Particle as a part of speech meaning of particles. Particles in Russian: classification and spelling

creative work on the topic:

"Particles in Russian"

Performed:

7th grade student "A"

Balashova Svetlana

Morphological features

Particle - service unit speech, which serves to express various semantic shades of any member of a sentence or a sentence as a whole, as well as to form moods. The particle introduces additional semantic shades into the sentence and serves to form word forms. Invariable part of speech. The particle is not a member of the sentence.

Morphological features: shaping, negative, modal. Formatives serve to form the conditional and imperative mood of the verb. These include: yes, come on, let's, would (b), let, let. Negatives serve to express negation, reinforce negation, or attach to a sentence positive value with double negative. These include: no, no. Modal are used to express various semantic shades and feelings in a sentence. These include: is it really, is it, what kind of, how, here, only, only, really, etc.

Modal particles contribute the following semantic shades:

1) question: is it, is it really, for example: Have you prepared the past material for today's lesson? Haven't you done right choice continuing education?

2) indication: here, out, for example: Here necessary tools for a practical lesson;

3) clarification: exactly, just, for example: It is this specialist who will be in demand to work in our company;

4) allocation, restriction: only, only, exclusively, for example: Only those who passed will be allowed to take the exams. medical worker must be an exceptionally kind, sympathetic, merciful person;

5) exclamation: what kind, how, for example: How nice it is for the teacher to see the success of his students!

6) doubt: hardly, hardly, for example: It is unlikely that you will cope with the task if you do not make efforts;

7) amplification: even, really, after all, after all, for example: How many times have the basic terms been repeated;

8) mitigation, requirement: - ka, for example: Repeat this topic again.

Particles are also a class of words expressing diverse relationships that are realized in an act of speech or text, namely: the relationship of the reported to the participants in the act of speech (speaking, listening), as well as the relationship between them; the attitude of the reported to reality (in terms of its reality, unreality; reliability, unreliability); relation between statements and their components. By expressing these relationships, the particles realize their meanings. In some meanings of the particle, semantic components are presented that modify the content side of the message (only, everything, was, not, neither).

Particles, in addition, serve to form morphological and syntactic moods (if, let, let). In "Grammar of modern Russian literary language» Particles are classified on a different basis - by function. Three main categories are distinguished: syntactic (would, let, yes, come on, etc.), subjective-modal (after all, even, maybe, really, etc.) and negative (not, not) particles. Among subjective-modal particles, amplifying particles differ in meaning (something, even, after all, here, here), excretory (only, only), etc. In the Russian Grammar, the main categories of particles are also distinguished by functions. Characterizing a sign (action or state) according to its course in time, according to the completeness or incompleteness of implementation, according to the effectiveness or not effectiveness (it was, it happened, it happens, etc.). Particles in this grammar are also classified according to their structure: they are divided into primitive and non-primitive, into simple (and, fortunately, more, etc.) and composite; composite particles are divided into dissected (that would be, that's it, like this, etc.) and not dissected (would be good, if only, still, etc.); inside the compound particles, phraseological units are distinguished (no-no and; what of what, etc.). Thus, the question of the classes of particles and the principles of their selection is solved in different ways. In the study of particles as lexical units in their system, it is found a large number of intersecting subclasses that are interconnected in a variety of ways.

Various classifications can be applied to particles as units of a language, taking a separate value of a particle as a classification unit (for example, in the classification proposed below). The most adequate to linguistic reality are those classifications that reflect the semantic properties of particles. However, the analysis of particle semantics is impossible without taking into account the specifics of their functioning. According to the main classification feature - semantic particles are divided into eleven categories. Modal particles expressing different types subjective relationships. With the help of such particles, the meanings associated with two types of modality are expressed: reality / unreality and certainty / unreliability.

