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Grammatical categories. Types of grammatical categories

1) Depending on the number of opposing components, grammatical categories are divided into two-term (number, aspect), three-term (person, mood, gender) and polynomial (case) categories.

2) Based on the nature of the opposition of components, categories are distinguished that are formed on the basis of 1) privative (unequal), 2) equipollent (equivalent), 3) gradual (step) relations.

The privative opposition by gender is formed by nouns such as teacher - teacher, tractor driver - tractor driver, cashier - cashier: noun male in such pairs it can name both a man and a woman, but a feminine noun can only name a woman. The privative category is the aspect in the verb. Perfective verbs answer only the semantic question “What to do?”, and imperfective verbs, in addition to the question “What to do?”, in some speech situations They also answer the question “What to do?”: What did this boy do wrong? What did he do? — He was picking apples in someone else’s orchard.

Equipolar opposition is formed by some personal nouns of masculine and feminine gender: mother - father, brother - sister, girl - boy. Masculine nouns denote men, feminine nouns denote women.

Gradual relations are presented in degrees of comparison.

Case as a grammatical category to a certain extent is structured according to the principle of additional distribution: the same lexical meaning with the help of case is placed in different syntactic positions: to lose someone something, to envy someone something, to hate someone something, to admire someone something, to grieve about com - about what.

In the same grammatical category, different principles of semantic organization can be found. See gender of nouns.

3) In addition, depending on whether the components of a grammatical category are one word or represent different lexemes, inflectional and classifying (lexicogrammatical) categories are distinguished. Classifying categories combine different words that have the same grammatical meaning. Thus, inflectional categories are the categories of gender, number and case for adjectives, the category of case for nouns, the category of person, mood, tense for a verb, etc. It is customary to classify the category of gender for nouns, aspect in a verb. Some categories turn out to be of a mixed type, partly inflectional, partly lexico-grammatical (classifying). This is, for example, the category of number in nouns.

A. V. Bondarko called inflectional categories correlative, and classifying categories non-correlative. At the same time, he identified sequentially correlative, sequentially non-correlative and inconsistently correlative grammatical categories.

Note. E.V. Klobukov proposed to single out interpretative morphological categories as a special type, “intended to express the degree of relative significance of two or more homogeneous semantic elements” of the statement “Thanks to these categories, one of the homogeneous meanings is highlighted by the speaker as the main one, and the other meaning< >as an additional, accompanying, comitative information part. E.V. Klobukov calls the grammatical meaning expressed by such categories comitative. On the basis of comitativity, in his opinion, a contrast is organized between the full and short forms of the adjective, conjugated and attributive forms of the verb, forms of the active and passive voice, as well as nominative and vocative cases with indirect cases.

Kamynina A. A. Modern Russian language. Morphology. M., 1999

Lecture No. 8

I. Central concepts grammars: grammatical meaning and grammatical category.

II. Types grammatical categories.

III. Lexico-grammatical categories (categories).

IV. Parts of speech as lexical-grammatical classes of words.

V. Characteristics of the main parts of speech.

I. The central concepts of grammar are grammatical meaning, form and grammatical category.

Grammatical meaning– abstract linguistic content of a grammatical unit that has a regular (standard) expression in the language (for example: the grammatical meaning of words new And old is general meaning“features”, as well as private grammatical meanings - gender, number and case, which have a standard expression in the language in the affixal morpheme th).

The grammatical meaning is non-individual, since it belongs to a whole class of words, united by a commonality of morphological properties and syntactic functions. Unlike the lexical meaning, the grammatical meaning is not directly called a word, but is expressed in it “in passing”, with the help of special grammatical means. It accompanies the lexical meaning of the word, being its additional meaning.

Abstract linguistic content, expressed by grammatical meaning, has varying degrees of abstraction, that is, by its nature, the grammatical meaning is heterogeneous (for example: in the word thought the most abstract is the meaning of process, inherent in all verbs and all its forms; followed by the past tense meaning; a narrower and more specific meaning is the masculine gender, which is inherent only in verb forms that are opposed to feminine and neuter forms).

