What forests are still left in the world? Forest resources of the world Forest area in the world

Wood is one of the most necessary resources in the world to be restored. And wood, both in ancient times and now, is used to make various building materials, interior components and other things people need. Of course, the forest can recover much more slowly than it is cut down by people.

The luckiest countries are those countries that have the most forests. That is, roughly speaking, while one area is being cut down, the rest are already growing rapidly. There are countries where there are practically no forests at all, and there are states where forests occupy the main part. In total, the forest area on the planet exceeds four billion hectares. Those countries with large timber reserves are included in the ranking.

10. India, 65 million hectares of forest

It would seem that the territory of this country is not so much, but, for some reason, India is already in tenth place in the ranking. The fact is that Indian forests are located in the subtropical and tropical zones, that is, deciduous moist forests.

They grow much faster than the familiar oaks, pines and birches. Moreover, in India there are sacred trees that are prohibited from being cut down by the laws of this state. There are a lot of nature reserves where there are even restrictions on entry. Even though trees are sacred, they are still considered a natural resource. There have been repeated news reports that unprotected forests are often cut down. India became the leader in logging in 2010.

9. Peru, 70 million hectares of forest

Not a well-known state. Located in South America. Jungles, broad-leaved forests, which not only grow quickly, but are practically not cut down by anyone.

Peru's population is small, which means there are few domestic consumers. Peru is a small country, the Amazon River flows only through a small part of it, where forests usually grow more intensively.

8. Indonesia, 90 million hectares of forest

Small state, but the forest area is also good. Just like in Peru, the forest is practically not cut down and international trade forest resources are not managed. The forests are broad-leaved and tropical, so they grow quickly and in large quantities. Indonesia also has many nature reserves where deforestation and hunting are prohibited.

7. Republic of the Congo, 135 million hectares of forest

The African state of Congo is ahead of Indonesia, as it has more territory, and the forests are already closer to the equatorial areas. A huge number of reserves (15% of the entire territory) do not allow poachers to cut down trees. Equatorial rainforests grow even faster than others.

The soils of the Congo allow forests to grow, since this state stands on the largest river of the same name, which feeds the entire coastal zone with water. Also, this geographical location is characterized by heavy equatorial rains.

6. Australia, 165 million hectares of forest

Similar to the Congo, the number of nature reserves is very large: many sacred places that, according to local residents, should not be visited at all. Sometimes the punishment is death.

The vegetation of this continent corresponds to the types of subequatorial and equatorial forests. It is ahead of the previous leader, most likely due to the difference in territories. Australia has one of the most big trees in the world - eucalyptus. Industrial significance have approximately 100 species of woody plants.

5. People's Republic of China, 200 million hectares of forest

Despite very frequent incidents in terms of poachers, it is in fifth place in the ranking of leaders in timber reserves. Vegetation is transitional: subtropical and tropical. There are also areas where temperate forests predominate.

The same forest performs two functions at once, one of which is growing silkworm for the extraction of the famous Chinese silk. The relatively large area of ​​China is not characterized by heavy forest cover, as the population density is off the charts.

4. USA, 305 million hectares of forest

Vegetation of temperate latitudes is characteristic of this country. It is important to note that the forests of the USA are almost the same as Taiga, only smaller in size. The forest is almost never cut down, and on top of that, liability for neglect of nature has been tightened. Such forests are characterized by cedars, birches, oaks, pines, spruces and other valuable species. In general, Americans themselves are thrifty, they buy everything they can and save their own.

Do not forget that there are also a lot of forests on the Alaska Peninsula, only they are characterized by a more forest-tundra feature. One of the largest forests in the United States is the National Forest. It is considered a federal land.

3. Canada, 310 million hectares of forest

Almost the lowest population density is characteristic of Canada. The Canadian forest seems to many local residents endless. It is precisely the low population density that is associated a large number of forests, since part of Canada is a tundra zone where practically nothing grows. The forests, like those of the USA, are taiga in Russia.

