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Historical stages of development of the Russian language. Russian language: wiki: Facts about Russia

There are three periods in the history of the Russian language: 1) 6-7 – 14 centuries; 2) 15th – 17th centuries; 3) 18th – 21st centuries.

1) The early period of the History of the Russian language begins after the collapse of the Proto-Slavic language and the emergence of the Common East Slavic language - the ancestor of the three Eastern Slavic languages– Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. The Common East Slavic language, which is also called Old Russian, existed until the 14th century, that is, before the beginning of its division into three independent East Slavic languages. From this time on, we can talk about Russian proper, or the Great Russian language, which differs not only from the languages of the southern and western Slavs, but also from the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages that are closest to it. The Great Russian language has also gone through a long path of development - from the language of the Great Russian people to the modern Russian national language - the language of the Russian nation. The history of the Russian language is the history of the Old Russian language, the language of the Great Russian people and the language of the Russian nation; The structure of the modern Russian language has developed from elements dating back to different eras of its development.

Borkowski identifies three periods in the history of language development:

1) the Old Russian period - the same as the source of all three modern East Slavic languages (from ancient times to the 14th century);

2) Old Russian period (15-17 centuries);

3) new, modern Russian language (since the 18th century).

The main boundary between different types literary language– pre-national and national period. For the Russian language, this is the border between the Middle Ages and modern times - the middle - second half of the 17th century. A distinctive feature of the pre-national period is that another language can act as a literary language, in this case Church Slavonic, according to Shakhmatov and Tolstoy. During the national period, the literary language changes its base: it focuses on dialect speech and is formed on a national basis. During this period, the oral form of the literary language begins to take shape.

Vostokov, Karamzin distinguish three periods: ancient (10-13 centuries), middle (14-18 centuries), new (from the end of the 18 century). This framework coincides with the chronology of historical changes.

Separation of the Eastern Slavs from the pan-Slavic unity (approximately 6-7 centuries) linguistically, it was accompanied by the development of such features that were inherent in all Eastern Slavs and distinguished them from the southern and western Slavs. These include the following phonetic features: the presence of h, zh in place of the ancient tj, dj: candle, boundary; full-voice combinations oro, ere, olo in place of the ancient or, ol, er, el: beard, shore; the presence of o at the beginning of a word with je in other Slavic languages: lake, deer, autumn, one.

In strengthening the unity of the Old Russian language, the development of Kyiv Koine(common spoken language), it combined the features of the north (horse, vEksha, istba) and the original southern ones (for example, vol, brekhati, lepy). In the ancient Kiev Koine, sharp dialectal features were leveled out, as a result of which it was able to become a language that satisfies the needs of Kyiv in its connections with all of Russia, which strengthened the unity of the Russian people. The question of the development of the Old Russian language in the Kievan era is connected with the question of the origin of writing and the beginning of the development of the Russian literary language. 907 – agreement between Russians and Greeks, preserved in later lists. Consequently, writing among the Eastern Slavs originated long before the baptism of Rus' and Old Russian writing was alphabetic.

During this period, the literary language also developed, reflected in monuments of various genres. The first written monuments of the Old Russian language date back to the 11th century; The oldest inscription on a vessel found during excavations of the Gnezdovo burial mounds near Smolensk dates back to the beginning of the 10th century.

In the 10th century, with the adoption of Christianity, church books written in Old Church Slavonic began to arrive in Rus' from Bulgaria. This contributed to the spread of writing. The books were copied by Russian scribes who mastered the peculiarities of the Old Church Slavonic language. But Art.-Sl. the language absorbs local linguistic features. Thus, in the 11th-12th centuries, local varieties of Art.-Sl. were formed. language; the totality of these editions is called the Church Slavonic language. It was the common literary language of the Slavs throughout medieval period. Texts on church topics, canonical and similar, were written on it. During this period, there were also secular genres of writing - recordings and comments of real historical events, descriptions of travel, texts of laws and private correspondence. The language of this writing is the Old Russian language, filled with words and forms of living East Slavic speech, it reflected the Koine.

Works of secular literature written in Old Russian are divided into two groups: 1) chronicle stories and artistic-narrative literature: the works of Vladimir Monomakh (late 11th - early 12th centuries), “The Prayer of Daniil the Prisoner” (1st quarter of the 13th century), etc. .; 2) monuments of a business nature and private correspondence (Birch bark letters).

The vast territory of Kievan Rus with its economically, ethnically and culturally diverse population began early to show tendencies towards disintegration. By the middle of the 12th century, and especially in the second half, the process of weakening Kyiv as a general center and the process of strengthening new, local centers led to Kiev losing its leading role. Life began to concentrate around other centers in the north, northeast and northwest (Vladimir, Suzdal, Rostov, etc.). Feudal fragmentation is intensifying, which leads to deepening dialect differences in the Old Russian language. In written monuments of the 12th – early 13th centuries. a number of dialects of the Old Russian language are reflected. This was a period when the Eastern Slavs experienced a process common to all Slavs loss of reduced, which entailed consequences that were different for the south and for the rest of the territory of the Old Russian language. According to the fate of the original e and o, which received lengthening and subsequent diphthongization in the position before the lost ъ and ь, according to the fate of combinations of smooth s ъ and ь between consonants and other phenomena south and southwest Ancient Rus' found themselves opposed to the north and northeast. However, dialect differences were also observed there.

2) The beginning of the second period is the collapse of the single East Slavic language and the emergence of the language of the Great Russian people.

Strengthening the feudal fragmentation of Rus', the further isolation of northeastern Rus' from western and southwestern Russia during the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, as well as as a result of the development processes of the western and southern lands as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (and later Poland), economic growth and political strengthening northeastern Rus' leads to the fact that in the 14th-16th centuries. The Great Russian state and the Great Russian people are taking shape.

Northeastern (Suzdal) Rus' becomes the center of gathering Russian lands and fighting the Golden Horde. Starts from the 14th century rise of Moscow, initially a small city of Suzdal Rus', which then turned into the political, economic and cultural center of the state. The lands located to the north, south and west of Moscow are gathered under the rule of the M. prince. Somewhat earlier, the rise of the Principality of Lithuania began in the west. Lithuanian princes captured Western Rus' back in the 13th century; in the 13th-14th centuries. raiding the southwest. In the 14th century, the Principality of Lithuania included the Galicia-Volyn land and Kyiv. In the 14th–15th centuries. On the territory of the Principality of Lithuania, the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages were formed on the basis of Old Russian dialects. The formation here of two, and not one, language is explained by the comparative disunity of the various parts of this public education, and also by the fact that different lands were part of it at different times.

Evidence of the formation of the Great Russian nationality and its language was the emergence throughout the territory of the nationality’s settlement of new linguistic formations that were not characteristic of the languages of the Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities. Change of weak ъ and ь in combination with the previous smooth one in о and е, development of й, й in о, е. In the field of morphology, there is a loss of the vocative form, the replacement of sibilants with back-lingual ones in declension forms (nogE instead of nozE), and the development of plural forms. I.p. on -a (shore, forest), the formation of imperative forms on -ite instead of -Ete, the appearance of imperative forms with g, x, k in back-language verbs (help instead of help).