The grammatical meaning of a word is derived from its relationship to other units of the same class (for example: the grammatical meaning of a past tense form is derived by relating it to other tense forms).

Grammatical category- a set of homogeneous grammatical meanings, represented by rows of grammatical forms opposed to each other. A grammatical category in its connections and relationships forms the core of the grammatical structure of a language.

A grammatical category exists as a class of meanings united in a system of oppositions (for example: the grammatical category of case is united by the unity of the most abstract meaning of relations: “something relates to something” and the opposition of private relations - objective, subjective, definitive and others). Correlation between grammatical category and grammatical meaning- this is the relationship between the general and the particular, necessary sign The grammatical category is also the unity of expression of grammatical meaning in the system of grammatical forms.

Each language has its own system of grammatical categories, and it is established only by analyzing the grammatical facts of the language itself. It is impossible to name a single grammatical meaning that would act as a universal grammatical category.

IN different languages even the same grammatical category, depending on the number of opposed members, can be organized differently (for example: in Russian the category of number is two-membered, and in Slovenian it is three-membered; in Russian the category of case is six-membered, in German – four-membered, in English - binomial).

In progress historical development language, the scope of grammatical categories may vary. For example, in the Old Russian language the category of number was represented by singular, dual and plural numbers, but in the process of linguistic development the dual number was lost; The form of the vocative case that existed in the Old Russian language has also been lost, etc.

II. Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic.

Morphological grammatical categories are expressed by lexical and grammatical classes of words - significant parts of speech (for example: the grammatical category of aspect, voice, tense is expressed by a verb). Among these grammatical categories, inflectional and classification categories stand out.

Morphological categories classification type- these are categories whose members are not represented by forms of the same word, that is, categories that are internal to the word and do not depend on its use in a sentence (for example: the category of gender of nouns in Russian, German, English).

Syntactic grammatical categories- these are categories that belong primarily to syntactic units of language (for example: the category of predicativity), but can also be expressed by units belonging to other language levels (for example: a word and its form, which participate in the organization of the predicative basis of a sentence and form its predicativity) .

III. Lexico-grammatical categories (or categories) differ from grammatical categories. Lexico-grammatical categories– combinations of words that have a common semantic feature that affects the ability of words to express one or another morphological meaning. For example, in the Russian language, among the nouns there are collective, abstract, real nouns that have features in expressing the category of number: they are not capable of forming number forms, they are used in the form of one number, more often singular ( foliage, iron, friendship; German das Gold "gold", die Liebe "love"; English coal, knowledge).

Depending on what characteristics these words are combined into categories, as well as their belonging to one or different parts speech, lexical and grammatical categories are divided into two types:

1) categories that combine words of one part of speech that have a common semantic feature and similarity in the expression of morphological categorical meanings (for example: in all languages of the world, among nouns, categories of proper and common nouns are distinguished, etc.);

2) categories, which are a grouping of words belonging to different parts of speech, but united on the basis of common semantic and syntactic features. For example, in the Russian language there is a category of pronominal words that combines pronominal nouns - me, we, you, who; pronominal adjectives – such as, everyone; pronominal numerals – so many, several etc.; pronominal adverbs – where, when, there).

IV. Parts of speech– the main lexical and grammatical classes into which the words of the language are distributed. The term is associated with the ancient Greek grammatical tradition, in which the sentence was not separated from speech.

The part of speech problem is the most complex and controversial problem in linguistics that has not received a final solution. Still not worked out general principles highlighting parts of speech. The most widely recognized is the so-called “mixed principle”, according to which the general (categorical) grammatical meaning of each category of words, their ability to perform a nominative or demonstrative function, grammatical categories inherent in words combined in one part of speech, types of form and word formation, are taken into account. syntactic compatibility, characteristic functions of a word as part of a sentence and in coherent speech.

The set of these features, their hierarchy in different languages can change: in English, for example, the selection of parts of speech occurs on the basis of two features: semantic (categorical meaning) and syntactic (combinability and functions in a sentence); in Russian - based on three features: semantic, morphological (the commonality of a set of morphological categories) and syntactic.

In different languages of the world, the composition of parts of speech (their structure and volume) is different.