The most popular plant in this country is the Canadian maple, the image of which is featured on the national flag. The most extensive are the Laurentian and Eastern forests of Canada.

2. Brazil, 480 million hectares of forest

At all, geographical position very beneficial for its citizens. Brazil occupies about forty-eight percent of the area of ​​all of South America. Many archipelagos and islands. Brazil's forests belong mainly to tropical and equatorial zones.

It comes in second place in the ranking, since forests are growing rapidly and the territory is larger than that of the listed tropical countries. The largest river in South America, the Amazon, also flows here, feeding a huge amount of soil. In addition, forests in Brazil are almost never cut down.

1. Russian Federation, 810 million hectares of forest

World leader in timber reserves. This state has always had a lot of forests, despite very frequent poaching (this also applies to foreign poachers) deforestation, pollution, intensive sale and use of wood. The largest forest in Russia is Taiga. It is located from the Ural Mountains to the Far East. The taiga is still sparsely populated and in some places has not even been studied.

In addition to the Taiga, there are other large forests in Russia, for example the forests of the Caucasus, Central regions, and so on. Large rivers and lakes, a large territory of the country, fertile layer, protection of nature reserves and national parks- all this is favorable for growth forest areas.

BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES

The Earth's biomass is created by plant and animal organisms.

Plant resources are represented by both cultivated and wild plants. There are almost 6 thousand species of cultivated plants. But the most common types of agricultural crops on Earth are only 80-90, and the most common are only 15-20: wheat, rice, corn, barley, sweet potato, soybeans, etc.

Among wild plants, forest vegetation predominates, forming forest resources. Like land, these are exhaustible but renewable resources of multi-purpose use. World forest resources are characterized by three main indicators: the size of forest area (4.1 billion hectares), forest cover (31.7%) and standing timber reserves (330 billion m3), which, due to constant growth, increase annually by 5.5 billion m3. It would seem that in these conditions it is premature to talk about the threat of a shortage of forest resources. But this is not true at all.

Wood has long been widely used as a construction and ornamental material; This is all the more true for our time. And today the demand for firewood is growing, and at least 1/2 of all wood harvested in the world is used for these purposes. Finally, for thousands of years, starting with the Neolithic, when agriculture arose, forests were reduced to arable land and plantations. In the last two hundred years alone, the forest cover of the earth's land has halved and deforestation has become alarming. It is associated with an increase in soil erosion and a reduction in oxygen reserves in the atmosphere.

The world's forest area decreases annually by at least 20 million hectares, or 0.5%. World timber harvesting in the near future may reach 5 billion m 3 . This means that its annual growth will actually be fully used.

The forests of the world form two huge belts - northern and southern.

Table 15. Distribution of forest area by major regions.

The northern forest belt is located in a zone of temperate and partly cold and subtropical climates. It accounts for 1/2 of all forests in the world and the same part of the timber supply. The main logging operations are carried out here, especially valuable wood coniferous species. Despite intensive exploitation, thanks to reforestation and afforestation work (in the USA, Canada, Finland, Sweden), the total area of ​​forests in the northern zone is not decreasing.

The southern forest belt is located mainly in the zone of tropical and equatorial climates. It accounts for 1/2 of all forest areas and the total wood supply. Previously, it was used mainly for firewood, but recently exports to Japan, Western Europe, and the USA have increased many times. Great damage to the forests of the southern belt is also caused by the slash-and-burn farming system, which has been going on for many hundreds of years, and extensive grazing. All this leads to catastrophically rapid deforestation of this belt.

Tropical evergreen forests still occupy more than 1 billion hectares, with more than half of their area in Latin America. However, Latin America and Asia have already lost 40% of such forests, and Africa - 50%. Scientists believe that these forests are under threat of complete destruction by the middle of the 21st century. Large efforts to preserve tropical forests have been launched under the leadership of the UN, but so far they have not brought the desired results. Therefore, measures for the rational use of forest resources continue to remain extremely relevant.

