Historical chronology. Topics of essays and messages tests on Russian history
Historical periods are usually distinguished from the point of view of general ideas and trends. The names of eras are given retrospectively, after assessments of past events. Such periodization greatly affects the accuracy of subsequent studies, so you should be extremely careful here. What historical eras are in this moment presented?
Chronology of historical eras
Antiquity
There are several other main periods in this era:
- Early Antiquity;
- Classical Antiquity;
- Late Antiquity.
This period of history lasted from the beginning of the 8th century BC. e., until the end of the 6th century AD. e. The cultural heritage of ancient times was preserved in the life, language, culture and traditions of many Romanesque peoples. Elements of classical antiquity remained for a long time in the core of the Eastern Roman Empire until the 9th century AD. e.
Middle Ages
Middle Ages. It came after the end of the ancient era. The beginning of this branch of history is considered to be the collapse of the Western Roman Empire at the end of the 5th century. But there is still a lot of controversy about when the end of the era came. There are several options for what became the end of the Middle Ages:
- Fall of Constantinople in 1453;
- Discovery of America in 1492;
- Beginning of the Reformation in 1517;
- Start English Revolution in 1640;
- End of the Thirty Years' War in 1648.
In recent times, the end of the era dates back to the 15th-16th centuries. It is most correct to consider this great era as a worldwide process, as well as a special period in the development of each country. What eras are there in the further perspective of history?
Renaissance
Next came the Renaissance. What century dates back to its beginning? The approximate start of this era is considered to be the beginning of the 14th century, and the approximate end came in the 16th century. The most distinctive and characteristic feature The revival is generally considered to be that it bore the secular side of culture and interest in human activity, as well as in the individual himself. There is a revival of ancient culture. This paradigm arose after changes occurred in European society. Secular centers of art and science appeared in cities, the activities of which were uncontrolled by the church. The country of origin of this era was Italy.
Baroque
Baroque. Great Italy is also considered the center of this culture. In Italian cities, the era originated in the 16th-14th centuries, namely in Rome, Venice, Florence and Mantua. This turn of history is considered to be the beginning of the triumph of formation " Western civilization" What era begins after the unexpected Baroque?
Classicism
- Classicism. This direction of artistic style in European art began after the Baroque in the 17th century, and ended in the 19th century. This direction was based on rationalism. For example, works of art from the era of classicism must be built on strict canons. For classicism, only the eternal and unchanging were of interest. Classicism established a strict hierarchy of all genres that could not be mixed in any way:
- Epic;
- Tragedy;
- Comedy;
- Satire;
- Fable.
Romanticism
Romanticism, which began in the 18th century, affirms the spiritual and creative life of each individual, depicts strong and fighting characters. The spread went to all spheres of human activity. Everything strange, unknown, fantastic, original, existing only in books and not in real life, began to be called romantic. What eras exist after the romantic perception of reality surged?
Impressionism
Impressionism originated in France in the 19th century and then spread throughout the world. All representatives of this trend tried to depict everything around in real outlines, but from the perspective of mobility and with the introduction of their impressions. The most important thing was to be able to correctly convey your impressions in painting, literature and music.
Expressionism
Expressionism is a movement in European art that began to develop in the twentieth century during the formation of modernism. The greatest recognition and growth was achieved in Germany and Austria. Expressionism strives not only to depict and convey reality, but also to most clearly convey all the emotions of the author. He was realized in many directions: painting, theater, literature, music, dance and architecture. And this is the first trend that found its implementation in cinema.
Why did this era arise? It was a painful reaction to the ugliness of capitalist civilization. Many emotions were conveyed: fear, anxiety, disappointment and despair. Each expressionist is characterized by the subjectivity of the entire creative process, because expression must prevail over image. Here you can often catch the motive of screaming and pain.
Radical constructivism
Radical constructivism is not a reflection of reality, but a reflection of each individual as he subjectively sees each real thing. After all, this happens after a person learns everything around him. Each person in this era is considered as a closed system.
Neoclassicism
Neoclassicism. The creation that was created during such a period is characterized by a manifestation of antiquity, renaissance, and classicism. Neoclassicism is characteristic of amazing architectural art and fine art movements.
What is the current era of development? At this point historical stage A new time has come. During this period of history, the formation of new civilization, systems of relations of the European world and distribution to other parts of the world. What eras there are surprises many, leaves various riddles, which will be solved by the next generations of the whole world!
The historical period from the 1st to the 21st century is called the scientific term - Our Era (the new era is often used). During this historical period, humanity switched to a new calendar - from the Nativity of Christ. Use of Julian and Gregorian calendars faded into the background. Period new era marked by the transition from the feudal era to the era of industrial capitalism. All of humanity was transformed during this historical period. All major scientific, cultural discoveries and revolutionary changes in society occurred in the second half of the history of the new era. At the end of this historical period, the civilization of the world's population reached a high level.
1st century history
The first century AD is the beginning of a new chronology. The turning point in history was the Nativity of Jesus Christ, the beginning of a new religion - Christianity. Before this period, all cultural peoples used the Julian calendar. The dominant state of this period was the Roman Empire. She established her dominance from Asia to the British Isles. This period marked the two most famous rulers of Rome - Emperors Augustus and Nero. The dominance of the Romans brought not only negative influences, but also positive ones. They built a huge number of roads paved with stone and introduced Latin writing. All this had a beneficial effect on the culture of enslaved peoples. Mount Vesuvius erupted on the territory of modern Italy. This is the largest disaster of those times. Died as a result of the eruption the whole city- Pompeii. During this period of history, a large number of small Asian states appeared: Chola, Funan (modern territory of Cambodia), Thampa (modern Vietnam). There was a strong uprising in China, dividing the territory into two main rulers - the indigenous Chinese and the Xiongnu.