V. Despite the existence of differences in the composition, structure and volume of parts of speech in different languages of the world, the most constant in them is the opposition between the name and the verb.

Name, which includes nominal parts of speech (noun and adjective), is opposed to a verb in its semantic, grammatical and syntactic characteristics. The division of parts of speech into a name and a verb, which have their origins in ancient Indian, ancient and Arabic linguistics, correlates with the division of a statement into a subject and a predicate.

Noun - This is a significant part of speech, combining in its composition words with a general meaning of objectivity. Even when denoting a property, quality or process, a noun names them in abstraction from the bearer of the attribute or the producer of the action (for example: kindness, coolness, drawing, der Gelehrte "scientist", das Leben "life", the poor "", the love "").

The primary syntactic functions of a noun are the functions of subject and object: Human decorates the place, not place person. - English The train leaves at six o'clock. "The train leaves at six o'clock" And Ive received a telegram. "I received a telegram" - German Die Studenten sitzen im Hörsaal. "Students sitting in the audience" And Er begegnet einem Bekannten. "He meets an acquaintance."

Although a noun can perform functions characteristic of other parts of speech: predicate ( experience is the best teacher, English He isa teacher . "He is a teacher", German Karagandaist eine schöneStadt . "Karaganda - beautiful city» ); definitions ( house three floors, German die Museenvon Paris "museums of Paris" English This isthe manager room. "This is the manager's room"); circumstances ( go along the path , English . There is a hospitalin the village . "There is a hospital in the village" German Er konntevor Erregung nothing special. “He couldn’t speak from excitement”); but its use in these functions is associated with certain restrictions.

From the point of view of semantics, nouns in all languages of the world are divided into lexical and grammatical categories, among which the most universal are the categories of proper and common nouns, concrete and abstract.

The most typical grammatical categories of nouns are the categories of number and case. Case category in some languages it is expressed using endings or prepositions and endings, in others - analytically, that is, using word order or prepositions. The number of cases may vary. Number category can be expressed in different ways: by affixes (in Russian: sister - sisters - s , in German: die Blume – die Bloom-en "flower - flowers" in English: city-city-es "city - cities"), reduplication (that is, doubling the stem - Armenian), internal inflection (alternations within the root - English: tooth –t ee th "tooth - teeth", German languages: der Garten – die Gä rten "garden - gardens"), accent (Russian: forests – forests), suppletivism (formation of forms from different roots or stems - Russian language: person people), agglutination (Kazakh language).

Among other categories, the category of definiteness/indeterminacy, which can be expressed by an article, has become widespread (German languages: der, das, die– certain, ein, eine, ein – uncertain; English: the – definite, a,an - indefinite), affix. There is no such category in Russian.

Categories of gender, animate/inanimate in many languages of the world they do not have semantic grounds for their identification, therefore they were gradually lost in some languages in the process of their historical development.

In Russian and German languages a noun also opposes a verb in terms of its set of word-forming affixes, among which suffixes predominate (in verbs, prefixes occupy the leading position).

Adjective as a part of speech, it combines words denoting a sign (property) of an object.

The primary syntactic functions of an adjective are the functions of attribution and predication, that is, the functions of definition ( lovely hat - German eineschwere Aufgabe "difficult task" - English cold day "cold day") and the predicate, its nominal part ( Are you still young And inexperienced. – German Der Apparat istgasdicht . “The device is gas-tight” - English The pencil isred . "Red pencil").

An adjective can denote the qualities and properties of an object as a directly perceived sign ( qualitative adjectives: salty, red, deaf, angry, etc.; German stark "strong", gesund "healthy"; English big "big", red "red"), and a sign denoting the property of an object through its relationship to another object - an action, circumstance, number, etc. ( relative adjectives: iron, evening, underground; German morgen "morning", frühlings "spring"; English autumn "autumn").