Table 16. The most and least forested countries in the world

Most wooded countries	Forest cover, %	Least wooded countries	Forest cover, %
Suriname		Oman
Papua New Guinea		Kuwait
Guyana		Central African Republic
Gabon		Saudi Arabia
DR Congo		Jordan
Finland		Iceland
Cambodia		Egypt
DPRK		UAE
Sweden		Haiti
Japan		Niger
The Republic of Korea		Algeria
Laos		Afghanistan
Brazil		South Africa
Indonesia		Syria
Guinea

Countries with the largest forest areas
Russia (765.9 million hectares), Canada (494.0), Brazil (488.0), USA (296.0), DR Congo (former Zaire), Australia, China, Indonesia, Peru, Bolivia

Additional information:

34 VTL occur in 10 countries: Brazil, Indonesia, Zaire, Peru, Colombia, India, Bolivia, Papua New Guinea, Venezuela, Myanmar.

The leaders in terms of forest area per capita are: Guiana, Suriname, Gabon, Congo, etc.

Forest areas in Russia are declining, almost all forests have been eliminated in El Salvador, Jamaica and Haiti.

Animal resources, being also integral part The biosphere represents another vital resource for humanity, classified as renewable. On globe there are several million species of animals (there are much more of them than plants), some of them are domestic, others are commercial, etc. And together plants and animals form genetic fund (gene pool) planet, which also needs protection from impoverishment.

From 1600 to 1995, more than 600 species of animals have already disappeared on Earth, and another 35 thousand species (not counting invertebrates) are under threat of destruction. Experiences particularly strong pressure animal world Europe, where many species of mammals and 30 to 50% of all bird species are on the verge of extinction. An example of the impoverishment of the gene pool in Africa and Asia is the catastrophically rapid decline in the elephant herd.

Preservation biological diversity, preventing “erosion” of the gene pool is a very important task.

Tasks and tests on the topic "Biological resources"

• 6 Tasks: 9 Tests: 1

Leading ideas: geographical environment - necessary condition life of society, development and distribution of the population and economy, while recently the influence of the resource factor on the level of economic development countries, but the importance of rational use of natural resources and environmental factors is increasing.

Basic concepts: geographical (environmental) environment, ore and non-metallic minerals, ore belts, mineral basins; structure of the world land fund, southern and northern forest belts, forest cover; hydropower potential; shelf, alternative energy sources; resource availability, natural resource potential (NRP), territorial combination of natural resources (TCNR), areas of new development, secondary resources; environmental pollution, environmental policy.

Skills and abilities: be able to characterize the natural resources of the country (region) according to plan; use various methods of economic assessment of natural resources; characterize the natural prerequisites for the development of industry and agriculture of the country (region) according to the plan; give a brief description of the location of the main types of natural resources, identify countries as “leaders” and “outsiders” in terms of endowment with one or another type of natural resources; give examples of countries that do not have rich natural resources, but have achieved a high level of economic development and vice versa; give examples of rational and irrational use of resources.

Table 3

A country	Forest area			Forest cover, % of the country's area
	million hectares	in % of the world's forest area	per capita (ha)
Russia	797,1	23,0	5,6	46,6
Brazil	544	16	2,9	64,3
Canada	310,1	9,1	8,9	33,6
USA	303,1	8,9	0,9	33,1
China	164	4,8	0,1	17,5
Australia	155	4,5	6,7	20,1
DRC	135	3,9	2,0	59,6
Indonesia	105	3,0	0,4	58,0
Whole World: Square	3.4 billion hectares	100	0,54	29,7
Volume of reserves	386 billion cubic meters m.

Source: Forest Resources of the World, M., 2006; Agriculture, hunting and game management, forestry in Russia. Stat. Sat. Section 11. M., 2011. Population taken from www.prb.org, 2011.

