. It was impossible to accurately answer the question of how gravitational forces are sent through vacuum space at infinite speed.

"Evolution" of the law

Over the next two hundred years, and even more, many physicists attempted to propose various ways to improve Newton's theory. These efforts ended in triumph in 1915, namely the creation of the General Theory of Relativity, which was created by Einstein. He was able to overcome the whole range of difficulties. In accordance with the principle of correspondence, Newton's theory turned out to be an approach to the beginning of work on a theory in more general view, which can be used if certain conditions are met:

1. The potential of gravitational nature cannot be too large in the systems under study. solar system is an example of compliance with all the rules for the movement of celestial bodies. The relativistic phenomenon finds itself in a noticeable manifestation of the perihelion shift.
2. The speed of movement in this group of systems is insignificant in comparison with the speed of light.

Proof that in a weak stationary gravitational field, general relativity calculations take the form of Newtonian ones is the presence of a scalar gravitational potential in a stationary field with weakly expressed force characteristics, which is capable of satisfying the conditions of the Poisson equation.

Quantum scale

However, in history scientific discovery the law of universal gravitation, nor General theory relativity could not serve as the final gravitational theory, since both do not satisfactorily describe gravitational-type processes on the quantum scale. An attempt to create a quantum gravitational theory is one of the most important tasks of modern physics.

From the point of view of quantum gravity, interaction between objects is created through the exchange of virtual gravitons. In accordance with the uncertainty principle, the energy potential of virtual gravitons is inversely proportional to the period of time in which it existed, from the point of emission by one object to the moment in time at which it was absorbed by another point.

In view of this, it turns out that on a small distance scale the interaction of bodies entails the exchange of gravitons virtual type. Thanks to these considerations, it is possible to conclude a statement about Newton’s law of potential and its dependence in accordance with the inverse proportionality index with respect to distance. The analogy between Coulomb's and Newton's laws is explained by the fact that the weight of gravitons is zero. The weight of photons has the same meaning.

Misconception

IN school curriculum The answer to the question from history, how Newton discovered the law of universal gravitation, is the story of a falling apple fruit. According to this legend, it fell on the scientist’s head. However, this is a widespread misconception, and in reality everything was possible without such a case of possible head injury. Newton himself sometimes confirmed this myth, but in reality the law was not a spontaneous discovery and did not come in a fit of momentary insight. As was written above, it was developed over a long time and was first presented in the works on the “Mathematical Principles”, which were released to the public in 1687.

We all studied the law of universal gravitation in school. But what do we really know about gravity beyond what our school teachers put into our heads? Let's update our knowledge...

Fact one

Everyone knows the famous parable about the apple that fell on Newton's head. But the fact is that Newton did not discover the law of universal gravitation, since this law is simply not present in his book “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.” There is no formula or formulation in this work, as anyone can see for themselves. Moreover, the first mention of the gravitational constant appears only in the 19th century and, accordingly, the formula could not have appeared earlier. By the way, the coefficient G, which reduces the result of calculations by 600 billion times, has no physical meaning and was introduced to hide contradictions.

Fact two

It is believed that Cavendish was the first to demonstrate gravitational attraction in laboratory ingots, using a torsion balance - a horizontal beam with weights at the ends suspended on a thin string. The rocker could turn on a thin wire. According to official version, Cavendish brought a pair of blanks of 158 kg each to the rocker weights opposite sides and the rocker turned at a small angle. However, the experimental methodology was incorrect and the results were falsified, which was convincingly proven by physicist Andrei Albertovich Grishaev. Cavendish spent a long time reworking and adjusting the installation so that the results would fit the average density of the earth expressed by Newton. The methodology of the experiment itself involved the movement of the blanks several times, and the reason for the rotation of the rocker arm was microvibrations from the movement of the blanks, which were transmitted to the suspension.

This is confirmed by the fact that such a simple installation of the 17th century for educational purposes should have been installed, if not in every school, then at least in the physics departments of universities, in order to show students in practice the result of the law of universal gravitation. However, the Cavendish installation is not used in educational programs, and both schoolchildren and students take the word that two blanks attract each other.

Fact three

If we substitute reference data on the Earth, Moon and Sun into the formula for the law of universal gravitation, then at the moment when the Moon flies between the Earth and the Sun, for example, at the moment of a solar eclipse, the force of attraction between the Sun and the Moon is more than 2 times higher than between Earth and Moon!

According to the formula, the Moon would have to leave the earth's orbit and begin to revolve around the Sun.

Gravity constant – 6.6725×10−11 m³/(kg s²).

The mass of the Moon is 7.3477×1022 kg.

The mass of the Sun is 1.9891×1030 kg.

The mass of the Earth is 5.9737×1024 kg.