This division is universal. A feature may be present in an object to a greater or lesser extent, hence the ability of certain categories of adjectives to form degrees of comparison (Russian. wise - wiser (wiser) - wiser (wisest); German laut – lauter – am lautesten “noisy – noisier – the noisiest”; English polite – politer – politest “polite – more polite – the most polite”). A sign can be a permanent or temporary property of an object, hence the presence of two forms - full ( cheerful; German eineschwere Aufgabe "difficult task") and short: ( cheerful, German Die Aufgabe ist schwer"the task is difficult").

In many languages of the world, the adjective is not distinguished in independent part speech (Chinese, Korean).

In languages where adjectives tend towards the name, they are declined; where they gravitate towards verbs - they are conjugated.

In word-formation terms, adjectives often oppose another part of speech, having a special set of word-formation means (for example: in Russian -n, -sk, -ov, -liv, -chiv, absent in other parts of speech).

Verb- a significant part of speech that combines words denoting an action or state ( be in love, German schreiben "to write", English to speak). This meaning is expressed differently in the languages of the world. The main syntactic function of a verb is the function of predicativity (predicability). In accordance with this function, the verb has special grammatical categories (tense, aspect, voice, mood).

The verb denotes an action through the relationship 1) to the person or subject of the action, which explains the presence of category of person; 2) to the object of action, hence the category transitivity. The action denoted by the verb occurs in time, which is expressed time category, which is associated with category of the species(expressing the internal limit achieved or not achieved by the action); moods(expressing a different attitude of action to reality); category of collateral(denoting a different focus of action on the subject and object).

Adverb– a lexical-grammatical class of unchangeable words denoting a sign of a characteristic, action or object (for example: Very close, read a lot of, eggs soft-boiled; German ganz unbrauchbare "totally unfit", gehengeradeaus "go straight", das Hauslinks "house to the left"; English avery good student “very good student”, He workshard . "He works hard").

In the sentence they act as circumstances ( Fast darkness fell. – German Die Delegation wurdeherzlich empfangen. “The delegation was greeted cordially” - English The sun shinesbrightly . "The sun is shining brightly"), less often as definitions (O n loves coffee in Turkish. – German Der Baumrechts ist hoch. "The tree on the right is tall").

Basic morphological characteristics: absence of inflectional forms, lexical and word-formation correlation with significant words, presence of special word-formation affixes.

According to their lexical composition, adverbs are divided into two lexico-grammatical categories – qualitative and adverbial. Quality convey different types of meaning of quality, characteristic, intensity ( fun, fast, a lot, closely; German wenig "little", zweimal "twice"; English too “too”, enough “enough”, well “good”). Circumstantial express circumstantial signs external to their bearer: place, time, reason, purpose ( far away, there, yesterday, rashly, deliberately; German hier “here”, morgen “tomorrow”, darum “therefore”; English inside "inside", now "now").

Numeral– lexico-grammatical class of words denoting number, quantity, measure. A specific grammatical feature of numerals is their compatibility with nouns denoting the objects being counted: in some cases they control nouns (for example: three tables), in others they are consistent with them (for example: many students).

Another feature of numerals is their relationship to number: while conveying the concept of number, a numeral usually does not have this category. In the academic grammar of the modern Russian language, numerals include quantitative, conveying the concept of number in its pure form ( five, two hundred; German zehn, drei; English one, ninety); collective, denoting the combination of homogeneous objects ( two, three); ordinal are considered as relative adjectives ( first, seventh; German der dritte, der zweite; English eighth, fifteenth); fractional, denoting one or another part of the whole ( one third, five sixths; German ein Viertel, ein Zwanzigstel; English a (one) quarter, two point three five).

Pronouns do not have their own subject-logical content, it is a part of speech that combines words that indicate an object, attribute or quantity, but do not name them. These are a kind of substitution words. Pronouns indicate

1) objects (in the grammatical sense of the word) are pronominal

nouns(For example: I, you, we, who, what, no one, somebody;)

2) signs are pronominal adjectives(for example: my,

3) generalized quantity – pronominal numerals(For example:

how many, as many, several);

4) generalized circumstantial meaning is pronominal

adverbs(for example: where, where, there);

5) generalized procedural meaning – pronominal verbs

(For example: to do in English).