With the meanings “possibility”, “desirability”, “necessity”, associated with the opposition reality / unreality, the particular meanings of expectation expressed by the particles (simply, and, precisely, nevertheless, nevertheless; for example, And you agreed!), surprises (well, look how), incentives, encouragement, demands, wishes (come on, well, so that, otherwise, would, let, if, whenever, it would be good; for example, I have to live!; To be good meeting!), reminders / reminders (tea, more, for example, Take a candy! - I don’t see sweets!; Remember her: she still sang a song for you!), assumptions (maybe, as if, exactly, as if, like , exactly, in no way; for example, if someone entered?), fears (unequally); with the opposition of reliability / unreliability, particular meanings of confirmation (yes, exactly), assumptions (let it be, well, good), doubts, distrust [yes, no, directly, perhaps, as if; e.g.: I will find you a book! -Yes, you can find it! (in the meaning of "you will not find"); I'll stay. No, really? (meaning "can't believe")]. Emotionally expressive particles expressing various emotional characteristics (threat, surprise, dissatisfaction, annoyance, irony, mockery): Well, you see, you see, simply, directly. These words (except simply, directly) are classified by some researchers as interjections as words that serve the sphere of emotions. They approach particles when they function as a modal component of a sentence.

Address particles expressing the semantics associated with the social sphere. This semantics can be reduced to the oppositions higher/lower/equal; own / someone else's. This category includes particles: -ka, -s (obsolete). In the values ​​of the particle, a sign of categorical/non-categorical character is found, which leads to the sphere of modal values. Context particles that serve to identify the author's behavior, to draw attention to certain components of an utterance or text. Context particles are associated with organization speech activity(already, and, yes, no, here, out; for example, Yes, one more news; Yes, I almost forgot, you have a letter), with all sorts of clarifications regarding the chosen expressions, filling in "voids" in speech (or that , namely), and with indications of the transmission of someone else's speech (they say, de, they say, supposedly). Quantitative particles expressing quantitative characteristic component of the propositional content from the point of view of the speaker (only, only, just like that).

Negative particles specialized in expressing negation (no, no). A phase particle (was) that modifies the propositional semantics of the verbal predicate, expressing that the action began or was expected, but did not take place or was interrupted. Emitting particles expressing the meaning of inconsistency or correspondence of the supposed, expected and actual (only, only, even, already, exactly, and).

Identifying particles [same, and; for example, Here he was born, here he lives all his life; I have the same book (like the one in the window)], which serves to express anaphoric relations in the text (relationships of coreference or equal lexemes). Gradational particles expressing the growth of a feature (even). Particles-replicas and able to function in the dialogue as a replicating component (yes, okay, okay). The semantic classification covers this entire class of words, but does not reflect all the properties of this class. The second classification feature is the features of the functioning of the particle: some of them can function in a relatively closed statement (already, ek, only, there, for you), others - display the statement in a wider text, being non-union indicators of communication in the text (as if, and, an well, only, even, precisely). Particles can also be classified according to their correlation with the type of speech act: a question - is it really, is it, is it; motivation - let, give, well, so that, otherwise; assertion - all other particles. This classification does not cover the entire class - some words in this respect are neutral, indefinite, not marked (only, even, everything). Particles, being words with a wide variety of parameters, can simultaneously be included in several classifications. So, the particle is even excretory, textual, not marked from the point of view of being related to the speech act; particles ek - emotionally expressive, functions in isolated utterances and in a statement; particles is modal, textual, interrogative (in relation to the speech act).

Separate writing of particles

Particles would (b), but (g), whether (l) are written separately: I would read, if, here, which one, however, however, hardly, hardly.

Note. The rule does not apply to those cases when these particles are part of the word: so that, also, too, really, or etc.

Hyphenating Particles

Particles (suffixes) are written through a hyphen -de, -ka, something- (koi-), (-kas - dialect), -either, -something, -s, -tka, -tko, -that: you-de, she -de, na-ka, nate-ka, look, someone, someone, someone, someone, from somewhere, yes, sir, well, look, somewhere , sometime, something. Note. The particle -de (colloquial) is used when transmitting someone else's speech, as well as in the meaning of the verb says (they say) and in the meaning of the particles they say, they say; cf .: And if I see, de, that the execution is small for him, I will hang all the judges right there around the table (Kr.). - My fellow countryman turned to the commander at a halt: so and so, - allow me to leave, they say, the case is expensive, they say, because local, a stone's throw from the yard (TV). The particle say (colloquial) was formed by merging two words: de and say.