History of the 2nd century
The beginning of the century is marked by the expansion of the territories and influence of the Roman Empire. This happened during the reign of Emperor Trajan. It is generally accepted that during this period of time, Greco-Roman culture began to penetrate the cultures of all the peoples of Europe. The second century is marked in history by the beginning of the reign of five noble Roman emperors, under whom the Roman Empire reached its highest cultural development. At this time, the legendary uprising of the Jews took place, led by Bar Kochba. The Romans brutally suppressed the uprising and expelled the Jews from Jerusalem. At the end of the second century in the territory modern Europe a severe plague epidemic broke out, which carried away a huge number of human lives. The city of Rome was the epicenter. As a result, a third of the city's residents died. During this period, the Chinese Empire extended its influence throughout central Asia, consolidating the rule of the Han Dynasty.
History of the 3rd century
The beginning of the third century is marked by crisis and political destabilization of the Roman Empire. The crisis was exacerbated by the simultaneous civil war within the empire and the war with the Allans. At the very edge of the Roman Empire (in the territory modern Britain) a war of conquest by the Irish rebels began, led by the legendary folk hero Cormac. This period of history saw a sharp development of blacksmithing for the manufacture of tools and military weapons from iron. History calls this period the Iron Age. In the territory modern Crimea There was a decline in the reign of the once strong Scythian tribes - the Sarmatians. Over time, these tribes completely disappeared. The third century saw the worst drought in any region of the Eurasian steppe. This had a detrimental effect on all the peoples inhabiting these lands. Chinese dynasties are constantly fighting for power within the country. This period, for China, was marked by the reign of six dynasties.
History of the 4th century
The rule of the Roman emperor Diocletian was established on the Eurasian continent. This period in the history of the development of Roman statehood is called late antiquity, or Dominate. This new form reign was established by Emperor Diocletian as a modern alternative to all types government that time. In the fourth century, the first, long and severe persecution of Christians began. All who refused to recognize the divinity of the Roman Emperor were subjected to brutal torture and executions. In the middle of the fourth century, Emperor Constantine stopped all persecution, banned execution and crucifixion, and freed the church from all taxes. In China, the confrontation between the eight princes ended, but the country, weakened by the war, was invaded by northern barbarian tribes. This period of Chinese history was called the "conglomeration of sixteen barbarian reigns." The northern barbarian tribe Xiongnu took control of all the main administrative centers, led by the capital.
5th century history
The fifth century was a turning point for the peoples inhabiting European territory. Starting from the northern lands, a series of wars reached Asia itself. In the northwest, the Goths defeated the Antes. Towards the middle of the century, a massive occupation of the British Isles began by the northern warlike tribes of barbarians - the Angles and Saxons. This is the most troubled time for the islands of modern England. The island of Brittany became a colony of the northern people - the Celts. The territory of modern Spain is completely subjugated to the Vandals. In the middle of the century, a series of battles between the Roman Empire and the Vandals took place. At the same time, a meeting of all the bishops of Europe and Asia held the fourth ecumenical council, which adopted the basic dogmas of the Church, which have survived to this day. In the second half of the fifth century, the Vandals captured the capital of the Roman Empire. Rome was completely sacked.
6th century history
The Roman ruler Dionysius adopted chronology at the state level from the birth of Jesus Christ. From that time to this day, all states of the world use this calendar. At the beginning of the fifth century, the largest uprising of the Byzantine Empire occurred. At the same time, three major volcanic eruptions occurred in a row, affecting the climate of that time. In the middle of the fifth century, a worldwide plague epidemic was recorded. This happened on the territory of the Byzantine Empire and spread throughout Europe and Asia. The epidemic was named after the ruler of Byzantium, Justinian. Closer to the second half of the fifth century, two largest associations states that effectively divided rule between Europe and Asia. The European union was called the Turkic Kaganate. The rulers came from Turkic tribes. The Asian union was called the Avar Kaganate. In the second half of the sixth century, the first Catholic abbey was formed.
7th century history
At the beginning of the sixth century, Slavic tribes greatly expanded in the territories from the Danube to the Baltic Sea. At this time, the first Slavic state was formed - Samo. Many Slavic tribes of that time united into the Union, the Seven Slavic Nations. Towards the middle of the seventh century there was a decline in the Christianization of Europe. This happened due to the mass migration of Asian and barbarian tribes to European territory. These tribes brought pagan influence to all spheres of life and everyday life, including religion. The seventh century is the period of the birth of Islam. The first caliphate, called the Righteous, is created. The most great development at that time received states on the islands of New Zealand and Thailand. In the north of Asian territories, wars for independence are constantly going on between the Turkic Kagan and the Chinese emperors. It was only at the end of the seventh century that the Turkic tribes won their independence from China. On the American continent, a high civilization of Indians was recorded living along Lake Titicaca.