A distinctive feature of pronouns is their demonstrative and substitutive function, therefore, in the grammars of different languages, pronouns are often distributed among other parts of speech (for example: in the academic grammar of the Russian language, only pronominal nouns are included in the pronouns).

Functional parts of speech– semantically empty, but functionally loaded, they participate in the formation of various analytical forms. While they are inferior to significant words in number, they are superior to them in frequency of use. TO service units speech includes prepositions, conjunctions, particles, interjections, articles.

educational:

1. Kodukhov V.I. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Education, 1979.

With. 258 – 271.

2. Maslov Yu.S. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Graduate School, 1987. p. 155 – 167.

Term grammar used in two meanings.

1) Grammar as a set of means, methods and rules for constructing phrases and sentences;

2) Grammar is the study of these means, methods, rules with the help of which you can create phrases and sentences in a particular language.

Grammar in the first meaning is synonymous with the concept of the grammatical structure of a language.

Grammar consists of several aspects:

1.Morphology - studies the laws of changing words as parts of speech, as well as the categories inherent in a particular part of speech.

2. Syntax (translated from Greek as “military formation”) explores various types of combinations of words, the relationship between words in a phrase and a sentence, and finally the sentence as a whole, various types and types of sentences.

MORPHOLOGY(from Greek “the study of form”) - a branch of linguistics whose main object is words natural languages and their significant parts - morphemes. The tasks of morphology include defining a word as a special linguistic object and describing its internal structure. Morphology describes not only the formal properties of words and the morphemes that form them, but also those grammatical meanings that are expressed within a word (or “morphological meanings”). According to these two broad objectives, morphology is often divided into two areas: “formal” morphology, or morphemics, and grammatical semantics.

SYNTAX(from the Greek “structure, order”) - a set of grammatical rules of the language related to the construction of phrases and sentences. In a more broad sense, syntax refers to the rules for constructing expressions of any sign systems, and not just verbal language.

Its essence- in the unity of grammatical meaning and the means of its expression.

Signs of grammatical meaning are regularity (the meaning of number in all nouns) and the typified nature of the means of expression, a limited set of means.

The means of expressing this meaning directly depend on the language.

1) in synthetic languages - service morphemes (affixes), reduplication (orang-orang), suppletivism (person-people), internal inflection (foot-fiit) and stress (ruki-ruki).

2) In analytical languages - function words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles, articles), intonation, word order (hi hez a pen, hez hi e pen?)

Grammatical categories differ in their parameters (system of opposition of members, binomial system of the category of number, polynomial system of the category of gender), in relation to reality - real - lexico-grammatical (category of number) and unreal - proper grammatical (category of animacy or gender)

A wide variety of words also fall under the category of the masculine gender: the nouns bread, pencil, house, mind, adjectives big, strong, joyful, beautiful, verbs did, built, wrote.

In Russian, nouns are characterized by grammatical categories number, gender and case, and the verb - number, tense, aspect, mood, voice, person, gender.

The problem of the category of gender is complicated by the fact that the grammatical category of gender, even in the languages in which it is expressed, very often does not coincide across languages. In Russian the hour is masculine, in German and French it is feminine. There are languages that have common gender, examples from the Russian language - orphan, quiet, boring, crybaby.

For living beings, the ways of differentiation within the grammatical category of gender itself in different languages are very diverse:

1. using special endings: guest - guest, husband-wife, or special suffixes: actor - actress, bear - she-bear;

2. using different words(heteronymy): father-mother, brother-sister.

3. using only contextual clarification: whale, squirrel, monkey, magpie, shark, hippopotamus (both males and females).

Number category. Man has long distinguished between one object and many objects, and this distinction could not but find its expression in language. The universality of the category of number lies in the fact that it covers not only nouns and adjectives, but also pronouns and verbs.

If the case system in a particular language is not developed, then the language can do without it, using other methods to express grammatical relations (prepositions, word order, and so on).

By grammatical categories are allocated to the nature of grammatical meanings:

(2) formal categories reflecting the restrictions of word forms associated with compatibility (for example, “concordant” grammatical categories are involved in the design of coordination relations).