Structurally, the language of the Great Russian people was already close to the S.R.Ya: there was a change in e in o, functional unification and, s with their phonetic difference. A system of hard-soft and voiced-voiceless consonants was established, the old system of past tenses of the verb was lost, the types of declension were unified, etc.

The core of this territory was single in dialect terms, but the gradual expansion of the emerging state and the annexation of new territories was accompanied by an increase in dialect diversity, because in the annexed territories there were both north-east-r. and south-east-r. dialects. Both became dialects of the Great Russian language, with the leading role played by the Rostov-Suzdal dialect, which included the Moscow dialect. Moscow, which became a political and cultural center in the 2nd quarter of the 14th century, played a special role in unifying the norms of the Russian language. A number of other principalities united around the Moscow principality, and in the 15th century a vast state was created - Muscovite Rus'. In the 16th century, norms of Moscow colloquial speech were gradually developed, which reflected northern and southern features. The colloquial speech of Moscow was reflected in the business documents of Moscow orders, and the language of these orders influenced the Old Russian literary language, which was reflected in the language of many works of the 15-17th centuries. In the literary language of the Moscow state, the book and written traditions of Kievan Rus continue to develop. At the same time, structural changes are increasing in the Russian spoken language, separating it from the book and written language. The Great Russian language is influenced by extralinguistic factors. Victory in the Battle of Kulikovo destroys the centuries-old yoke on Russian soil. The Ottoman Empire captures the Byzantine capital in 1453 and establishes dominance in the Balkans. Figures from the South Slavic and Byzantine cultures come to Muscovite Rus'. By the 14th – early 15th centuries. Slavic church books are being edited under the leadership of Metropolitan Cyprian to bring them to their original form, corresponding to the originals. This was the "second South Slavic influence". Russian writing is moving closer to Slavic.

In the book Slavic type of literary language, archaic spellings based on the South Slavic spelling norm are becoming widespread. A special rhetorical manner of expression emerges, rich in metaphors - “ weaving words.” This complex of phenomena is called the second South Slavic influence. The folk-literary type of language was not subject to it. During this period, the functions of business language expand. New genres of business writing are emerging: legal codes, article lists of Russian ambassadors, “Domostroy”, “Stoglav”, etc. Spelling practice and word usage of business language influenced the formation of literary language norms. In the second half of the 16th century, book printing began in the Moscow state.. The first printed book was “The Apostle” (1564). In 1566 the Book of Hours was published. Church grammar books, dictionaries, primers necessary for education and enlightenment are printed. The first printed educational books were “Primer” (1574), “Slovenian Grammar” by Lavrentiy Zizaniy (1576), “Slovenian Grammar” by Meletiy Smotrytsky (1618).

3) In the 17th century, the Russian nation took shape. During this period, the relationship between the national language and dialects changes. The development of new dialect features stops, while the old ones remain stable. From the middle of the 17th century, a new period in the history of the Russian literary language began - the national one. Dialects are starting to level out.

The development of economic and political ties of Muscovite Rus', the growth of Moscow's authority, and the spread of Moscow orders contributed to the growth of the influence of Moscow's oral speech on the territory of Rus'; the dialect of Moscow formed the basis of the national language. The formation of a new literary language was facilitated by the widespread dissemination of literature in the democratic strata of society, the language of which was formed on the basis of oral and business speech.

In 1708, a civil alphabet was introduced, in which secular literature was printed; the Cyrillic alphabet was used for religious purposes. In the literary language of the late 17th - 1st half of the 18th centuries. Book Slavonic, often even archaic, lexical and grammatical elements, words and figures of speech of a colloquial and business nature and Western European borrowings are closely intertwined and interact. The vocabulary of the language becomes more diverse, but stylistically disordered. There is a need to normalize the literary language. The first attempts to describe the norms of a literary language were made by A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Trediakovsky, V. E. Atoturov.

The leading role of transforming the Russian literary language in describing its norms belongs to Lomonosov. He is the founder of the science of the Russian language, who laid the foundation for the descriptive and comparative-historical study of the Russian language, and characterized the subject of linguistics as a science. In “Letters on the Rules of Russian Poetry”, “Rhetoric”, “Russian Grammar”, “Preface on the Use of Church Books and the Russian Language”, he described the norms of the Russian literary language at all levels of the language system, showed the paths of historical development, and created a doctrine of three styles .

He connected the theory of three styles with the national uniqueness of the historical development of the Russian literary language, which consisted in the long-term interaction and mutual influence of two elements: book-Slavic and Russian folk. Stylistic theory based the norm on those words, figures of speech, and grammatical forms that were neutral from a stylistic point of view, limited the use of Slavicisms and borrowings, and allowed the use of vernaculars in literary speech.

In the development of language, the role of individual author's styles gradually increases and becomes decisive. The greatest influence on the development of the Russian literary language of this period was exerted by the works of G. R. Derzhavin, A. N. Radishchev, I. A. Krylov, N. M. Karamzin. Their works are characterized by an orientation towards live speech use. Moreover, the use of colloquial elements was combined with a stylistically targeted use of Slavicism. A major role in the normalization of the Russian literary language of the late 18th – early 19th centuries. played an explanatory dictionary of the Russian language - “Dictionary of the Russian Academy”.

In the early 90s. In the 18th century, “Letters of a Russian Traveler” and Karamzin’s stories appeared. They cultivated a descriptive language, which was called the Russian syllable. It was based on the principle of bringing the literary language closer to the spoken language, the rejection of the abstract schematism of the literature of classicism, and interest in inner world person. Karamzin set the goal of creating a language accessible to everyone: for books and for society, in order to write as they speak and speak as they write. The downside was that it was oriented towards the language of high society and included a large number of Gallicisms, which were not in general use.

Writers of the early 19th century took a significant step towards bringing the literary language closer to the spoken language, updating the norms of the new literary language. By the 19th century, the genre and style of works of literature were no longer determined by the rigid attachment of words, grammatical forms and constructions. The role of the creative linguistic personality has increased, and the concept of true linguistic taste in the individual author's style has emerged.

The first third of the 19th century is Pushkin period. In his work, the formation of the national Russian literary language is completed. In the language of his works, the basic elements of Russian writing and oral speech came into balance. He found such ways of merging three linguistic elements - Slavicisms, colloquial and Western European elements, which influenced the development of the norms of the national Russian literary language. This language has basically survived to this day. From this period begins the era of the new Russian literary language. In Pushkin’s work, unified, national norms were developed and consolidated, which linked together the oral and written varieties of the Russian literary language. The creation of unified national norms concerned not only the lexical and grammatical structure, but also systemic functional styles. Having finally destroyed the system of three styles, he created a variety of styles, stylistic contexts, welded together by theme and content, and opened up the possibility of their endless, individual artistic variation. All subsequent development of the Russian literary language was a deepening and improvement of the norms laid down in this era. In the development of the Russian literary language, the formation of its norms important role played by the language practice of the largest Russian writers of the 19th – early 20th centuries (Lermontov, Gogol, Dostoevsky, etc.). With Pushkin, a system of functional speech styles was finally established in the Russian literary language, and then improved. The second half of the 19th century saw a significant development of the journalistic style. He begins to influence the development of fiction. Scientific, philosophical, socio-political terminology appears in the literary language. Along with this, the literary language absorbs vocabulary and phraseology from territorial dialects, urban vernacular and social and professional jargons.