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Problems HOW

, like * * * , like, * * * like, *** like

Director of the USSR

According to the degree of complexity of the design of the word "HOW" by commas in the sentence - and it can be adverb, particle, union, allied word And noun plural - he has no equal in Russian.

And how often in the minds of students there is righteous anger at those legislators of the rules of the Russian language who came up with all THIS!!!

Let's try to figure it out.

"HOW" is an adverb!

When is "HOW" an adverb? But when: if in your sentence it can be easily replaced by the following expressions, given in italics:

—— Here's how ( how) it is necessary to pour it - glasses!
—— How ( to what extent / to what extent) it takes a long time, however!
—— How ( to what extent / to what extent) breathe something ... Lepota-ah!
—— How ( when) I'll be back, she'll get it from me!
—— Is it possible how ( somehow) cheaper?

Adverbs are not separated by commas just like that: if they are not parts of a more complex grammatical construction, in which the comma is based on other rules.

Remember: if "how" can be safely replaced by the above expressions, then adverb"HOW" is NEVER separated by a comma. Neither left nor right.

"HOW" is a particle!

When is "HOW" a particle? And when emotions overwhelm, but at the same time a particle can be replaced by another particle. For example, “well, you give!”, “Damn it!” or just "damn" ... and the like.

We look at examples and remember:

—— How?! Have you come again? ( righteous anger)
—— How? ( simple question, didn't hear)
—— No money? ( complex questioning)
—— Right now, as ladies! ( a hint after a difficult questioning)
—— How is the prophetic Oleg going now ... ( poetic)

"HOW"- particle also not separated by commas.

"HOW" - union!

We'll have to start by remembering what it is - union? Having honestly looked in dictionaries for the definition of this obscure, but very important part of speech in grammar, this is what we found: “A service invariable word that serves to connect words and sentences.” There is also a definition that is more difficult to perceive: “Union is a service part of speech that connects homogeneous members simple sentence and simple sentences complex sentence, as well as expressing the relationship between these syntactic units. Let us remember for now that either is a bond or a relationship.

The next thing in this difficult union is that it can be just "HOW", or it can be integral part another union, for example: "SO AS". The phrase “HOW SO” is divided into the union “HOW”, the particle “SAME” and the union “SO” (which, in turn, can be not only a union, but also a pronoun and an adverb!). Not tired?

Thus, if you decide to write correctly, you should learn to isolate the union “HOW” from the host of other “HOW” that are not unions. For this is the root of the overwhelming number of spelling errors.

Examples of the spelling of the union "HOW":

—— I'm tired as a dog! (In this case, you need to pay attention to the fact that a comma is placed before "HOW"!)
—— Tired as a dog! (In this case, you need to pay attention to the fact that the comma before "HOW" is NOT put!)

The difference between these two similar sentences is that linguists have come up with the following rule: if the union “HOW” comes before a simple sentence or just a phrase or just a word, then a comma is put. If the union “HOW” precedes a comparative turnover, then a comma is not put. Understandably?

The second is another example explaining this unthinkable complexity:
—— He sits like on pins and needles! (It means that it twitches, in this case “like on pins and needles” a comparative turn and it can be safely replaced, for example, with the word “restless”, “nervous”!)
—— He sits like on pins and needles! (Meaning on sharp objects, there is no comparative turnover at all - “like on needles” can be replaced in this case with sharp objects, real, sharp objects!)

In principle, that's all the rules regarding putting commas before the union "HOW": you will be able to determine what follows after it - a comparative turn or an explanation - put / do not put the comma correctly. If you fail, you will wander in the dark for a long time!

All other uses of "HOW" (except for the plural genitive noun, which we would not even want to mention here!) belong to those types that characterize "HOW" as a union word. That is, it attaches subordinate clauses of the mode of action, additional clauses, clauses of time, other clauses.

To clearly distinguish clauses from non-clauses, and even more so from other types of sentences, you will have to go through short course syntax (i.e., ways to combine words into phrases and sentences, special section grammar) of the Russian language. After passing through which you will find that in this very syntax in relation to "HOW" there is not only no order, but also something more or less similar to order. There are only prerequisites for establishing some semblance of order. Of course, with very eloquent exceptions.