There are also categories formative according to which the lexeme can change (for example, the case of a noun; gender, number and case of an adjective; tense and mood of a verb); And classifying, characteristic of the whole lexeme and constant for it (for example, the gender of inanimate nouns, the animate/inanimate nature of most nouns, transitivity/intransitivity and personality/impersonality of most verbs).

The concept of the grammatical meaning of a word. Means of expressing the grammatical meanings of words. The concept of the grammatical form of a word. Basic ways and means of forming grammatical forms of words.

The grammatical meaning of the word- a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic structures and finding its regular expression in grammatical forms.

Ways of expressing grammatical meaning.

1.Flexion. So in the phrase “book of Peter” the connection between words is achieved using the ending a.

2. Function words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles, articles, auxiliary verbs) “went to my brother”

3. Word order acts as a way of expressing grammatical meaning in those languages in which there is no inflection. And the word in the direct and indirect cases retains the same form.

4.Emphasis. For example: Hands, hands, houses, houses. In these examples, the grammatical category of number and case is conveyed by stress.

5. Intonation. Depending on how we say “students are attentive” with the intonation of a statement or “students are attentive?” with the intonation of the question, the sentence, its meaning, its grammatical design also changes.

6.Suppletivism is the combination of words of different roots or different bases into one grammatical pair:

a. when forming degrees of comparison of adjectives: good is better, bad is worse.

b. when forming personal pronouns: I – me.

7. Reduplication (repetitions, doublings) - when a complete or partial doubling of the base occurs, for example:

a. to indicate plural in Indonesian orang (person) - orang-orang (people);

b.to form the superlative degree of an adjective in Chinese: hao (good) - hao-hao (very good, excellent).

Grammatical form- this is the connection of grammatical meaning with the grammatical way of expressing it. Yes, in verbs jump, burst, scream there is a suffix - Well-, which indicates a one-time action, and – t– infinitive suffix.

Methods of forming grammatical forms of words. Shaping methods.

The Russian language belongs to the synthetic languages. Therefore, to identify grammatical meanings, he uses mainly synthetic means.

Shaping methods:

1. Affixation = suffix, ending, prefix express grammatical meaning.

2. Change in the sound composition of the root, expressing different grammatical meanings (remove - remove, send - send); alternation (freeze - freeze, bake - bake).

3. Emphasis: at home (= r.p., singular) – at home (noun, plural).

4.Supplementivism - expressing grammatical meaning using the roots of other words: person - people, me - me, bad - worse.

5. Intonation: for example, in conveying various shades of meaning of the imperative mood of the verb.

Less common, but still used analytical forms. Then the lexical and grammatical meanings receive a separate expression (lexical - by the word itself, grammatical - by an auxiliary component: I will write, let it burst...).

Finally, they are used analytical-synthetic forms, in which grammatical meanings are partially reflected by the form of the main word - the carrier of the lexical meaning, and partially by the auxiliary component: with I would go.

“parts of speech”, in accordance with tradition, began to be used in relation to all selected word classes, in including to auxiliary, and to modal, and to interjections. 4.

A grammar cat is a system of rows of grammatical forms opposed to each other with homogeneous meanings.

A grammatical catalog is a two-sided unit of a morphological system of a language that has PV (semantics) and PS (external texts, with the help of which semantics is developed). From the point of view of semantics, a grammatical category is a set of homogeneous grammatical meanings (the general semantics of the categorical case named after a noun includes private meanings of 6 cases, in turn, private grammatical meanings can be divisions into elementary grammatical values. From the point of view of PVgrammatical cat is a set of grammatical forms that serve for the expression of particular grammatical meanings (the meaning of the unit of a name is adj. expressed in forms long- down-long, etc. with the name adj. we select several forms, their set is singular, and the plural is expressed by the forms long-long-long, etc. .). Particular grammatical meanings, expressed by grammatical forms, form oppositions, which constitute the essence of grammatical cat (singular opposite plural). Forms that have several particulars. grammatical meanings are included in the opposition for various reasons. The grammatical meanings are marked by the number of opposed members (can be two-membered, 3-termed or more). In the case there are 15 opposits. .inflectional members of which can be represented by forms of the same word (tense, mood, person of the verb.) non-inflectional (classifying) are those whose members cannot be represented by members of the same word (gender, soul-neod, noun). the belonging of certain grammatical categories (n., type and voice of the verb) to an inflectional or non-inflective type is the object of debate. Difference between grammatical categories and lexical-grammatical categories. Lexical-grammatical categories are such subclasses within a defined language of speech that have a common semantic feature that affects the ability of words to express certain categorical morphological meanings (n., noun. collect., concrete., abstract., substances., and adj. quality and relative, main personal and impersonal). TYPES OF CORRELATION OF PS AND PV: 1) one or another form of the word expresses the content of the defined grammatical cat; 2) a certain form of the word, being a form of the defined grammatical cat., does not express specific content of this category, i.e. there is a PV, but there is no PS; 3) the word form contains the meaning of that or another grammatical cat, but there is no special form for its expression in the word.