After 1917, there was a significant change in the language and its norms. The social base of native speakers is changing. Moscow, as a speaker of the capital's Koine, acquires the character of a multinational city; under the influence of these factors, language norms begin to change rapidly. Development public education, publishing activities, interest of the general public in literature and journalism, the emergence of radio, etc. led to the fact that the functions of the literary language became more complex and expanded. New conditions for the relationship between literary and non-literary languages have emerged. There are changes in the expressive coloring of some words (master, master). The language of the Communist Party and its leaders influences the literary language (for example, dizziness from success, catching up and overtaking). Extralinguistic factors influence the formation of new words and expressions (council, five-year plan, collective farm, sabotage). The special technical language is enriched in connection with achievements in science and technology, etc.

IN Soviet time Academic grammars, standard dictionaries, books on speech culture and magazines play a big role.

In the 20th century, the vocabulary of the Russian literary language was significantly enriched. In particular, the development of science and technology contributed to the replenishment of the literary language with special terminological vocabulary, some shifts occurred in word formation and grammatical structure, and stylistic means were enriched.

The Russian language is the national language of the Russian people, the state language Russian Federation, which is used as a means of interethnic communication in Russia and in the near abroad. Currently, the Russian language is one of the languages of European and world significance. Along with English, French, Spanish, Chinese and Arabic, it is recognized as an official and working language of the United Nations. More than 250 million people study the modern Russian literary language in almost 100 countries of the world.

The national Russian language is a means of written and oral communication of the Russian nation. Along with the integrity of the territory, economic life and mental makeup, language is a leading indicator of the historical community of people, which is usually called the term “nation”. National language is a historical category; it is formed during the formation of a nation, its development from a nationality.

Russian national language family ties, which arose and formed in the process of historical development, belongs to the Slavic group of the Indo-European family of languages. By origin, it is related to the Common Slavic (Proto-Slavic), which emerged from the 3rd millennium BC. from the base Indo-European language and until the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD. (until the 5th-6th centuries AD) served as a means of communication for all Slavic tribes. During the existence of a single common Slavic language, the main features inherent in all Slavic languages developed. The long existence of the Common Slavic (Proto-Slavic) language (over three thousand years) as a single dialect of all Slavic tribes explains the high degree of similarity between modern Slavic languages.

Around VI-VII AD. the pan-Slavic unity disintegrated, and on the basis of the common Slavic language the East Slavic (Old Russian), West Slavic (Polish, Slovak, Czech, Serbian Sorbian, etc.) and South Slavic (Bulgarian, Serbian, Croatian, Macedonian, Slovenian, Ruthenian and dead Old Slavic) languages were formed. The Old Russian language was spoken by the East Slavic tribes, which in the 9th century formed the Old Russian nation within Kyiv State. As feudal fragmentation intensified, the Tatar-Mongol yoke was overthrown, and as a result of the collapse of the Kiev state in the 14th-15th centuries, the Great Russian, Little Russian and Belarusian nationalities were formed, and on the basis of the once single Old Russian language, three independent languages emerged: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, which with the formation of nations took shape into national languages.

Ukrainian Russian Belarusian

The Russian national language began to take shape in the 17th century in connection with the development of capitalist relations and the development of the Russian nationality into a nation. The phonetic system, grammatical structure and basic vocabulary of the Russian national language are inherited from the language of the Great Russian people, which was formed as a result of the interaction of the Northern Great Russian and Southern Great Russian dialects. The center of this interaction was Moscow, located at the junction of the south and north of the European part of Russia. It was the Moscow business vernacular that had a significant influence on the development of the national language. During this period, the development of new dialectal features of dialects ceased, the influence of the Church Slavonic language weakened, and a literary language of a democratic type developed, based on the traditions of the language of business Moscow.

In the 18th century, through the efforts of progressively minded circles of society, the creation of a single national Russian language began (until the 18th century, in fiction and official business documents, the so-called Slavic-Russian language was used, which absorbed the culture of the Old Church Slavonic language). The democratization of language is taking place, i.e. its vocabulary and grammatical structure include elements of living oral speech, living colloquial speech of merchants, service people, clergy and literate peasants, there is a gradual liberation of the language from the Church Slavonic language, the formation of a scientific language, Russian scientific terminology. In all these processes, the great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov took an active part, who did immeasurably much to streamline the Russian language: he created the first “Russian Grammar” in the Russian language, in which he presented for the first time the scientific system of the Russian language, created a set of grammatical rules, demonstrates the richest capabilities of the language, seeks permission from Catherine II to give lectures at the university in Russian, creates Russian scientific and technical terminology (he is the author of the words atmosphere, degree, matter, electricity, thermometer, circumstance, combustion and etc.). Lomonosov pointed out two features of the Russian language that made it one of the most important world languages - “the vastness of the places where it dominates” and “its own space and contentment.” In the Peter the Great era, due to the appearance of many new objects and phenomena in the life of society, the vocabulary of the Russian language was updated and enriched. The influx of foreign words from Polish, French, Dutch, Italian, and German into the Russian language was so enormous that Peter I was forced to issue a decree normalizing the use of borrowings and ordering “to write everything in the Russian language, without using foreign words and terms,” since their abuses “are impossible to understand by themselves.” By the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century, the preferred use of native Russian elements in oral and written speech became a sign of patriotism, respect for one’s nation, one’s culture.

Throughout the 19th century, there were debates about what should be considered the basis of the Russian national language, how to relate to the common language and vernacular. The famous Russian writer, founder of Russian sentimentalism, author of “Poor Lisa” and “History of the Russian State” N.M. Karamzin and his supporters believed that the Russian language is too difficult to express thoughts and needs to be processed. The transformation of the language, in their opinion, should be oriented towards European languages, especially French, along the path of liberating the language from the influence of Church Slavonic speech, creating new words, eliminating from use archaic and professional Slavicisms, special terms of various crafts and sciences, and crude vernacular. Karamzin created and introduced into active use the word love, humanity, public, future, industry, generally useful and others that we still use today. Opponent N.M. Karamzin became the Slavophiles, led by A.S. Shishkov, a writer, public figure, and Minister of Education, who considered the Old Church Slavonic language to be the primitive language of all mankind and the basis of the Russian national language. The dispute about language between Slavophiles and Westerners was resolved in the works of the great Russian writers of the 19th century A.S. Griboyedov and I.A. Krylov, who showed what inexhaustible possibilities living folk speech has, how rich, original and original the language of folklore is.

A.S. Pushkin is rightly called the creator of the modern Russian literary language. It was he who introduced folk speech into his poetry, believing that any word is acceptable in poetry if it accurately and figuratively expresses the concept and conveys the meaning. The poet believed that “true taste does not consist in the unconscious rejection of such and such a word, such and such a turn of phrase, but in a sense of proportionality and conformity.” No one before Pushkin wrote in a realistic language or introduced ordinary everyday vocabulary into a poetic text. It was Pushkin who used the common language as a treasury of language.