8th century history
IN initial period the eighth century, the tribes of Central Asian Arabs became very active. Turkic tribes approached them from the west, and in the south the Arabs fought with Byzantium. The Arabs carried out two major sieges of the Byzantine capital, Constantinople. However, none were successful. The Arabs reached the territory modern France, however, they were unable to conquer the entire territory and retreated. From the north, in the area of the British Isles, strong Viking invasions began. This period of history can be called the beginning of the era of Viking influence. For Asia Minor, these times were marked by a strong spread of Tibetan influence. These mountain peoples spread to the Caspian Sea and the eastern caliphate - Turkestan. The eighth century was a turning point for the development of poetry of the Chinese peoples. Chinese poetry spread its influence throughout the world, and since that time it has become an integral part of world culture. At the end of the eighth century, Indian philosophy began to develop - Shaivism.
9th century history
The ninth century is usually called the era early Middle Ages. Many historians call it a warming period, as many peaceful unifications took place in the early ninth century. In Western Europe, the Vikings strengthened their influence. According to the Treaty of Verdun, the Frankish state was divided into parts. The once strong Albanian state disintegrates into small feudal fiefs, and the Danes captured the entire northeast of Britain. The beginning of the Angevin dynasty. Slavic tribes began to build large cities, consolidating their positions of influence. It was during this period of history that the most ancient cities of Russia were built - Rostov, Murom and Veliky Novgorod. Slavic culture began to spread to Europe. The beginning of the reign of the Rurik Dynasty. In the ninth century, a waterway was opened from the Varangian coast of the Baltic Sea to the shores of Constantinople. This period of time was marked by peaceful trade between north and south, between Europe and Asia. The first windmills appeared in the ninth century.
10th century history
The tenth century is a transitional period from the first millennium to the second. In western Europe, the Scandinavians established their dominance. They populated the entire north of France. The King of Denmark became the sovereign governor of Normandy. In the middle of the tenth century, the Holy Roman Empire was revived. The Roman protectorate spread its influence with the help of Catholicism. The tenth century was a turning point for Kievan Rus. Prince of Kyiv Svyatoslav freed Rus' from the Khazar yoke. Prince Vladimir and Princess Olga convert to Christianity. Since that time, it has been customary to consider Kievan Rus to be a Christian power. It was in the tenth century that the famous baptism of Rus' took place. The states of Asia Minor are in constant confrontation. China celebrates the reign of five dynasties. Over a period of about sixty years, about ten kingdoms were formed in China. In the tenth century, the so-called “centennial drought” occurred; according to various historical sources, its duration was about two hundred and fifty days. The drought stretched from the Carpathians to the Pacific Ocean.
11th century history
The beginning of the eleventh century was marked by the first schism in history christian church. This indicated that the church had merged with the state. Catholic Rome approves the Council of Cardinals, which is the only body that elects the pope - the head of the Roman Church. During this period of time, Christianity took a dominant position in Denmark. From this time on, Christianity began to influence the Scandinavian peoples. In the middle of the eleventh century, the northern peoples - the Normans - conquered most territories of England, a small part of Italy and the island of Sicily. At the end of the eleventh century, a historical battle took place between the Turks and the Byzantine emperor. This battle took place near the city of Manzikert (territory of the Byzantine Empire). In this battle the Turks won an absolute victory. The emperor was captured, but paid off half of the lands of the Byzantine state. After this, the greatness and power of the Byzantine state ended.
12th century history
At the beginning of the twelfth century there was a constant struggle between the Pope and the Emperor. This confrontation is called in history as the struggle for investiture. At its core, it was a struggle for the spread of influence in political life Roman Empire. The then Emperor Henry the Fifth signed the Treaty of Worms, according to which the Pope had more powers than the Emperor. In the early period of the twelfth century, a battle took place between Polish and German troops. In history this battle was called the Battle of the Dog Field. The Poles won this battle. A civil war broke out in England. A number of significant events take place in the history of the French state. King Louis marries the Duchess of Aquitaine, heir to the southwestern lands of modern France. Thanks to this marriage, six regions were added to the kingdom of France. The next king, Philip II, carried out a number of progressive reforms during his reign: the concentration of royal power as the dominant government, limiting the powers of the feudal nobility. He literally conquered the lands - Normandy and other northern territories of France from John the Landless. This period of history is celebrated as the period of French leadership among all European countries. In Rus' there was a period of reign of the legendary Vladimir Monomakh, who carried out a number of progressive reforms.
13th century history
In the thirteenth century, the Mongol-Tatar unification received strong development. The Mongols captured northern China, most of the Russian lands, and completely Iran. In Mongolia itself there is a long civil war for power. As a result, three were formed independent states, of which the Golden Horde became dominant. History of the Mongolians - Tatar yoke Closely connected with the Russians. During this period of history, the main battles of the Russian princes for independence took place: the Battle of the Ice, the Battle of the Kalka River, and the Battle of the Neva. This period falls during the reign of Khan Batu, who devastated Rus' most of all. All the significant crusades took place in the thirteenth century. The Fourth Crusade ended with the complete capture of Constantinople and the creation of the Latin Empire. From the remnants of the former great state of Byzantium, three empires were formed, which did not last long. At the sixth crusade, Jerusalem is completely handed over to Christian rulers. During the seventh century, the French king Louis the Saint was defeated and captured. In the thirteenth century it happened trip around the world Marco Polo.