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Grammatical categories, grammatical meanings and grammatical forms

Morphology, being the study of the grammatical nature of a word and its forms, primarily deals with such concepts as grammatical category, grammatical meaning and grammatical form.

Under grammatical category the systemic opposition of all homogeneous grammatical meanings expressed by grammatical formal means is understood. There are grammatical categories morphological and syntactic.

Morphological category is a two-dimensional phenomenon, this is the unity of grammatical semantics and its formal indicators; within the framework of morphological categories, the grammatical meanings of a word are not studied in isolation, but in opposition to all other homogeneous grammatical meanings and all formal means of expressing these meanings. For example, the category of the verbal aspect is made up of homogeneous meanings of the perfect and imperfect forms, the category of the person is made up of homogeneous meanings of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd person.

When analyzing morphological categories, it is especially important to take into account the unity of semantic and formal plans: if any plan is missing, then it cannot be considered this phenomenon as a category. For example, there is no reason to consider the opposition of proper names to common nouns as a morphological category, since this opposition does not find consistent formal expression. The opposition of verbal conjugations is also not a category, but for a different reason: clear formal indicators (endings) of conjugations I and II do not serve to express semantic differences between verbs of different conjugations.

Inflectional categories find their expression in the opposition of different word forms of the same word. For example, the category of person of a verb is inflectional, since to detect it it is enough to compare different shapes one verb (I’m going, you’re going, going).

Non-inflectional(classification, or lexico-grammatical) categories find their expression in the contrast of words according to their grammatical properties. Taking into account the meanings expressed by non-inflectional categories, the vocabulary of a language can be divided into grammatical classes (that is why morphological categories of this type are called classification categories). For example, the categories of gender and animate/inanimate nouns are non-inflectional.

The main morphological category (and a category of classification type) is the category of parts of speech (category partiality ). All other categories are distinguished within the framework of parts of speech and are private morphological categories in relation to parts of speech.

Grammatical category- these are meanings of a generalized nature inherent to words, meanings abstracted from the specific lexical meanings of these words. Categorical meanings can be indicators, for example, of the relationship of a given word to other words in a phrase and sentence (case category), relationship to the person speaking (person category), the relationship of the message to reality (mood category), the relationship of the message to time (category of time) and etc.

Grammatical categories have varying degrees abstraction. For example, the grammatical category of case, in comparison with the grammatical category of gender, is a more abstract category. Thus, any noun is included in the system of case relations, but not each of them is included in the system of oppositions by gender: teacher - teacher, actor - actress, but teacher, linguist, director.

One or another grammatical category (category of gender, category of number, category of case, etc.) in each specific word has a specific content. So, for example, the category of gender, characteristic of nouns, in the word book is revealed by the fact that this noun is a feminine noun; or aspect category, for example, in a verb paint has a certain content – This is an imperfective verb. Similar meanings of words are called grammatical meanings. The grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of the word. If the lexical meaning correlates the sound shell of a word with reality (object, phenomenon, sign, action, etc.), then the grammatical meaning forms specific form words (word form), necessary mainly to connect a given word with other words in the text.