In the first decades of the 19th century, the formation of the Russian national language was completed, but the process of processing the national language continued in order to create uniform grammatical, lexical, spelling, orthoepic norms, which are theoretically substantiated in the works of Russian linguists Vostokov, Buslaev, Potebnya, Fortunatov, Shakhmatov, described and approved in the Russian grammars of Grech, Grot, Vostokov, etc.

In the 19th century there was an unprecedented flowering of Russian literature and the Russian language. The works of Gogol, Lermontov, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Ostrovsky, Chekhov and other writers and poets, the achievements of Russians Mendeleev's scientists, Dokuchaev, Pirogov, Klyuchevsky and others contributed to the further formation and enrichment of the Russian national language. Its vocabulary is replenished (worldview, humanity, lawlessness, serfdom, etc.), phraseology is enriched, the stock of international terminology is expanded (intellectual, progress, international, communism, culture, civilization, etc.), scientific and journalistic functional styles are formalized. The richness and diversity of the Russian language is reflected in the historical, etymological, synonymous dictionaries and dictionary of foreign words that appeared in the 19th century.

In 1863-1866. The four-volume “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V.I. Dahl is published, which includes over 200 thousand words. Professor P.P. Chervinsky rightly called this dictionary an “eternal book”, since its content is not subject to time.

Interesting changes occur in the Russian language in the 20th century, which can be chronologically divided into 2 periods: 1 - from October 1917. to April 1985; 2 – since April 1985 to 2000 The first period is associated with October Revolution, which brought fundamental changes to all levels of life of Russian society and reflected the most interesting processes in the language: the disappearance into the passive stock of many words denoting concepts that have faded into oblivion and are associated with the former political and economic way of life and Orthodoxy (tsar, province, volost, policeman, merchant, nobleman, pilgrimage, bishop, Mother of God, Annunciation, Twelfth Feasts, Christmas Eve, Christmastide, etc.). During this period, many new words appeared to denote the realities of the new life (district committee, Komsomol member, propaganda team, Central Committee, GORONO, MTS, shock worker, Stakhanovite, etc.). During the years of Soviet power, the main principle of the name was renaming (St. Petersburg - Petrograd - Leningrad, Ekaterinodar - Krasnodar, Samara - Kuibyshev, Sobornaya Street - named after Lenin, Bazovskaya Street named after Zhdanov, Bursakovskaya Street (named after F. Ya Bursak, Ataman of the Black Sea Cossack army) - Red Army, etc.). Such a renaming reflected the desire of the party and government elite to influence public consciousness through language and words, trying to connect the name change with the illusion of constant qualitative change in society itself. In addition, new names appear related to the desire to reflect a new ideology in the language: Ninel, Oktyabrina, Vladilena, Rem, Kim, Dazdraperma, etc. Ideologization in language also manifested itself in the so-called “interference of the opposed,” which was understood as the perception of reality through constant contrast, the opposition of the perception of phenomena of reality in us, in the socialist world, and in them, in the capitalist world, for example: in our country - democracy, brotherhood, peace , friendship, equality, brotherhood, a bright future, they have corruption, mafia, racketeering, genocide, drug addiction, exploitation, decaying capitalism, etc.

The second period of the twentieth century is associated with perestroika, which also made its own adjustments to the development of the modern Russian language. The change in the political and economic way of life and the fall of the Iron Curtain affected, first of all, the vocabulary of the language. Vocabulary reflecting all spheres of social life has come into active use: politics, economics, culture, medicine, religion, everyday life, etc., for example: inauguration, post-Soviet, impeachment, clearing, barter, manager, image, music video director, hospice, immunodeficiency , Jehovah's Witness, karmic, cheeseburger, yogurt, case, etc. Many words that were either not used during the years of Soviet power or were in passive form have returned to the active vocabulary. vocabulary: city hall, rent, governess, police, bishop, all-night vigil, communion and many others.

The modern Russian language of the 21st century is characterized by the following trends:

1. In modern Russian society, the type of communication has changed: monologue communication (one person speaks, and everyone listens and performs) has been replaced by dialogical communication. The change in the communicative type of communication is a consequence of the socio-political orientation of society.

2. As a result, the role of oral speech and its dialogization have expanded significantly, i.e. increase in dialogue of different types of communication, expansion of functions dialogical speech in the structure of communication, the development of new types and forms of dialogue, the formation of new rules of dialogic communication.

3. Pluralization of communication: the formation of traditions of coexistence of different points of view when discussing various, especially pressing problems; development of a democratic, tolerant (that is, tolerant) attitude towards opposing views, opponents, points of view.

4. Personification of communication, that is, the development of individual uniqueness of those communicating, the formation of dissimilarity in the expression and presentation of ideas and thoughts by different people, an increase in the number of unique personal “communicative images”.

5. Prevailing changes in vocabulary and phraseology: growth of vocabulary in such thematic areas as “market economy”, “politics”, “show business”, “household appliances”, etc.

6. Increase in borrowed vocabulary in all areas of communication.

7. Restructuring in the system of forms of existence of the Russian language: intensive development of the oral form of the language and expansion of its functions; differentiation of written form by communicative areas, formation of the specifics of written text in various professional fields, especially in the field of business commercial correspondence.

8. Activation of secondary forms of language existence - jargons (youth, computer, criminal, music, sports, etc.).

9. The formation in the stylistic system of the language of a new functional subsystem - national slang, which occupies an intermediate place between colloquial and reduced vocabulary, which is understood as national jargon, that is, a set of well-known and used regardless of age, profession and social status lexical and phraseological units that are of a reduced stylistic nature and have expressiveness (for example, bucks, rubbish, get sick, party, unfasten, showdown, don’t care, deal, for free, dead number, etc.).

Overall, analyzing modern processes and trends in the Russian language, they can be considered as the development and evolution of the language, occurring within the language according to its own laws and reflecting the adaptation of the language to the conditions of its functioning changing under the influence of external factors.

Control questions

1. Christianization of Rus' and its role in the development of language.

2. Eternal truths: winged words, proverbs and sayings of biblical origin.

3. The theory of “three calms” by M.V. Lomonosov and its role in the development of the national Russian language.

4. The reformatory nature of A.S. Pushkin’s creativity in the process of creating the modern Russian literary language.

5. Features of the development of the Russian language Soviet period(1917 - April 12985).

6. Features of the development of the Russian language at the end of the twentieth century (April 1985 - end of the twentieth century).

7. How do you understand the term “language” and what points of view exist on the question of the origin of language?

8. Analyze units and levels of language.

9. How does the systematic nature of language manifest itself? Justify your answer.

10. What functions does language perform in society?

11. Prove that language is historically variable and socially determined.

12. Tell us about the origin of the Russian language and the stages of its development.

13. What is the role of M.V. Lomonosov in the history of the development of the Russian language?

14. Why is A.S. Pushkin considered the creator of the modern Russian literary language?

15. What is the role of the Bible and Old Church Slavonicisms in the formation of the modern Russian language?

16. Name the features of the Russian language of the Soviet period.

17. What features are characteristic of the Russian language at the end of the twentieth century?

18. Name the trends in the modern Russian language at the beginning of the 21st century.

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Introduction

Language refers to those social phenomena that operate throughout the existence of human society.