14th century history
At the beginning of the fourteenth century, the young Principality of Moscow united the northern regions under its influence. The scattered principalities of Kievan Rus began to unite under the rule of Veliky Novgorod, the Moscow principality and the capital Kyiv. The reign of the legendary Grand Duke of Moscow - Ivan Kalita. In France, the famous arrest of all the Knights of the Templar Order takes place. The Roman Papal Council moves its seat from Rome to Avignon. The constant struggle for power between the Roman nobility did not allow the normal rule of the popes. At this time, the famous Ecumenical Council took place in Vienne. In the early period of the fourteenth century, Scotland won complete independence, completely defeating the army of the English king. In the middle of the century, the English army completely defeated the Scottish troops, along with the Irish militia. The King of Scotland died in this battle. The final act of signing independence was the signing of the Declaration of Arbroath. This is a famous document that affirmed the power of the entire people. This approach was more than progressive, so the declaration is considered a unique document that time. In the 14th century there was a great famine that claimed the lives of several million people. But the most severe event was the plague epidemic, around the middle of the century. This is the largest tragedy in terms of human casualties. Its scale is amazing; the Black Death spread throughout Europe, Asia and Africa. According to some estimates, the tragedy claimed about 60 million people. In some regions, almost half the population died.
15th century history
During this period, the famous Ottoman Empire began to rise. However, in a clash with the Turkic leader Timur (Tamerlane), Bayezid Khan was defeated. This event set back the Ottoman Empire for a dozen years before it became dominant in the countries Central Asia. In Europe, there is a strong confrontation between the knights of the Teutonic Order and the Polish-Lithuanian Union of Armies. The Battle of Grunwald was a turning point for the Teutonic Knights. Most were killed in this battle, and the rest were captured and stripped of all honors. This battle became significant, as the Polish-Lithuanian state acquired strong influence in Europe and became dominant. In the fifteenth century, the Hundred Years' War reached its climax. This is a long confrontation between the English and French kings. But for the French people it was liberating, as the British tried to seize the border lands. The famous Joan of Arc died in this battle. She was captured and burned at the stake. In the middle of the century there was a split in the Catholic Church. The current Pope has abdicated power. The other was deposed and excommunicated. At this council a resolution was adopted that supreme body The authority is the council, everyone, including the Pope, submits to the council. The Council is generally believed to be subject to the authority of Christ.
16th century history
The 16th century was a series of great geographical discoveries. America is conquered by Spain, England and Portugal. The Spaniards conquered the empires of the legendary Aztecs and Incas. The American Indians quickly began to disappear. For the Spaniards, this is a period of complete dominance among all countries in the world. Spain built the famous "Silver Fleet". Spain experienced, as historians write, a golden age. During this period, a series of Italian wars took place, in which most European states and even the Ottoman Empire were drawn. The conflict developed due to claims to the inheritance of the Roman Empire. As a result, the territory of Italy went to Spain. A series of wars took place between Russia and the Lithuanian princes (five wars in a row). Russia annexed the main lands to its territory. In the middle of the century the famous reformation of the church took place. This period was started by the famous Martin Luther. From that time on, Protestantism appeared - renewed Christianity. At the same time, it is believed that it was during this period that the era of revolutionary discoveries in science began. These events contributed to the development of a cultural movement called the Renaissance. In the second half of the 16th century, the famous Russian Tsar Ivan the Terrible reigned. During this period, Russia fought two wars with the Swedes. A seven-year war took place between the Swedish state and the Polish-Lithuanian peoples, which ended with the complete exhaustion of all armies and the signing of a peace treaty. At the end of the 16th century, England defeated the Spanish fleet.
17th century history
The beginning of the 17th century was a turning point for the history of the Netherlands. A revolution took place in the country, which helped all the provinces of the Netherlands gain freedom. A victory was won over the Spanish fleet. The dominance of Spain was replaced by the dominance of the Netherlands. For Russia, the period of the 17th century is called a time of troubles, due to a series of natural disasters, wars with Sweden and Poland, famine and disease. The country was very exhausted. The famine under Tsar Boris Godunov led to a rebellion and was brutally suppressed. The era of the 17th century was a period of numerous wars and constant divisions of territories. The entire continent of Eurasia was drawn into a chain of military events. Wars were fought by Sweden, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russia, England, Holland, France, and Portugal. The Thirty Years' War for dominance in the Roman Empire and Europe involved almost all European states. At the same time, land was being colonized in America; wars were fought there with Indian tribes. China's government overthrown famous dynasty Min. The rule of a new generation was established - the Qing. Russian history replete with a series of wars and riots. Due to constant hunger and the exhausting war with Poland, a copper riot occurred in Moscow, the uprising was brutally suppressed. Then the Solovetsky riot and the uprising of Stepan Razin. The famous reforms of Peter I led to the Streltsy revolt. There is an uprising in Ukraine led by Bohdan Khmelnitsky. During this period the famous reunion took place.
18th century history
The beginning of the 18th century was marked by the Northern War. This war was started by Sweden, led by King Charles the Twelfth. The end of the war took place near Poltava. This famous battle was completely won by the Russian Tsar, Peter I. The Swedes were defeated. From this time on, Swedish dominance in Europe ended. Peter made St. Petersburg the capital. Russia acquires new status – Russian empire. The Wars of the Spanish Succession are being fought in Europe. England and France are fighting for dominance in America. Then a series of wars between the Ottoman Sultan and the Russian Emperor occurs. In the Far East, two wars take place over Manchurian territories. Next happened: the Anglo-Spanish War, the War for the Polish Throne, the War for the Austrian Throne and two wars in a row between Sweden and Russia. Cultural and geographical events include: expeditions to the sulfur territories of Russia, North America and Japan. The period of the 18th century is called the era of the Great Enlightenment. Four famous trends in architecture and construction were launched: Rococo, Baroque, Classicism and Academicism. Trade between all continents: America, Africa and Europe has developed strongly. Subsequently it was called triangular. At the end of the 18th century, the famous bourgeois revolution took place, which influenced the further development of industrial relations throughout the world.