Distance between the Earth and the Moon = 380,000,000 m.

Distance between the Moon and the Sun = 149,000,000,000 m.

Earth and Moon:

6.6725×10-11 x 7.3477×1022 x 5.9737×1024 / 3800000002 = 2.028×10^20H

Moon And Sun:

6.6725×10-11 x 7.3477 1022 x 1.9891 1030 / 1490000000002 = 4.39×10^20H

2.028×10^20 H<< 4,39×10^20 H

The force of attraction between the Earth and the Moon<< Сила притяжения между Луной и Солнцем

These calculations can be criticized in that moon - artificial hollow body and the reference density of this celestial body is most likely not determined correctly.

Indeed, experimental evidence suggests that the Moon is not a solid body, but a thin-walled shell. The authoritative journal Science describes the results of the work of seismic sensors after the third stage of the rocket that accelerated the Apollo 13 spacecraft hit the lunar surface: “the seismic ringing was detected for more than four hours. On Earth, if a missile struck at an equivalent distance, the signal would last only a few minutes.”

Seismic vibrations that decay so slowly are typical of a hollow resonator, not a solid body.

But the Moon, among other things, does not show its attractive properties in relation to the Earth - the Earth-Moon pair moves not around the common center of mass, as it would be according to the law of universal gravitation, and the ellipsoidal orbit of the Earth contrary to this law doesn't become zigzag.

Moreover, the parameters of the orbit of the Moon itself do not remain constant; the orbit, in scientific terminology, “evolves”, and does this contrary to the law of universal gravitation.

Fact four

How can this be, some will object, because even schoolchildren know about ocean tides on Earth, which occur due to the attraction of water to the Sun and Moon.

According to the theory, the Moon's gravity forms a tidal ellipsoid in the ocean, with two tidal humps that move across the Earth's surface due to daily rotation.

However, practice shows the absurdity of these theories. After all, according to them, a tidal hump 1 meter high should move through the Drake Passage from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic in 6 hours. Since water is incompressible, the mass of water would raise the level to a height of about 10 meters, which does not happen in practice. In practice, tidal phenomena occur autonomously in areas of 1000-2000 km.

Laplace was also amazed by the paradox: why in the seaports of France full water comes sequentially, although according to the concept of a tidal ellipsoid it should come there simultaneously.

Fact five

The principle of gravity measurements is simple - gravimeters measure the vertical components, and the deflection of the plumb line shows the horizontal components.

The first attempt to test the theory of mass gravity was made by the British in the mid-18th century on the shores of the Indian Ocean, where, on one side, there is the world’s highest rock ridge of the Himalayas, and on the other, an ocean bowl filled with much less massive water. But, alas, the plumb line does not deviate towards the Himalayas! Moreover, ultra-sensitive instruments - gravimeters - do not detect a difference in the gravity of a test body at the same height, both above massive mountains and over less dense seas of kilometer depth.

To save the established theory, scientists came up with a support for it: they say the reason for this is “isostasy” - denser rocks are located under the seas, and loose rocks are located under the mountains, and their density is exactly the same as to adjust everything to the desired value.

It was also experimentally established that gravimeters in deep mines show that the force of gravity does not decrease with depth. It continues to grow, depending only on the square of the distance to the center of the earth.

Fact six

According to the formula of the law of universal gravitation, two masses, m1 and m2, the sizes of which can be neglected in comparison with the distances between them, are supposedly attracted to each other by a force directly proportional to the product of these masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. However, in fact, not a single proof is known that matter has a gravitational attractive effect. Practice shows that gravity is not generated by matter or masses; it is independent of them and massive bodies only obey gravity.

The independence of gravity from matter is confirmed by the fact that, with rare exceptions, small bodies of the solar system have no gravitational attractive ability completely. With the exception of the Moon and Titan, more than six dozen planetary satellites show no signs of their own gravity. This has been proven by both indirect and direct measurements; for example, since 2004, the Cassini probe in the vicinity of Saturn has been flying close to its satellites from time to time, but no changes in the speed of the probe have been recorded. With the help of the same Casseni, a geyser was discovered on Enceladus, the sixth largest moon of Saturn.

What physical processes must occur on a cosmic piece of ice for jets of steam to fly into space?

For the same reason, Titan, Saturn's largest moon, has a gas tail as a result of atmospheric outflow.

No satellites predicted by theory have been found on asteroids, despite their huge number. And in all the reports about double or paired asteroids that supposedly revolve around a common center of mass, there was no evidence of the rotation of these pairs. The companions happened to be nearby, moving in quasi-synchronous orbits around the sun.