The national language is the language of the nation, formed in the process of its development, and largely determines the culture of the nation and its spiritual principles. It reflects the stages of formation of a people, a nation, allows for the preservation of traditions, and makes a selection of what is important and necessary for the development of society. In turn, as noted by scientist and language researcher S.P. Obnorsky: “It is in language that in the most complete way - and, moreover, in the understanding of the people themselves - all stages of the history of a people from the most distant times, all the steps along which the movement of their culture was directed. Therefore, the rich past of a people, the intensive development of its culture is the key to the rich and powerful development of the very language of a given people.”

How the Russian language changed in the pre-literate era and what it will become in the future, we can build hypotheses. Many facts from the past have been established quite accurately, and a separate part of the science of the Russian language is built on them - the history of the Russian language.

Modern Russian is a continuation of the Old Russian (East Slavic) language. The Old Russian language was spoken by the East Slavic tribes that formed in the 9th century. ancient Russian people within the Kyiv state. This language was very similar to other languages Slavic peoples, but already differed in some phonetic and lexical features. All Slavic languages come from a common root - a single Proto-Slavic language. As a result of the collapse of the Kievan state, three independent languages arose: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, which with the formation of nations took shape into national languages. The Russian language is the national language of the Russian people.

The purpose of this work: to study the history of the development of the Russian national language.

The work consists of an introduction, two main chapters, a conclusion and a list of references.

1. National language

Language is a means of human communication. Language is created by the people and serves them from generation to generation.

In its development, a language goes through several stages and depends on the degree of development of the ethnic group. At an early stage, a tribal language is formed, then a national language and, finally, a national one.

A national language is a language spoken by a historically established group of people living in a common territory, connected by a common economy, culture, and lifestyle.

The national language is the result of the process of formation of a nation and at the same time a prerequisite and condition for its formation.

The national language includes not only the literary (i.e. standardized) language, but also dialects, vernacular, jargons, and professionalisms.

The formation of a national language proceeds in the direction of establishing and strengthening the language norm, acquiring a priority position in relation to regional dialects by the literary language (due to its positions in governing, educational and cultural institutions, starting from a certain period) in relation to regional dialects, as well as, in a number of cases, cases, in the struggle to oust a foreign language that dominates culture and/or politics (for example, Latin, Church Slavonic, languages of metropolitan countries in former colonies). The spoken form of the national language, which is based on one or more dialects, according to some experts, is already formed under the influence of the literary language.

Thus, the national language is the form of existence of language in the era of the existence of the nation, a complex systemic unity that includes the literary language, dialects, jargons, vernacular and argot.

The Russian language is the language of the Russian nation, the language of the Russian people. We will consider the history of the development of the Russian national language in more detail in the next chapter.

2. History of the development of the Russian national language

The Russian national language has a complex and long history, its roots go back to ancient times.

Russian language belongs to the eastern group of Slavic languages. Among the Slavic languages, Russian is the most widespread. All Slavic languages show great similarities among themselves, but the ones closest to the Russian language are Belarusian and Ukrainian. The three of these languages form the East Slavic subgroup, which is part of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family.

The development of the Russian language in different eras took place at different rates. An important factor in the process of its improvement was the mixing of languages, the formation of new words and the displacement of old ones. Even in prehistoric times, the language of the Eastern Slavs was a complex and variegated group of tribal dialects, which had already experienced various mixtures and crossings with the languages of different nationalities and contained the rich heritage of centuries-old tribal life. Around the 2nd-1st millennium BC. From the group of related dialects of the Indo-European family of languages, the Proto-Slavic language stands out (at a later stage - around the 1st-7th centuries - called Proto-Slavic).

Already in Kievan Rus (9th - early 12th centuries), the Old Russian language became a means of communication for some Baltic, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, and partly Iranian tribes and nationalities. Relations and contacts with the Baltic peoples, with the Germans, with the Finnish tribes, with the Celts, with the Turkish-Turkic tribes (Hunnic hordes, Avars, Bulgarians, Khazars) could not but leave deep traces in the language of the Eastern Slavs, just as Slavic elements are found in Lithuanian, German, Finnish and Turkic languages. Occupying the East European Plain, the Slavs entered the territory of ancient cultures in their centuries-long succession. The cultural and historical ties of the Slavs established here with the Scythians and Sarmatians were also reflected and separated in the language of the Eastern Slavs.

In the ancient Russian state, during the period of fragmentation, territorial dialects and adverbs developed that were understandable for a particular area, so a language that was understandable to everyone was needed. It was needed by trade, diplomacy, and the church. The Old Church Slavonic language became such a language. The history of its emergence and formation in Rus' is connected with the Byzantine policy of the Russian princes and with the mission of the monastic brothers Cyril and Methodius. The interaction of Old Church Slavonic and Russian spoken languages made possible the formation of the Old Russian language.

The first texts written in Cyrillic appeared among the Eastern Slavs in the 10th century. By the 1st half of the 10th century. refers to the inscription on a korchaga (vessel) from Gnezdov (near Smolensk). This is probably an inscription indicating the owner's name. From the 2nd half of the 10th century. A number of inscriptions indicating the ownership of objects have also been preserved.

After the baptism of Rus' in 988, book writing arose. The chronicle reports “many scribes” who worked under Yaroslav the Wise. Mostly liturgical books were copied. The originals for East Slavic handwritten books were mainly South Slavic manuscripts, dating back to the works of students of the creators of the Slavic script, Cyril and Methodius. In the process of correspondence, the original language was adapted to the East Slavic language and the Old Russian book language was formed - the Russian translation (variant) of the Church Slavonic language.

In addition to books intended for worship, other Christian literature was copied: the works of the holy fathers, lives of saints, collections of teachings and interpretations, collections of canon law. The oldest surviving written monuments include the Ostromir Gospel of 1056-1057. and the Archangel Gospel of 1092

The original works of Russian authors were moralizing and hagiographic works. Since the book language was mastered without grammars, dictionaries and rhetorical aids, compliance language norms depended on the author’s erudition and his ability to reproduce those forms and structures that he knew from exemplary texts.

Chronicles constitute a special class of ancient written monuments. The chronicler, outlining historical events, included them in the context of Christian history, and this united the chronicles with other monuments of book culture with spiritual content. Therefore, the chronicles were written in book language and were guided by the same body of exemplary texts, however, due to the specifics of the material presented (specific events, local realities), the language of the chronicles was supplemented with non-book elements.

In the XIV-XV centuries. the southwestern variety of the literary language of the Eastern Slavs was the language of statehood and the Orthodox Church in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Principality of Moldova.

Feudal fragmentation, which contributed to dialect fragmentation, the Mongol-Tatar yoke, and the Polish-Lithuanian conquests led to the XIII-XIV centuries. to the collapse of the ancient Russian people. The unity of the Old Russian language gradually disintegrated. Three centers of new ethno-linguistic associations were formed that fought for their Slavic identity: northeastern (Great Russians), southern (Ukrainians) and western (Belarusians). In the XIV-XV centuries. On the basis of these associations, closely related but independent East Slavic languages are formed: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.