The lexical meaning of a word is specific and individual, and the grammatical meaning is abstract and generalized nature. Yes, words mountain, wall, hole represent different objects and have different lexical meanings; but from the point of view of grammar, they are included in the same category of words that have the same set of grammatical meanings: objectivity, nominative case, singular, feminine, inanimate.

Grammatical meanings are divided into general and specific. The general grammatical (categorical) meaning characterizes the largest grammatical classes of words - parts of speech (objectivity - in a noun, a feature of an object - in an adjective, action as a process - in a verb, etc.). Particular grammatical meaning is characteristic of individual forms of words (meanings of number, case, person, mood, tense, etc.).

The bearer of grammatical meaning at the word level is a single form of the word - word form. The set of all word forms of the same word is called paradigm. The paradigm of a word, depending on its grammatical characteristics, can consist of either one word form (adverb in the heat of the moment), and from several word forms (noun paradigm house consists of 12 word forms).

The ability of a word to form a paradigm consisting of two or more word forms is called inflection. The following inflection systems operate in modern Russian:

By cases (declension);

By persons (conjugation);

By numbers;

By birth;

By inclination;

From time to time.

The ability of a word to form special forms called shaping. This is how they are formed short form and degrees of comparison of adjectives, infinitives, participles and gerunds of verbs, etc.

So, word form - This is a specific use of the word.

Token- this is a word as a representative of a group of specific word forms that have the same lexical meaning.

Paradigm- this is the entire set of word forms included in a given lexeme.

Word form is a word form with certain morphological characteristics in abstraction from its lexical features.

Grammatical meanings are expressed by certain language means. For example: the meaning of the 1st person singular in a verb writing expressed using the ending -y, and the general meaning of the instrumental case in the word forest expressed using the ending - ohm. This expression of grammatical meanings by external linguistic means is called grammatical form. Consequently, forms of a word are varieties of the same word that differ from each other in grammatical meanings. There is no grammatical meaning outside of grammatical form. Grammatical meanings can be expressed not only with the help of morphological modifications of a word, but also with the help of other words with which it is associated in a sentence. For example, in sentences He bought a coat And He was wearing a coat word form coat is the same, but in the first case it has the grammatical meaning of the accusative case, and in the second - the prepositional case. These meanings are created by the different connections that the word has with other words in the sentence.

Basic ways of expressing grammatical meanings

In Russian morphology there are different ways expressions of grammatical meanings, i.e. ways of forming word forms: synthetic, analytical, mixed and others.

At synthetic way grammatical meanings are usually expressed affixation , i.e. the presence or absence of affixes (for example, table, table; goes, go; beautiful, beautiful, beautiful), much less often – alternating sounds and stress (mind e howl–mind And army; m A sla- special oil A ), and suppletive , i.e. formations from different roots ( person - people, child - children:unit values and many more numbers; take - take: meanings of imperfect and perfect form; good - better: positive and comparative degree). Affixation can be combined with a change in stress ( water - water), as well as with alternating sounds ( dream - sleep).

At analytical way grammatical meanings receive their expression outside the main word, i.e. in other words. For example, the meaning of the future tense of a verb can be expressed not only synthetically – using a personal ending ( played Yu, played eat, played no ), but also analytically – using a verb link be(will play, you will play, will play).

At mixed, or hybrid, way, grammatical meanings are expressed both synthetically and analytically, i.e. both outside and inside the word. For example, the grammatical meaning of the prepositional case is expressed by a preposition and an ending ( in the house), grammatical meaning of the first person - pronoun and ending ( I will come).

Formative affixes can express several grammatical meanings at once, for example: in a verb eid ut ending -ut expresses both person, number, and mood.

Thus, the one-word paradigm can combine synthetic, analytical and suppletive word forms.

The grammatical meaning of a word can be expressed syntactic way, i.e. using another word form combined with a given word form ( strong th coffee– masculine meaning indeclinable noun, as indicated by the word form of the masculine adjective; To coat– the meaning of the dative case of an indeclinable noun, as indicated by the preposition k).

Sometimes a way of expressing grammatical meaning is logical-semantic relations in the text. For example, in the sentence Summer gives way to autumn noun autumn is the subject and is in the nominative case form, and summer– an object and is in the accusative case.

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