Attempts to place artificial satellites into asteroid orbit ended in failure. Examples include the NEAR probe, which was sent to the Eros asteroid by the Americans, or the HAYABUSA probe, which the Japanese sent to the Itokawa asteroid.

Fact seven

At one time, Lagrange, trying to solve the three-body problem, obtained a stable solution for a particular case. He showed that the third body can move in the orbit of the second, all the time being in one of two points, one of which is 60° ahead of the second body, and the second is the same amount behind.

However, two groups of companion asteroids found behind and ahead in the orbit of Saturn, which astronomers joyfully called the Trojans, moved out of the predicted areas, and the confirmation of the law of universal gravitation turned into a puncture.

Fact eight

According to modern concepts, the speed of light is finite, as a result we see distant objects not where they are located at the moment, but at the point from which the ray of light we saw started. But at what speed does gravity spread? Having analyzed the data accumulated by that time, Laplace established that “gravity” propagates faster than light by at least seven orders of magnitude! Modern measurements of receiving pulsar pulses have pushed the speed of propagation of gravity even further - at least 10 orders of magnitude faster than the speed of light. Thus, experimental research contradicts the general theory of relativity, which official science still relies on, despite its complete failure.

Fact nine

There are natural anomalies of gravity, which also do not find any clear explanation from official science. Here are some examples:

Fact ten

There is a large number of alternative studies with impressive results in the field of antigravity, which fundamentally refute the theoretical calculations of official science.

Some researchers are analyzing the vibrational nature of antigravity. This effect is clearly demonstrated in modern experiments, where droplets hang in the air due to acoustic levitation. Here we see how, with the help of a sound of a certain frequency, it is possible to confidently hold drops of liquid in the air...

But the effect at first glance is explained by the gyroscope principle, but even such a simple experiment for the most part contradicts gravity in its modern understanding.

Few people know that Victor Stepanovich Grebennikov, a Siberian entomologist who studied the effect of cavity structures in insects, described the phenomena of antigravity in insects in the book “My World”. Scientists have long known that massive insects, such as the cockchafer, fly in spite of the laws of gravity rather than because of them.

Moreover, based on his research, Grebennikov created anti-gravity platform.

Viktor Stepanovich died under rather strange circumstances and his work was partially lost, but some part of the anti-gravity platform prototype has been preserved and can be seen in the Grebennikov Museum in Novosibirsk.

Another practical application of antigravity can be observed in the city of Homestead in Florida, where there is a strange structure of coral monolithic blocks, which is popularly nicknamed Coral Castle. It was built by a native of Latvia, Edward Lidskalnin, in the first half of the 20th century. This man of thin build did not have any tools, he did not even have a car or any equipment at all.

It was not used at all by electricity, also due to its absence, and yet somehow it went down to the ocean, where it cut out multi-ton stone blocks and somehow delivered them to its site. laying out with perfect precision

After Ed's death, scientists began to carefully study his creation. For the sake of the experiment, a powerful bulldozer was brought in and an attempt was made to move one of the 30-ton blocks of the coral castle. The bulldozer roared and skidded, but did not move the huge stone.

A strange device was found inside the castle, which scientists called a direct current generator. It was a massive structure with many metal parts. 240 permanent strip magnets were built into the outside of the device. But how Edward Leedskalnin actually made multi-ton blocks move still remains a mystery.

The research of John Searle is known, in whose hands unusual generators came to life, rotated and generated energy; discs with a diameter of half a meter to 10 meters rose into the air and made controlled flights from London to Cornwall and back.

The professor’s experiments were repeated in Russia, the USA and Taiwan. In Russia, for example, in 1999, a patent application for “devices for generating mechanical energy” was registered under No. 99122275/09. Vladimir Vitalievich Roshchin and Sergei Mikhailovich Godin, in fact, reproduced SEG (Searl Effect Generator) and conducted a series of studies with it. The result was a statement: you can get 7 kW of electricity without costs; the rotating generator lost weight up to 40%.

The equipment from Searle's first laboratory was taken to an unknown location while he was in prison. The installation of Godin and Roshchin simply disappeared; all publications about her, with the exception of the application for an invention, disappeared.

The Hutchison Effect, named after the Canadian engineer-inventor, is also known. The effect manifests itself in the levitation of heavy objects, the alloy of dissimilar materials (for example, metal + wood), and the anomalous heating of metals in the absence of burning substances near them. Here is a video of these effects:

Whatever gravity actually is, it should be recognized that official science is completely unable to clearly explain the nature of this phenomenon.

Yaroslav Yargin

Based on materials:

Spills and wicks of universal gravity

The Law of Universal Gravity is another hoax

The moon is an artificial satellite of the earth

The Mystery of the Coral Castle in Florida

Grebennikov anti-gravity platform

Antigravity - Hutchison effect