In the XIV-XVI centuries. The Great Russian state and the Great Russian people are taking shape, and this time becomes a new stage in the history of the Russian language. The Russian language during the Muscovite Rus' era had a complex history. Dialect features continued to develop. 2 main dialect zones took shape - Northern Great Russian approximately to the north of the line Pskov - Tver - Moscow, south of N. Novgorod and Southern Great Russian to the south from the specified line to the Belarusian and Ukrainian regions - dialects that overlapped with other dialect divisions.

Intermediate Central Russian dialects arose, among which the Moscow dialect began to play a leading role. Initially it was mixed, then it developed into a coherent system. The following became characteristic of him: akanye; pronounced reduction of vowels of unstressed syllables; plosive consonant “g”; ending “-ovo”, “-evo” in the genitive case of the singular masculine and neuter in the pronominal declension; the hard ending “-t” in 3rd person verbs of the present and future tense; forms of the pronouns “me”, “you”, “yourself” and a number of other phenomena. The Moscow dialect is gradually becoming exemplary and forms the basis of the Russian national literary language.

At this time, in living speech, a final restructuring of the categories of time occurs (the ancient past tenses - aorist, imperfect, perfect and plusquaperfect are completely replaced by a unified form with “-l”), the loss of the dual number, the former declension of nouns according to six stems is replaced by modern types of declension and etc. The written language remains colorful.

In the 2nd half of the 16th century. In the Moscow state, book printing began, which had great value for the fate of the Russian literary language, culture and education. The first printed books were church books, primers, grammars, and dictionaries.

A new significant stage in the development of the language - the 17th century - is associated with the development of the Russian people into a nation - during the period of the increasing role of the Moscow state and the unification of Russian lands, the Russian national language begins to form. During the formation of the Russian nation, the foundations of a national literary language were formed, which is associated with the weakening of the influence of the Church Slavonic language, the development of dialects ceased, and the role of the Moscow dialect increased. The development of new dialect features gradually stops, old dialect features become very stable. Thus, the 17th century, when the Russian nation finally took shape, is the beginning of the Russian national language.

In 1708, the division of the civil and Church Slavonic alphabet took place. Introduced civil alphabet, on which secular literature is printed.

In the 18th and early 19th centuries. Secular writing became widespread, church literature gradually moved into the background and, finally, became the lot of religious rituals, and its language turned into a kind of church jargon. Scientific, technical, military, nautical, administrative and other terminology developed rapidly, which caused a large influx of words and expressions from Western countries into the Russian language. European languages. Particularly large impact from the 2nd half of the XVIII V. The French language began to influence Russian vocabulary and phraseology.

Its further development is already closely connected with the history and culture of the Russian people. The 18th century was reformist. In fiction, science, and official business papers, the Slavic-Russian language is used, which has absorbed the culture of the Old Church Slavonic language. In everyday life it was used, in the words of the poet-reformer V.K. Trediakovsky, “natural language”.

The primary task was to create a single national language. In addition, there is an understanding of the special mission of language in the creation of an enlightened state, in the field of business relations, and its importance for science and literature. The democratization of the language begins: it includes elements of the living oral speech of ordinary people. The language begins to free itself from the influence of the Church Slavonic language, which has become the language of religion and worship. The language is being enriched at the expense of Western European languages, which primarily affected the formation of the language of science, politics, and technology.

There were so many borrowings that Peter I was forced to issue an order to limit foreign words and terms. The first reform of Russian writing was carried out by Peter I in 1708-1710. A number of letters were eliminated from the alphabet - omega, psi, Izhitsa. Letter styles were rounded and Arabic numerals were introduced.

In the 18th century society begins to realize that the Russian national language is capable of becoming the language of science, art, and education. M.V. played a special role in the creation of a literary language during this period. Lomonosov, he was not only a great scientist, but also a brilliant language researcher who created the theory of three styles. Possessing enormous talent, he wanted to change the attitude towards the Russian language not only of foreigners, but also of Russians, he wrote “Russian Grammar”, in which he gave a set of grammatical rules and showed the richest possibilities of the language.

He fought for Russian to become the language of science, so that lectures would be given in Russian by Russian teachers. He considered the Russian language one of the most powerful and rich languages and cared about its purity and expressiveness. It is especially valuable that M.V. Lomonosov considered language a means of communication, constantly emphasizing that it is necessary for people to “consistently move in common affairs, which is controlled by the combination of different thoughts.” According to Lomonosov, without language, society would be like an unassembled machine, all parts of which are scattered and inactive, which is why “their very existence is vain and useless.”

Since the 18th century Russian language becomes a literary language with generally accepted norms, widely used in both book and colloquial speech. The creator of the Russian literary language was A.S. Pushkin. His work enshrined the norms of the Russian literary language that later became national.

The language of Pushkin and writers of the 19th century. is a classic example of literary language up to the present day. In his work, Pushkin was guided by the principle of proportionality and conformity. He did not reject any words because of their Old Slavonic, foreign or common origin. He considered any word acceptable in literature, in poetry, if it accurately, figuratively expresses the concept, conveys the meaning. But he opposed the thoughtless passion for foreign words, as well as the desire to replace mastered foreign words with artificially selected or composed Russian words.

In the 19th century A real struggle unfolded for the establishment of language norms. The collision of heterogeneous linguistic elements and the need for a common literary language raised the problem of creating unified national language norms. The formation of these norms took place in a sharp struggle between different trends. Democratic-minded sections of society sought to bring the literary language closer to in folk speech, the reactionary clergy tried to preserve the purity of the archaic “Slovenian” language, incomprehensible to the general population.

At the same time, an excessive passion for foreign words began among the upper strata of society, which threatened to clog the Russian language. It was conducted between the followers of the writer N.M. Karamzin and Slavophile A.S. Shishkova. Karamzin fought for the establishment of uniform norms, demanded to be freed from the influence of the three styles and Church Slavonic speech, and to use new words, including borrowed ones. Shishkov believed that the basis of the national language should be the Church Slavonic language.

The flourishing of literature in the 19th century. rendered big influence for the development and enrichment of the Russian language. In the first half of the 19th century. the process of creating the Russian national language was completed.

In the modern Russian language there is an active (intensive) growth of special terminology, which is caused, first of all, by the needs of the scientific and technological revolution. If in early XVIII V. terminology was borrowed by Russian from German language, in the 19th century. - from French, then in the middle of the twentieth century. it is borrowed mainly from in English(in its American version). Special vocabulary has become the most important source of replenishing the vocabulary of the Russian general literary language, but the penetration of foreign words should be reasonably limited.

Thus, language embodies national character, national idea, and national ideals. Each Russian word carries experience, a moral position, properties inherent in the Russian mentality, which are perfectly reflected by our proverbs: “Everyone goes crazy in their own way,” “God protects the careful,” “Thunder will not strike, a man will not cross himself,” etc. And also fairy tales , where the hero (soldier, Ivanushka the Fool, man), getting into difficult situations, emerges victorious and becomes rich and happy.

The Russian language has inexhaustible possibilities for expressing thoughts, developing various topics, and creating works of any genre.

We can be proud of the works of great people written in Russian. These are works of great Russian literature, the works of scientists well known in other countries. To read the original works of Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and other Russian writers, many study the Russian language.