Therefore, our recommendations are as follows (well, since science has not yet established this for sure!): Learn to distinguish subordinate clauses introduced by the allied word “HOW” from comparative turns and remember that the former are separated by commas, and the latter are not distinguished.

All other cases are tricky, not explained, and they just need to be remembered. Or contact the experts. Which, in turn, can give you mutually opposite answers.

A few examples to complete.

House is like a house. Hair black as pitch. Tell me how it turned out. Do it the right way. Your house is like hell. As you are, you are an idiot. These shoes are just right for me.

If you saw the internal logic - honor and praise to you. We don't see her. Meanwhile, this is how examples are given in dictionaries and reference books.

And a quote from here: http://orel.rsl.ru/nettext/russian/granik/sekr_punkt/05.htm is impossible not to quote:

We quote:
For example, in a sentence The air is clean and fresh like a baby's kiss a comma is required, but in sentences There was a forest like a dream And snow like a dream In no case should a comma be put, because in the first sentence it separates a comparative turnover, and in others there is no turnover.

There was a forest like a dream— no comparative turnover???

A particle is a service part of speech that serves to express shades of meanings of words, phrases, sentences and to form word forms.

In accordance with this, particles are usually divided into two categories - semantic and formative.

Particles do not change, are not members of the sentence.

In school grammar, however, it is customary to emphasize the negative particle along with the word to which it refers; especially for verbs.

Form-building particles include particles that serve to form the forms of the conditional and imperative mood of the verb. These include the following: would (indicator of the conditional mood), let, let, yes, come on (those) (indicators of the imperative mood). Unlike semantic particles, formative particles are components of the verb form and are part of the same sentence member as the verb, they are underlined with it even in a non-contact arrangement, for example: I would not be late if it had not rained.

Semantic particles express semantic shades, feelings and attitudes of the speaker. According to the specific meaning they express, they are divided into the following groups:

1) negative: not, nor, not at all, far from, not at all;

2) interrogative: really, really, whether (l);

3) index: here, out, this;

4) clarifying: exactly, just, directly, exactly, exactly the same;

5) restrictive-excretory: only, only, exclusively, almost, only, something;

6) exclamatory: what for, well, how;

7) amplifying: even, same, no, after all, really, after all, well;

8) with the meaning of doubt: hardly; hardly.

In some studies, other groups of particles are also distinguished, since not all particles can be included in these groups (for example, they say, allegedly, they say).

The particle neither acts as a negative in the constructions of an impersonal sentence with an omitted predicate (There is no sound in the room) and as an intensifier in the presence of an already expressed negation (Not a sound is heard in the room). When repeated, the particle does not act as a repeating coordinating union (No rustles or other sounds are heard in the room).

The semantic particle -something must be distinguished from the word-forming postfix -something, which acts as a means of forming indefinite pronouns and adverbs. Compare: some, somewhere (postfix) - I know where to go (particle).

Postfixes -sya (-s), -to, -either, -nibud and prefixes not and neither in the composition of negative and indefinite pronouns and adverbs, as well as participles and adjectives, are not particles, regardless of continuous or separate spelling.

Morphological parsing of a particle

Particles are sorted as follows:

1. Particle.

2. Grammar signs:

immutable,

Rank by value.

According to school grammar, all particles, both semantic and formative, should be disassembled according to this scheme, however, it should be noted that the formative particle is a component of the verb form and is written out during morphological analysis together with the verb when parsing the verb as a part of speech.

Sample morphological analysis particles:

I do not claim that he did not suffer at all; I was now completely convinced that he could go on about his Arabians as much as he liked, giving only the necessary explanations.

(F. M. Dostoevsky)

non-particle, immutable, semantic, negative.

only - a particle, immutable, semantic, restrictive-excretory.

only - a particle, immutable, semantic, restrictive-excretory.

According to school grammar, in this sentence one should also parse particles as follows:

by - a particle, unchangeable, formative, serves to form the form of the conditional mood of the verb.

Particles do not have lexical meanings(and in this they differ from the significant parts of speech) and do not express grammatical relations between words and sentences (and in this they differ from the service parts of speech).

Particles are:

Amplifying (or, even, then, and, neither, after all, etc.)

Restrictive (only, only, etc.)