19th century history
The Great Bourgeois Revolution pushed for the development of new relations international trade. Industrial cities began to develop strongly, and there was a gradual increase in employment. Great Britain recognized the independence of Ireland, and the state is now called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The Austrian Empire reached its peak. The legendary Roman Empire completely collapsed. Russia is experiencing several wars for trade sea routes in the Mediterranean, a war with Finland, internal Caucasian war. In several countries there are uprisings against colonial oppression: in Africa (the territory of Liberia), in America - Indian uprisings and the seizure of Mexican lands. At the beginning of the 18th century, the odious Emperor Napoleon came to power in France. During his reign, wars of conquest were waged throughout Europe. After the capture of Spain, South America A series of liberation wars for independence takes place. France gained complete dominance over Europe. However, the military campaign against Russia ended in a complete fiasco for Emperor Napoleon. In the first half of the nineteenth century, the Russian-Turkish war took place; under the auspices of this war, an uprising for independence rose in Greece. This long war ended for the Greeks with a peace treaty, according to which Greece received full independence. In the second half of the 19th century, Russia began a military campaign against Great Britain, France and Ottoman Empire. This war had a name - Crimean, since military operations took place there. In America there is a civil war between the north and south. Education takes place in Europe German Empire. Military conflicts occur in many regions of Asia.
History of the 20th century
Perhaps the most intense period of history is the twentieth century. At the beginning of the century, massive industrialization took place, providing new opportunities for government. This is how the First World War occurred, which became the final stage for all empires. Severe epidemics of smallpox, typhoid fever and Spanish fever raged in Europe. A revolution took place in Russia, which marked the era of totalitarian rule of the Soviet communist system. During the period of Soviet power, such legendary personalities appeared: Lenin and Stalin. In the pre-war period, revolutionary medicines were invented: penicillin, analgin and a number of other antibiotics. Soviet Union survived the second world war. After defeating Nazi Germany There is a redistribution of the borders and territories of Europe. However, from this moment on, the world is divided into two opposing camps: capitalist and socialist. In the post-war period, two military blocs were created: NATO and the Warsaw Pact. The UN organization was created. Nuclear energy appeared. The 20th century was marked by high progress in all areas of production. Invented: automobile, airplane, electricity, radio. Man has been to space. In the second half of the twentieth century, the European Union was formed and the USSR collapsed. Strong development of computer technology.
History of the 21st century
Twenty-first century - the beginning of the third millennium. The beginning of the 21st century was marked by a number of coups d'etat in Georgia, Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan, Syria, Egypt, Algeria and Lebanon. The largest terrorist attack occurred in the United States - the bombing of the World Trade Center and the Pentagon building. Total The victims of the tragedy reached three thousand. IN Indian Ocean The largest tsunami occurred - the number of victims reached 400 thousand people. About 5 million people were left without housing. A major earthquake in Japan claimed about 16 thousand lives. Provoked a nuclear disaster at the Fukushima plant. The second Chechen war has ended in Russia. A passenger plane carrying leading members of the Polish government, led by the president, crashed on the territory of the Smolensk region. The Lokomotiv hockey team died in a plane crash near the city of Yaroslavl. A civil war broke out in northern Africa. During this period, the most famous terrorist in the world, Osama bin Laden, was killed. President Muammar Gaddafi was killed in Egypt. A coup d'etat took place on the territory of Ukraine, which became the beginning of a war on the eastern border with Russia. The Crimean Peninsula joined Russian Federation. 22 were held in Sochi Olympic Games. The world's population is 7 billion.
Years before the new era.
4 thousand years. Unification of small states in the Nile Valley. The first pyramid. Sumerian-Akkadian kingdom in Mesopotamia. Invention of cuneiform. The Harappan civilization arose in the Indus Valley. In the Yellow River Valley, silkworms are bred and bronze is smelted; knotted and patterned writing appears.
2.5-2 thousand years. Minoan civilization. Assyrian state with its capital in Nineveh. The Phoenicians create alphabetic writing and open the way to the Red Sea. Tripoli agricultural culture in the Dnieper region.
2 thousand years. Aryan tribes penetrate into India, and the Achaean Greeks into Hellas.
1.5 thousand years. The state of Shang (Yin) arises in China.
1400 Exodus of the Jews from Egypt under the leadership of Moses.
OK. XV century Separation of Proto-Slavic tribes from Indo-European unity.
XV-XIII centuries The period of Achaean Greece.
1300-1200 The Hittites discover a way to obtain iron. 970-940 The reign of King Solomon, the construction of the Jerusalem Temple.
IX-VIII centuries The first mentions of the Persian state.
800 Founding of Carthage by the Phoenicians.
776 First Olympic Games.
753 Legendary date of the founding of Rome.
660 First Emperor of Japan.
560 Birth of Buddha.
551 Birth of Confucius.
489 - IV century n. e. State of Greater Armenia.