3. Features of the formation of the Russian language

3.1 Formation and development of the vocabulary of the Russian language

The vocabulary of the modern Russian literary language was formed over many centuries, and the main source of its replenishment was its own resources.

The most ancient layer of native Russian vocabulary consists of words from the common Indo-European fund: these are those words that passed from the Proto-Indo-European language into the Proto-Slavic language, from the Proto-Slavic language into the Old Russian language, and from it into the modern Russian language. These are many kinship names ( mother, daughter, son, brother), animal names ( wolf, beaver, goat, cow), tree names ( oak, birch, willow), names of natural phenomena, relief, substances and other words, for example, salt, coal, shore, swamp, moon, water.

The second layer of vocabulary in terms of time of formation consists of words of the Proto-Slavic (common Slavic) language, among which there are names of substances ( gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, clay), animal names ( deer, bear, hare, fox), names of human body parts ( head, hand, leg, finger, beard), names of relief ( earth, field, hole, lake, pond, ford), plant names ( poplar, spruce, walnut, willow, pumpkin, mushroom), names of time of day and year, some names of kinship ( grandfather, father-in-law).

A significant part of the Proto-Slavic vocabulary consists of abstract words, for example, faith, fear, anger, reason, will, spirit, shame, sin, guilt, punishment, life, freedom, death, power, glory, adjectives wise, stupid, kind, evil, stingy, generous, sweet, cunning and etc.

The third layer of native Russian vocabulary consists of Old Russian (common East Slavic) words, i.e. words equally known to Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians, but unknown to the southern and western Slavs. This layer includes, for example, words absolutely, jackdaw, talker, bullfinch, icy.

Finally, Russian native words proper include those that arose after the 14th-15th centuries, i.e. after the separation of the Russian language from the Common East Slavic. Actually Russian words are almost all nouns formed with the help of suffixes - schIR, - Otinkerer, - ldrawer, - Telstvo (mason, undertaker, cleaner, desecration), using the null suffix and the suffix - Tspruce (run-up, clamp, fire extinguisher, fuse) and many other words. It is the Russian words themselves that determine the specifics of the vocabulary of the Russian national language, its potential and real capabilities, they serve as the main base and the main source of its development, they constitute the main nominative, as well as emotional-expressive fund of the Russian literary language.

The history of the Russian people is characterized by close economic and cultural ties with other (most often neighboring) peoples. As a result of these connections, a significant number of borrowed words have become stronger in the Russian language. The earliest borrowings go back to the Scandinavian (Swedish and Norwegian) languages, for example, herring, brand, whip, chest, pood, anchor. There are ancient Finnish borrowings: blizzard, dumplings, tundra, walrus, herring, sleigh.

In the XI-XVII centuries. The names of household items, clothing, fabrics, animals, trade and military terms were borrowed from Turkic languages: sheepskin coat, sundress, shoe, heel, stocking, felt, kumach, astrakhan fur, barn, shed, booth, closet, hearth, shack, hut, basin, iron, mattress, quiver, trap, horse, herd, money, arshin, goods, reed, guard, hero, pencil, fog, scarlet, brown, chest, pocket, cast iron, head, mess.

Most Greek words entered the Russian language in connection with the adoption of Christianity: altar, archangel, patriarch, idol, Satan, canon, gospel. Not only church, but also everyday vocabulary was borrowed from Greek: bread, dish, doll, bed, notebook, lantern, ship, sail, cherry, pancake.

During the era of Peter I, many German words entered the Russian language, including the names of household items, animals, plants ( tie, jacket, case, corkscrew, pretzel, bow, potatoes, poodle, kitchen), medical terms ( infirmary, bandage, scar), military terms ( soldier, officer, cadet, corporal, camp, parade ground, flank, assault), craft terms ( workbench, chisel, jointer, tongue and groove, tap, button). In connection with the development of maritime affairs in the same period, Dutch words entered the Russian language: raid, pennant, megaphone, yacht, boat, lock, frigate, cruiser, navigator, sailor, cabin boy, shipyard, cabin, hatch.

Since the 16th century. Individual English words also penetrate into the Russian language, primarily related to maritime affairs. Since the 19th century Sports, technical and political terms come from English to Russian, for example, station, rail, tunnel, express, tram, tractor, combine, tennis, sport, record, start, finish, leader, club, steak, pudding, picnic, jacket, veranda, square.

In the 19th century The Russian language includes French words, including everyday ones ( suit, vest, coat, furniture, office, salon, buffet, soup, broth, compote, cutlet), military terms ( garrison, mine, attack, battery, dugout, vanguard, fleet, squadron), political terms ( debates, parliament), terms of art ( plot, genre, sketch, actor).

First of all, musical terms passed from the Italian language to Russian ( aria, sonata, libretto, tenor, bass) and some other words: barricade, grenade, barracks, pasta, vermicelli, tank, newspaper, villa.

Very few Spanish words have entered the Russian language: guitar, serenade, tomato, marshmallow and some others.

At different times (mainly in the 17th-18th centuries), words from Polish language. Mostly this is everyday vocabulary: carriage, carriage, apartment, tradesman, hussar, clerk, colonel, bully, zrazy, bun, parsley, jam, donut, chestnut, fruit, gooseberry, dawdle, beg, prance, respect, paint, draw.

Latin words entered the Russian language through Old Church Slavonic books and through European languages (French, German, Polish). Many Latinisms were created in modern international scientific terminology. For example, words such as university, student, associate professor, colloquium, accent, punctuation, hyphen, intonation, constitution, radiation and many others.

Most borrowed words have long been mastered by the Russian language. They are not even perceived as having a foreign language origin. Some borrowed words attract attention due to their phonetic or grammatical features. Common borrowings in their functioning are no different from native Russian words; book borrowings (for example, scientific or political terms) are not known to all Russian speakers.

Thus, the vocabulary of the Russian language has been replenished over the centuries both by the formation of new words on an original Russian basis, and by borrowing words from other languages. The process of development of the Russian vocabulary continues to this day.

3.2 National specificity of the Russian language style system

language Russian vocabulary writing

The modern system of styles in the Russian language developed gradually, in the process of formation of the Russian literary language.

In ancient Russian literature, religious literature, chronicles and business documents stood out. The language of business documents and household records were close to each other. M.V. Lomonosov applied the ancient theory of three styles to the Russian literary language. He identified the following three styles: high, medium and low. Lomonosov’s stylistic theory asserted that the Russian literary language emerged as a result of the long-term joint development of the colloquial element and the bookish, “Slavic”, as they said in the 18th century, language. This stylistic theory laid the basis for the norms of the literary language on those words, grammatical forms and figures of speech that were stylistically neutral and common to the colloquial and book Slavic languages, limited the use of little-known Slavicisms and allowed the use of colloquial folk words in literary speech. Thanks to M.V. Lomonosov, a scientific style that previously did not exist in the Russian language begins to take shape in the Russian language.

Talent A.S. Pushkin gave impetus to the formation of a new modern stage in the history of literary language, and his work laid the foundations for the language of fiction; it served as a model for writers of the 19th century.