For each inhabitant of the planet there is an average of 0.5 hectares of forests, in Russia - 5.6 hectares (3rd place after Canada and Australia, where these figures are 8.9 and 6.7, respectively). On average, standing timber reserves per capita in the world are 55 m3, in Russia - 582 m3 (in Canada - 574 m3). The forest cover of Russia is 46.6%.
The forests of Russia, which are under the jurisdiction of forestry management bodies, are represented by three types of main forest-forming species. The largest reserves of conifers are 70.8% of the total forested area, or 79.2 billion m3, among which the most common are larch - 258 million hectares, pine - 114 million hectares, spruce - 77 and cedar Siberian pine- 37 million hectares, as well as fir. 16.7% reserves
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are represented by soft-leaved trees (birch, aspen, linden, poplar, willow, alder). Hard-leaved trees (holm birch, oak, beech, ash, maple, elm and other elms, hornbeam, white acacia, saxaul) account for only 1.8 billion m3, or 2.4%. The group “other tree species and shrubs” occupies 10.1% of the forested area.
Forest resources are concentrated mainly in the eastern regions of the country. Thus, Eastern Siberia accounts for 34% of Russian forest reserves (Irkutsk Region and Krasnoyarsk Territory are highlighted), the Far East - 26% (Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Khabarovsk Territory, Amur Region and Primorsky Territory are highlighted); Western Siberia - 13% (Tyumen region stands out). 10% of reserves are concentrated in the North of the European part, and 6% in the Urals (Fig. 2.6).

Rice. 2.6. Forest resources of Russia. Compiled by the author. Agriculture, hunting and game management, forestry in Russia. Stat. Sat. Section 11. M., 2011. Section “Forest resources and timber harvesting” in the atlas “Russia as a system”. M., 1997

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The most important indicator of the economic, environmental and social role of forests is their distribution into groups according to economic importance and functional features (Fig. 2.7): group - water protection, soil protection, protected and other forests in which logging is prohibited (forest belts, nature reserves, forest parks, resorts, etc. - approximately 23% of the forest fund area); group - multipurpose forests in sparsely populated areas with limited exploitation of forests - about 8% of the forest fund area; Group III - exploited forests in multi-forest zones in which economic activity and most of the forest plantations are reproduced with human participation - 69%. Over the past 30 years, noticeable changes have occurred in the structure of forests: the share of group III forests has significantly decreased.
The annual average growth of wood in Russia in recent years is about 1.2 m3/ha. At the same time, the maximum growth values ​​(3-4 m3/ha) are characteristic of the subzone of broad-leaved forests of Central Russia and subtropical forests North Caucasus.
IN age structure The forests of Russia are dominated by mature and overmature plantations, located mainly in the Asian part. According to available estimates, only 55% of the total forest area is of industrial interest, that is, profitable for industrial exploitation, and the predominant part of this area, located in the European North and along the Trans-Siberian Railway, has been significantly depleted as a result of intensive forest management over the last century.
Water resources. Russia has huge reserves of fresh water.
The average long-term renewable water resources of Russia, according to new modern data, are estimated at 4324 km3/year (according to Roskomstat data for 2011 - 4331.7 km3), of which 4118 km3 are formed on the territory of the country, and 206 km3 are inflows from adjacent territories.
The total amounts of water resources in Russia are quite large, however, despite this, many regions of Russia have se-


Rice. 2.8. Water resources

serious regional problems with water supply to the economy and population. The reason is the extremely uneven distribution of water resources throughout the country, which is not consistent with the needs for them, and their very large temporal variability, especially in the southern regions. For example, in terms of the size of local water resources, the Southern and Far Eastern Federal Districts differ by almost 30 times (Table 4).
The Far Eastern and Siberian Federal Districts are very well supplied with water resources, somewhat less so are the Ural and Northwestern Federal Districts; The most densely populated districts - Volga, Central and Southern - have limited water resources.
The differences in water resources among the constituent entities of the Russian Federation are even greater. The Krasnoyarsk Territory and Yakutia have the largest total water resources (950 and 899 km3/year, respectively), the smallest - Kalmy-
Water resources of Russia by federal districts
Table 4

Federal district	Local aquatic resources, km3/year	Variability of local water resources, Gv*	Water inflow from adjacent territories, km3/year	Potential water availability with local water resources, thousand m3/year per person.
Central	108	0,22	22,3	2,8
North West	554	0,09	65,0	39,7
Southern	53,3	0,16	270	2,32
Privolzhsky	173	0,21	113	5,55
Ural	385	0,18	217	31,1
Siberian	1277	0,08	59,1	63,6
Dalnevos accurate	1566	0,08	295	234
RF	4118	0,06	206	28,31

* The coefficient of variation Cv characterizes the variability of annual runoff; how more value this coefficient, the greater the runoff variability.