Index (here, there, this)

Interrogative (whether, really, really, really, but)

Exclamatory (what for, how, etc.)

Negative (not, not at all, far from, not at all)

Formative particles that serve to form word forms and new words occupy an intermediate position between function words and prefixes and suffixes:

1) particles would, let, let, yes, -ka, it was, serving to express moods or shades of moods in verbs;

2) undefined particles: something, something, something, something;

3) negative particle "not" serves not only to express negation, but also to form words with the opposite meaning. In this case, it acts as a prefix:

friend - foe, cheerful - sad, smart - stupid.

Separate writing of particles

1) Particles would (b), same (g), whether (l) written separately:

I would read it if, here, what kind, however, however, hardly, hardly.

The rule does not apply to cases where these particles are part of the word: to, also, too, really, or and etc.

2) Particles after all, out, here, even, they say written separately:

so after all, over there, like this, even he; brought, they say.

Hyphenating Particles

1) Particles are written through a hyphen -de, -ka, something- (koi-), (-kas - dial.), -either, -something, -s, -tka, -tko, -that:

you-de, she-de, na-ka, nate-ka, look, someone, something, someone, some, from somewhere, yes, sir, well, look- tko, somewhere, sometime, something.

Particle -de(colloquial) is used when transmitting someone else's speech, as well as in the meaning of the verb says (they say) and in the meaning of the particles "say", "say":

And if I see, de, that the execution is small for him, I will immediately hang all the judges around the table.

My fellow countryman turned to the commander at a halt: so and so, - allow me to leave, they say, the case is expensive, they say, since a local resident, it’s within easy reach of the yard.

2) Particle say(colloquial) was formed by the merger of two words: de and say.

3) Particle -from(derived from the word sir) gives a shade of servility, obsequiousness:

Chatsky. Caught honors and nobility?

Molchalin. No, sir, everyone has their own talent ...

Chatsky. You?

Molchalin. Two-sir: moderation and accuracy.

If between the particle koe- (koi-) and the pronoun there is a preposition, then the whole combination is written apart:

from someone, on something, someone with someone, something with someone.

4) Particle still("still", "however", "nevertheless", "indeed", "in the end") is written with a hyphen:

after verbs - persuaded, nevertheless, appeared;

after adverbs - true, long, again, again;

after the particles - after all, quite, really, downright.

In other cases, the particle is still written separately:

The secretary, although he felt his slight dissatisfaction, nevertheless rejoiced at the presence of such old women among the district's assets.

But although the temptation was great, I still managed to overcome myself.

5) Particle -then is added with a hyphen to pronouns and adverbs both to express uncertainty and to give the statement an emotional coloring:

Why is your heart broken?

Note 1. Separately, the combination is written like that ("namely") before listing homogeneous members:

IN mixed forests there are various trees, such as: birch, aspen, cedar, pine.

Note 2. If the particle "-then" is inside a compound word written with a hyphen, then the hyphen is placed before the particle, and after it is omitted:

Bandage something crosswise (compare: crosswise);

Exactly exactly, but that's not the point (compare: exactly the same).

Note 3. If a particle that is written with a hyphen comes after another particle, then the hyphen is not written:

all the same, somewhere; with whom, they say, this does not happen (compare: after all, with someone, they say, this does not happen).

An exception: before the particle -с, the hyphen is preserved: Do you have a bite-s?

Particles "not" and "neither" - in the next post.

Among the particles should be distinguished. Examples of them in Russian are quite numerous. The difficulty lies in the fact that they can perform several functions, and particles often turn into Let's analyze how these particles are represented in Russian, examples will help with this.

concept

What is a particle? This is a special service part of speech, which is designed to convey additional semantic or emotional shades both to the entire sentence as a whole and to a specific word. They also have another important function: participate in the formation of word forms.

Let's analyze two sentences in which particles are used. Examples are as follows:

• Only she can help me do this hard work.
• Let them finish this task as soon as possible and move on to the next one.

If in the first sentence the particle only strengthens the pronoun she, gives the word the meaning of selection, exclusivity, then in the second particle let be performs a completely different function - it participates in the formation of the imperative mood: let them finish, let them pass.