The official business style of the Russian language dates back to the language of Moscow orders (highest government institutions) of the 16th-17th centuries. Peter's reforms had a huge impact on the official style of speech, due to which many words borrowed from European languages were included in official speech. Significant changes in the vocabulary and style of official business speech occurred after the events of October 1917.

The predecessor of the journalistic style in the ancient Russian era was the language of chronicles, teachings and sermons. In the Russian literary language, the journalistic style begins to take shape in the 18th century, receives further development in the 19th century, and experiences strong pressure from ideology in the 20th century. Nowadays, wide opportunities have opened up for the journalistic style and, at the same time, new dangers have arisen associated with shortcomings in the speech culture of speakers and writers.

Language as a mirror of culture reflects all changes in the way of life of the people and their mentality. The Russian character has always been a mystery, full of contradictions and complexities. By its nature, the Russian national language is heterogeneous. This is explained by the heterogeneity of the ethnic group itself as a community of people.

Russian as a national language exists in several forms.

1. Dialect is a form of the national language, limited territorially. Dialectal vocabulary is included in the vocabulary of individual dialects and is understandable only to a resident of a given area. For example: zobat - to eat (Ryazan dialect), to chew - to beat hard, to pound (Kaluga dialect). As the basis of a particular dialect, dialect words in some cases can be used by native speakers of a literary language. Such words are called dialectisms. This term is used to designate dialect words used in the language of fiction.

Some dialect words enter our speech and become commonly used. From dialects, words such as kids, bully, arrogant, bully, boring, tyrant, little boy, dark, frost, new settler, vacation have entered the literary language.

2. Vernacular - one of the forms of the national Russian language, which does not have its own characteristics systemic organization and is characterized by a set of linguistic forms that violate the norms of the literary language. Speakers of the vernacular are not aware of such a violation of the norm:

in phonetics: driver, polozhite, with dialect, ridiculitis, kolidor, drushlag;

in morphology: my callus, with jam, business, on the beach, without a coat, lying down;

in vocabulary: pedestal instead of pedestal, semi-clinic instead of clinic.

Vernacular speech includes linguistic phenomena (words and their meanings, grammatical forms and phrases, pronunciation features), which are used for a rough, reduced image of the subject of thought. For example, such words and expressions as “great” (hello), “moaning” (annoyingly asking), “hag” (old woman), “not dripping over us” (we don’t need to rush), are defined by modern dictionaries as colloquial. Extraliterary vernacular is used by those speakers of the national language who have not sufficiently mastered its literary form.

3. Jargon. In modern linguistic literature, the word “jargon” is usually used to designate various branches of the national language, which serve as a means of communication for different social groups. The emergence of jargons is associated with the desire of certain groups to oppose themselves to society or other social groups, to isolate themselves from them, using the means of language. Jargons are a social type of speech, characterized by professional vocabulary and phraseology of the common language. Jargons belong to relatively open social and professional groups of people united by common interests, habits, activities, social status (athletes, sailors, actors, doctors, lawyers, hunters, etc.). The term “jargon” is also used to designate distorted, vulgar, incorrect speech, also called argot. Jargons and argot do not have their own phonetic and grammatical structure and are formed on the basis of the literary language through reinterpretation, metaphorization, sound distortion: “donkey” - I-16 airplane, “ancestors” - parents, “basket” - basketball, “finaga” - money , finance, “teacher” - teacher. The vocabulary of jargons is unstable; its individual elements can be part of different jargons (interjargon). The expressiveness and emotionality of the jargon vocabulary contributes to the penetration of a number of elements into the literary language. In general, the use of jargon clogs and coarsens spoken language.

The basis of the vocabulary of modern colloquial speech is made up of neutral words that have long existed in the Russian language: words that arose in the 18th-19th centuries. (wonderful, interesting, visual); Soviet era words ( plant, find a job, pay, rent); words that have recently appeared in colloquial speech ( customs clearance, stable, cool).

A specific feature of colloquial speech is its significant proximity to vernacular and jargon, the difficulty of objectively distinguishing literary colloquial speech from vernacular and general jargon. This allows speakers to widely use the expressive capabilities of the national language in informal communication.

Thus, the system of styles of the Russian literary language is in a state of dynamic equilibrium: the orientation towards the classical norm is accompanied by changes in the stylistic assessment of individual words, the formation of new genres within the framework of existing styles, and the detailing of stylistic norms.

Conclusion

Thus, the national language is the language of a given people, taken in the totality of its inherent features that distinguish it from other languages, belonging to all speakers who use it as a means of communication. It concentrates and presents the entire historical experience of the people. The state of the language indicates the mentality of the people, the level of development of society and its culture.

The Russian literary language began its formation in Kievan Rus starting in the 11th century. In the ancient Russian state, during the period of fragmentation, dialects and adverbs developed that were understandable for a particular area. This led to disunity not only territorial, but also cultural. A language that was understandable to everyone was needed. It was needed by trade, diplomacy, and the church. Old Church Slavonic became such a language. The history of its emergence and formation in Rus' is connected with the Byzantine policy of the Russian princes and with the activities of the monastic brothers Cyril and Methodius, who created the Slavic alphabet. The interaction of Old Church Slavonic and Russian spoken languages made possible the formation of the Old Russian language. A new significant stage in the development of the language is associated with the period of increasing role of the Moscow state and the unification of Russian lands. At this time, the role of the Moscow dialect, preserving the traditions of Kievan Rus, was strengthening. In the 17th century The Russian nation is taking shape and the Russian national language begins to form on the basis of the Moscow dialect. The development of new dialects gradually stops. There is a democratization of the language, its liberation from the influence of the Church Slavonic language and enrichment at the expense of Western European languages. The next stage in the development and formation of the language is the 18th century. During this period, the literary language is expressive and rich, but colorful and unstable. Much credit for its stabilization and streamlining belongs to M.V. Lomonosov, but unified language standards were still not developed. In the subsequent period, all efforts were aimed at solving this problem.

The formation of the national Russian literary language is completed and the era of its modern development begins with the work of A.S. Pushkin, in whose works the national norms of the Russian literary language, conscious and accepted by his contemporaries and subsequent generations, were developed and consolidated.

Bibliography

1. Vvedenskaya L.A. Russian language and culture of speech: tutorial for universities / L.A. Vvedenskaya, L.G. Pavlova, E.Yu. Kashaeva. - Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 2007. -539 p.

2. Zvereva E.N. Fundamentals of speech culture: Theoretical course / E.N. Zvereva. - M.: Publishing house. EAOI Center, 2008. - 219 p.

3. Lapteva M.A. Russian language and speech culture: educational and practical work. allowance / M.A. Lapteva, O.A. Rekhlova, M.V. Rumyantsev. - Krasnoyarsk: IPC KSTU, 2006. - 216 p.

4. Priyatkina A.F. Russian language. Culture of speech / A.F. Priyatkina. - Vladivostok: TIDOT DVGU, 2005. - 165 p.

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3.1 Formation and development of the vocabulary of the Russian language

3.2 National specificity of the Russian language style system

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Historical stages of development of the Russian language. Russian language: wiki: Facts about Russia

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

3.1 Formation and development of the vocabulary of the Russian language

3.2 National specificity of the Russian language style system

Similar documents

What else to read

THE LAST NOTES

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