Source: Zh.A. Balonishnikova. Water resources and their use in administrative regions of Russia: current and future assessments. GGI, St. Petersburg. Eco-bulletin InEkA, No. 4 (135), 2009.
Kiya, Ingushetia, Belgorod, Kurgan and Kursk regions: 1.64, respectively; 1.85; 2.71; 3.78 and 3.66 km3/year (Table 5).
About 10 regions and republics have water resources of less than 8 km3/year. Thus, the absolute values ​​of water resources of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation differ hundreds of times. Water resources and water availability in economic regions of Russia are given in Table. 6.
Russia's water supply per unit area is approximately 250 thousand m3/year. Russia is inferior in this indicator to Brazil and Norway, India and is on the same level as China, the USA and Canada. Water availability per capita in Russia is 28.5 thousand m3/year. Differences in specific water availability by economic region of the country are given in
Table 5.
Water resources and potential water supply for the population of constituent entities of the Russian Federation located in extremely different physical and geographical conditions

Regions	Water resources, km3/year			Potential water availability per inhabitant. thousand m3/year
	local	influx	total new	local resources	total resources
Very low water resources			rs and water availability
Kalmykia	1.41	0.23	1.64	4.86	4.45
Belgorod region	2.5	0.20	2.71	1.66	1.69
Kurgan region	1.03	2.72	3.78	1.0	3.66
Kursk region	3.54	0.06	3.66	2.85	2.79
Oryol region	3.43	0.66	4.09	4.0	4.71
Very large water resources and water availability
Krasnoyarsk region	735	215	950	247	320
B. Taimyrsky A.O.	295	620	915	7370	22800
Sakha (Yakutia)	566	332	899	594	944
Tyumen region	344	243	587	106	180
Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug	203	381	584	398	1145

Source: materials of Zh.A. Balonishnikova.

Water resources and water supply in Russian regions.
Table 6.

Economic area	Water resources. km3/year		Water availability by total runoff. thousand m3/year
	Local formation runoff	Total drain	For 1 km2 of territory	On 1 resident
Russia	4043	4270	250	28.5
Northern	494	511.6	349	90.6
Northwest*	47.7	89.4	455	11.6
PEER	88.6	112.6	232	3.9
CCR	16.1	21.0	125	2.7
Volgo-Vyatka	47.8	151.8	576.5	18.2
Volga region	31.5	270	503	17.3
North Caucasus	44.0	69.3	195	4.3
Ural	122.7	129	156.6	6.6
Zap. Siberia	513	585	241	44.7
East Siberia	1097	1132	273	136.0
Far East	1538	1812	290	297.0

*With the Kaliningrad region.
Source: Materials of the Institute of Water Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

table 7. More than 80% of this volume falls on subjects with water consumption of more than 0.5 km/year.
The value of the country's water resources is currently estimated at approximately $800 billion (Table 7).
Table 7
Valuation of water resources in Russia

Water bodies(water source)	Water volume, km3	Share, %	Conditional cost of 1 m3 of water	Conditional general price
Average long-term river flow (per year)	4270	8,42	1 conditional units	1 conventional unit
Lakes	26504	52,37	0,8	5
Swamps	2500	4,94	0,6	0,33
Glaciers	17000	33,59	0,97	4
Ice and snowfields	28	0,05	0,97	0,0
Groundwater (forecast)	317	0,63	3,7	0,3
Total:	50613	100

Source: Alekseevsky N.I., Gladkevich G.I. Water resources in the world and Russia over 100 years. Analyst. Yearbook “Russia in the World Around us”. M., 2003.