461 The Golden Age of Pericles in Greece. Construction of the Parthenon.
334-325 Conquests of Alexander the Great in the East.
317-180 Mauryan Empire in India.
264-146 Three Punic wars between Rome and Carthage and the destruction of Carthage.
246 Construction of the Great Wall of China begins.
146 Submission of Greece to Rome.
73-71 Revolt of Roman slaves led by Spartacus.
49-44 Dictatorship of Julius Caesar in Rome.
6 BC - 4 AD e. Probable date of birth of Jesus Christ.
Years of the new era.
1st century The emergence of Christianity.
OK. 29. Crucifixion of Jesus Christ by order of the Roman procurator Pontius Pilate.
I-II centuries The first mentions of the Slavs by ancient authors.
132-135 The dispersion of Jews throughout the world begins.
164-180 Plague devastates the Roman and Chinese empires.
III-IX centuries Mayan civilization in America.
395 Division of the Roman Empire into Eastern and Western.
IV-V centuries Introduction of Christianity in Georgia and Armenia.
476 Fall of the Western Roman Empire.
The beginning of the Middle Ages.
482 Baptism of the Franks. The first kingdom of the Franks.
570 Birth of Muhammad, founder of Islam.
630 Formation of the Arab state.
End of the 7th century Formation of the Bulgarian state.
711-720 Arab conquest of Spain.
732 Battle of Poitiers. The Arab advance into Europe was stopped.
VIII-X centuries Khazar Khaganate.
The first chronicle information about Novgorod.
The legendary date of the founding of Kyiv.
9th century Education of Kievan Rus.
The end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th century. Formation of the Czech state.
X century Formation of the Old Polish state.
1054 The gap between Orthodoxy and Catholicism.
1096-1099 First Crusade.
1136-1478 Novgorod feudal republic.
1147 First mention of Moscow.
1206-1227 The reign of Genghis Khan. The emergence of the Mongol state.
1236-1242 Tatar-Mongol invasion of Rus' and European countries.
1242 Alexander Nevsky defeats the German knights on Lake Peipsi.
Ser. X century - 1569 Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia.
1325 Founding of the Aztec kingdom in Mexico.
1348-1349 Plague kills half the population of England.
1370-1405 The reign of the great emir Timur the conqueror.
1378 Victory of the Moscow army over the Tatars on the Vozha River.
1380 Battle of Kulikovo - defeat of the Tatars under the leadership of Dmitry Donskoy.
1389 Battle of Kosovo (defeat of the Serbs by the Turks).
1410 Defeat of the Teutonic Order by the Polish-Lithuanian-Russian army (Grunwald).
1431 Burning of Joan of Arc according to the verdict of the Inquisition.
1445 Gutenberg Bible. The beginning of book printing in Europe.
1453 Fall of Constantinople and Byzantium under the attacks of the Turks.
1478 The Inquisition begins in Spain.
1480 “Standing on the Ugra”. The end of the Tatar-Mongol yoke.
1492 Expulsion of the Arabs from Spain. Discovery of America by Columbus.
1517 Martin Luther opposes the power of the popes. Beginning of the Reformation.
1531-1533 Pizarro's conquest of the Inca state.
1533-1584 The reign of Ivan the Terrible.
August 24, 1572 St. Bartholomew's Night (massacre of the Huguenots in France).
1588 Death " Invincible Armada"(Spanish fleet).
1596 Union of Brest. Formation of the Greek Catholic (“Uniate”) Church. 1604-1612 "Time of Troubles".
The liberation of Moscow by the militia of Minin and Pozharsky.
d. Election of Mikhail Romanov to the throne.
1620 The Pilgrim Fathers establish a colony overseas in New England.
The beginning of the bourgeois revolution in England is considered the beginning of the New Age.
1640 Beginning of the bourgeois revolution in England. 1644 Manchus take control of China.
1654 Decision on the transition of Ukraine to the rule of the Tsar of Russia (Pereyaslav Rada).
1667-1671 Peasant war under the leadership of Stepan Razin.
1682-1725 Reign of Peter I.
1701-1703 War of the Spanish Succession. Strengthening England at sea.
June 27, 1709 Battle of Poltava.
1762-1796 Reign of Catherine I.
1773-1775 - Peasant war under the leadership of Emelyan Pugachev.
1775-1783 The War of Independence of the American Colonies. USA education.
July 24, 1783 Treaty of Georgievsk on the transfer of Georgia under the protection of Russia.
July 14, 1788 The storming of the Bastille and the beginning of the French Revolution.
1793-1795 Accession of Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Latvia to Russia.
1812 Invasion of Napoleon's army into Russia. Battle of Borodino.
1815 Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Waterloo.
1837 Accession of Queen Victoria to England.
1853-1856 Crimean War. Defense of Sevastopol.
February 19, 1861 Abolition of serfdom in Russia.
1861-1865 American Civil War between North and South. Abolition of slavery.
1862 Unification of Germany by Bismarck.
1867 Creation of the dual Austro-Hungarian Empire.
1877-1878 - Russian-Turkish war, liberation of the Bulgarians, Serbs, Romanians.
1896 Coronation of Nicholas P. Disaster on the Khodynka Field.
1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War. The death of the Varyag, the fall of Port Arthur.
G. " Bloody Sunday" The beginning of the revolution in Russia. Manifesto October 17.
The First State Duma.
1911-1913 Revolution in Imperial China.