Syntactic role

Like other functional words (prepositions and conjunctions), particles do not carry a syntactic load, it is a mistake to single them out as a member of a sentence. The only exception is their formative role. In this case, the particle is indicated with the member of the sentence to which it adjoins.

• Didn't we meet yesterday on the bus? (Addition not with you includes particle not.)
• Let the lights shine brighter. (The predicate in the imperative mood let them sparkle includes a particle let.)

Compare with sentences where there are no Examples:

• Are you supposed to be in class today? (Interrogative particle unless carries no syntactic load.)
• What a beautiful sea at dawn! (exclamation particle how is not a member of the proposal.)

Main functions

Let's figure out in the formation of what forms this part of speech (particle) is used. Examples will help with this.

1. The imperative mood of the verb. These are the particles: let (let), come on, yeah. (Let's get down to business as soon as possible . Yes the celebration will begin! )
2. Conditional verb. Here we use the particle would (b). (If would just bring everything back. Came b you come to me, you're done would much faster.)
3. In order to form the degree of comparison of the name of an adjective or adverb, particles are also used. Examples: higher, less deep, most beautiful; more interesting, less broad.
4. A number of linguists single out some (we will give examples of them in this paragraph) as participating in the formation of indefinite pronouns: something or something(someone, somewhere, someone, somebody). but classical science still distinguishes them as suffixes and prefixes (some-).

Passed values

Much more diverse Examples will help to prove that with the help of these functional words it is possible to convey various emotional and semantic shades.

There are several groups of such particles:

1. Interrogative. Is it really, is it (or) indicate a question. ( Really How hard is it to complete a simple task? Is Did I say I'll be back after dinner? You whether behind that tree?
2. Exclamation points. How what for speak of admiration or indignation. ( How It's great to come home after a day at work! What the beautiful morning! What the disobedient child! How you can cook soup so badly!)
3. Pointing. Here, out are used when it is necessary to draw the listener's attention to a particular subject. ( Here this house. He is over a thousand years old. Won, look, a wedge of cranes.)
4. Amplifying: even, after all, after all, even then. They are used to emotionally reinforce a particular word. ( Even a small child knows to wash his hands after the street. After all I warned you could be wrong here. Still you are an irreparable romantic. Anya same went into the forest through the thicket. to me -then Don't you know how hard it is to study and work!)
5. Clarifying: precisely, exactly, exactly- are used to refer to specific objects and phenomena. (It was exactly the dress that was hanging in the window yesterday. Exactly This is what I am trying to convey to you. Just Paul should know this.)
6. Conveying doubt: hardly, hardly.(Hardly there is someone who can help us. Hardly he will cope with such a difficult test.)
7. Negative Particles: no, neither. Examples of their use will be discussed in more detail below. Here we will only say that they convey negation in different ways.

Negation with not and neither

It is the negative particles that cause the most difficulties. The difficulty lies in the fact that they are used in various speech situations. Yes, particle not used when it is necessary to convey the negatives of the sentence as a whole. ( Not talk to me like that! I not can not go to this meeting . )

Another thing is a particle neither. It is designed to reinforce an already existing denial. In other words, it is always used in conjunction with not giving her additional value. By the way, instead of a particle not maybe the right word is no. (Not in the sky t neither cloud, neither clouds. I will not go neither to the store neither to visit - I want to stay at home.) Word No, which is a predicate, can be omitted, it can be easily restored from the context. (In the House neither souls. Wed: Not in the house neither souls.)

Particle neither can also take on an amplifying value. (Where neither I look - everywhere they rejoice at the first sun.) In such cases, the official word is used in subordinate clauses along with for example who, what, where, where.

Spelling neither

When to write not, and when neither? The answer is simple: try to “throw out” the controversial particle from the sentence. If the meaning does not change, you need to use neither, otherwise - not. ( What book would I neither I read, everywhere I meet characters similar to my loved ones.) If you remove the sentences, it will remain the same, grammatically it will not suffer.

(Who not prepared for exams, passed them very badly.) If you remove the particle, the meaning of the sentence will change to the opposite. Need to use not.

It should also be remembered that in exclamatory sentences along with a particle only always spelled not.(Where is he not looking for the loss - all to no avail!)