1914 Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and outbreak of the First World War.
1917 February Revolution in Russia, the overthrow of the autocracy.
1917 Victory of the October Revolution in Petrograd. Education of the RSFSR.
1417 Formation of the Ukrainian People's and Soviet Republics.
1918 Revolution in Germany, formation of independent Poland and Czechoslovakia.
1918 End of the First World War. The beginning of the Civil War in Russia.
1919 Treaty of Versailles between the Allies and Germany.
1919-1923 Kemalist revolution in Turkey, collapse of the Ottoman Empire.
December 30, 1922 Formation of the USSR.
1929 Beginning of collectivization in the USSR. World economic crisis.
1931-1933 The Great Famine in the USSR.
January 30, 1933 Establishment of the Nazi dictatorship in Germany.
1436-1939 The rebellion of General Franco and the Spanish Civil War.
1437-1938 Mass repressions in the USSR.
Kristallnacht (massacre of Jews in Germany).
g. Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. Beginning of World War II.
June 22, 1941 German attack on the USSR.
The Battle of Moscow - the first defeat of the Wehrmacht
d. Signing of the declaration of 26 states on the struggle against Germany.
1442-1943 Battle of Stalingrad. Fighting in North Africa.
Battle of Kursk. The landing of allied troops in Italy.
The landing of allied forces in Normandy.
May 8-9, 1945 Unconditional surrender of Germany.
1945 Japan surrenders. The end of World War II.
1445-1946 Nuremberg trials of Nazi war criminals.
1947 US adoption of the Marshall Plan.
1448 Proclamation of the State of Israel.
1949 NATO is formed. Proclamation of the GDR, Germany, China.
1950-1953 War in Korea.
1955 Conclusion of the Warsaw Pact.
October 4, 1957 Launch of the first artificial satellite Earth.
April 12, 1961 The first manned space flight. Yu. A. Gagarin (USSR).
1961-1973 The Vietnam War.
1966-1976 "Cultural Revolution" in China.
1968 Warsaw Pact troops invade Czechoslovakia.
July 21, 1969 The first man on the moon (N. Armstrong, USA).
1975 Helsinki Agreement on Security and Cooperation in Europe.
1980-1988 Iran-Iraq war.
1985 The beginning of “perestroika” in the USSR.
April 26, 1986 Accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant.
1991 Referendum on the fate of the USSR (70% - for preserving the Union). State Emergency Committee putsch.
The Belovezhskaya Accords and the collapse of the USSR.
1991-1992 Collapse of Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia.
d. The beginning of “shock therapy” in Russia.
1994 Beginning of the war in Chechnya.
The Union of Russia and Belarus. Conclusion Russian troops from Chechnya.
g. The collapse of the ruble (default) in Russia.
g. Bombing of Yugoslavia by NATO aircraft. Operation Desert Storm.
Resignation of B. N. Yeltsin. His successor is V.V. Putin.
d. Election of V.V. Putin as President of the Russian Federation.
September 11, 2001 A major terrorist attack in New York. Thousands of dead.
d. Invasion of US and allied troops into Iraq. The fall of Hussein's regime.
G. " Orange Revolution" in Ukraine.
d. Catastrophic tsunami in Indonesia. Hurricane Katrina in the USA.
d. Crisis of power in Ukraine.
Some historical dynasties
Starting with the legendary Jimmu, a descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu, who ascended the throne on February 11, 660 BC. e., Japan had 134 emperors.
Beginning with the Apostle Peter, the first bishop of Rome, who was executed around 65, there have been 344 popes on the Holy See, of which 39 are not recognized (“antipopes”).
The main periods of development of world art.
Primitive art - the art of the first man, the tribes that inhabited our planet before the advent of the first civilizations. In terms of territory, it covers all continents except Antarctica, and in terms of time – the entire era of human existence, right up to the present day, because There are still peoples living outside of civilization. Objects of primitive art include rock paintings, sculptures, reliefs and drawings on household items, weapons, jewelry and ritual objects, and architectural buildings of a religious nature.
Art of the Ancient World – this is the art of the first civilizations: Egypt, Greece, Rome and adjacent states and civilizations. Art is closely related to pagan beliefs and is almost entirely dedicated to deities and mythological heroes. In early periods, the art of different civilizations has similar primitive features, but in later periods there is a sharp difference in architectural structures, principles and rules for depicting humans, animals, etc.
Middle Ages – qualitatively new stage in the development of all European art, which began with the adoption of Christianity by the countries of Western Europe, and in this sense, united the theme and direction of style different nations. It is divided into Romanesque and Gothic styles.
Roman style- artistic style that dominated art Western Europe(and in some countries of Eastern Europe) mainly in the 10th–12th centuries. The main role was given to harsh, fortress-like architecture. Monastic complexes, temples, castles were located on hills and dominated the area; their external appearance was distinguished by monolithic integrity and was filled with calm and solemn strength, emphasized by the massiveness of the walls and volumes, and the rhythm of the architectural decor, which was simple in form. Inside, Romanesque buildings were divided into separate cells, covered with vaults (sometimes with domes). In fine art, the main place was occupied by monumental reliefs on temple portals and carved capitals of columns, as well as book miniatures, which received significant development in this era. The decorative and applied arts of the Romanesque style—casting, embossing, bone carving, enamel work, etc.—reached a high level.
Gothic(from Italian gotico, literally - Gothic, i.e. belonging to the Germanic tribe of Goths) - an artistic style, the final stage in the development of medieval art in the countries of Western, Central and partly Eastern Europe (12th - 15th\16th centuries). Gothic art remained cult and religious, correlated with eternity, with the Divine universe. The model of this universe, the symbol of the Universe, became the Gothic cathedral, the complex frame structure of which, the solemn grandeur and dynamics, and the abundance of plasticity expressed both the ideas of the heavenly and earthly hierarchy, and the greatness of human creative powers. Painting existed mainly in the form of stained glass. In Gothic sculpture, the rigidity and isolation of Romanesque statues was replaced by the mobility of figures. In the Gothic era, book miniatures flourished, altar painting appeared, and decorative art reached a high level. Own versions of Gothic developed in Spain, Scandinavian countries, the Netherlands, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Poland and other European countries.
Renaissance, Renaissance- an era in the cultural development of a number of European countries (in Italy 14–16 centuries, in other regions - the end of the 15–16 centuries), transition from the Middle Ages to modern times and marked by the growth of secular, humanistic, appeal to antiquity, its “revival” . In the architecture and fine arts of the Renaissance, the discovery of sensuality and diversity of the surrounding reality was combined with the development of the laws of linear and aerial perspective, theory of proportions, problems of anatomy, etc. The Renaissance was most strongly realized in Italy, where there are periods of Proto-Renaissance (13th and 14th centuries), Early Renaissance (15th century), High Renaissance (late 15th – early 16th centuries), and Late Renaissance (16th century). The greatest masters of this era are Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo. A generally accepted but conditional concept "Northern Renaissance" applies to the culture and art of Germany, the Netherlands, France; One of the main features of these countries is their connection with late Gothic art. These are works by I. Bosch, P. Bruegel the Elder and others.
Baroque(Italian barocco – bizarre, strange), one of the dominant styles in the architecture and art of Europe and Latin America late 16th – mid 18th centuries. Baroque art is characterized by grandeur, pomp and dynamics, elation, intensity of feelings, spectacular showmanship, strong contrasts of scale and rhythm, light and shadow. The interiors of the buildings were decorated with multicolor sculptures, carvings, mirrors and paintings illusorily expanded the space. In painting it is emotionality, rhythm, freedom of stroke, in sculpture it is fluidity of form, a sense of changeability of the image. 
Most prominent representatives were P.P. Rubens, A. van Dyck.
Academicism– isolation from practice, from the realities of life, a trend that developed in art academies of the 16th–19th centuries. and based on a literal adherence to the forms of classical art of antiquity and the Renaissance. Academicism implanted a system of timeless, “eternal” canons, forms of beauty, and idealized images.
Classicism, an artistic style in European art of the 11th–early 19th centuries, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to ancient art as a standard. A work of art was seen as the fruit of reason and logic, triumphing over chaos and feelings. Classical architecture is distinguished by logical layout and clarity of volumes. In painting, the main elements were line and chiaroscuro, local color. Neoclassicism (18th – early 19th centuries) became a pan-European style, also formed mainly in French culture, under the strong influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. In architecture, this is an exquisite mansion, a ceremonial public building, an open city square, the desire for severe simplicity, the drama of historical and portrait images, the dominance of the academic tradition.
Romanticism - artistic movement in European and American culture of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. - aspiration for boundless freedom and the infinite, thirst for perfection and renewal, personal and civil independence. The discord between ideal and reality formed the basis of romanticism; affirmation of the intrinsic value of human creative and spiritual life, depiction of strong passions, spiritualization of nature, interest in the national past are combined with motives of world sorrow, a desire to explore and recreate the “shadow”, “night” side human soul. The most consistent romantic school developed in France (E. Delacroix).
Impressionism(from the French impression - impression), a movement in art of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. Originated in French painting at the end of the 1860s: E. Manet O. Renoir, E. Degas depicted instantaneous situations “seen” in reality, used unbalanced compositions, unexpected angles, points of view, sections of figures. K. Monei and others developed a plein air system, creating in their paintings a feeling of sparkling sunlight and air, and a wealth of colors. The name of the direction comes from the name of the painting by C. Monet “Impression. Rising Sun”, exhibited in 1874 in Paris. In the paintings, complex colors were decomposed into pure components, which were applied to the canvas in separate strokes, colored shadows, and reflections. The concept of Impressionism in sculpture is the desire to convey instant movement, fluidity and softness of form.
Naturalism(from Latin naturalis - natural, natural), a movement in art that developed in Europe and the USA in the last third of the 19th century. and strived for an accurate and impartial reproduction of reality. Naturalism is an outwardly life-like reproduction of reality, a superficial image, a predilection for recreating the dark, shadowy sides of life.
Modern(French moderne - newest, modern), style in European and American art of the late 19th century. – 1910s Masters modern used new technical and constructive means, creating unusual, distinctly individual buildings; the facades of Art Nouveau buildings have dynamic and fluid forms. One of the main expressive means ornament became modern. Art Nouveau painting is characterized by a combination of “carpet” ornamental backgrounds and naturalistic tangibility of figures and details, silhouettes, and the use of large color planes. Art Nouveau sculpture and graphics are distinguished by the dynamics and fluidity of forms. One of the famous painters and graphic artists of that direction is P. Gauguin.
Realism(from Latin realis - material, effective) - this is the conviction of knowability real world. This is the work of Rembrandt, D. Velazquez and others.