Currently, the Russian Federation uses 72.6 km3/year of fresh water3.
Among the country's 2,000 fresh and salt lakes, Baikal is especially famous, the deepest lake on Earth (1,637 m). Fresh water reserves in Baikal are gigantic (23 thousand km3) and account for over 19% of the world's fresh water reserves (all fresh lakes in the world contain 123 thousand km3 of water).
The uneven territorial distribution, large intra-annual and long-term variability of river flow make it difficult to rhythmically supply the population and economy of the country with water of the required quality. This problem is being solved by creating reservoirs, 40 of which are among the largest (with a volume of more than 1 km3), not counting many small ones. The largest volume of fresh water is contained in the reservoirs of Eastern Siberia (398 km3). Brother-
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The reservoir, together with the Krasnoyarsk, Ust-Ilimsk, as well as Zeya in the Far East and Samara in the Volga region, are the largest in the world. Russia has a huge resource base of drinking and technical groundwater, including a significant amount of proven reserves: the resource potential is estimated at more than 800 million. m3/day (more than 300 km3/year), proven operational reserves - more than 30 km3/year, mineral - 0.2 km3/year, thermal - 0.07 km3/year. Currently, many large cities (Moscow, St. Petersburg, Nizhny Novgorod) use surface water for domestic and drinking water supply due to the high depletion of underground water supply sources. On the territory of Russia, 620 deposits of mineral medicinal underground waters with operational reserves of more than 300 thousand m3/day have been explored, including about 70% prepared for industrial development. The largest number of mineral medicinal underground water deposits have been explored in the Southern, Central and Volga Federal Districts.
Recreational and tourist potential. In recent years, Russia has been among the top ten leading countries in terms of income from international tourism. Russia has great resources for educational tourism. Particularly attractive in this regard are the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, the ancient Russian cities of Russia, South part Siberia, Primorye. The most famous route is " Golden ring Russia" (Fig. 2.9), passing through ancient Russian cities that preserve unique, especially valuable monuments of Russian culture and history. The list of cities that make up the Golden Ring includes Vladimir, Suzdal, Sergiev Posad, Rostov Veliky, Yaroslavl, Kostroma. All stages of the development of ancient Russian architecture are represented in cities and villages.
To List World Heritage UNESCO included: the architectural ensemble of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, the Kremlin, Pokrovsky and Spaso-Evfimiev monasteries in Suzdal; the Church of Boris and Gleb in Kideksha, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl in the Vladimir region and the Assumption and Demetrius Cathedrals in Vladimir and many others (Fig. 2.10). The country also has great resources for the development of health

Rice. 2.9. Gold ring of Russia. Source: http://read.ru/blogs/tag/

Rice. 2.10. Architectural ensemble of the Kizhi Pogost. Karelia

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tourism (North Caucasus, Bashkiria) and sports tourism (Kola Peninsula, Karelia, Subpolar and Polar Urals, Altai, Sayan Mountains, Baikal region and Transbaikalia).
One of the important elements of the recreational potential of settlements, primarily large cities, is landscape architecture. Examples of valuable landscape architecture are the palace ensembles of the Moscow region (Arkhangelskoye, Kuskovo), the suburbs of St. Petersburg (Petrodvorets, Pavlovsk, Pushkin), and certain new residential areas.
Specially protected areas are of great importance in the natural recreational potential of Russia. natural areas(SPNA). In Russia there are more than 100 state natural reserves with a total area of ​​33,152 thousand hectares (about 1.6% of the territory), including 6,474 thousand of marine waters. Russian state system nature reserves is widely recognized in the world: 21 of them have the international status of biosphere reserves, and they have been issued corresponding UNESCO certificates, 7 are under the jurisdiction of the World Convention for the Conservation of Cultural and Natural Heritage, 10 fall under the jurisdiction of the Ramsar Convention, 4 have diplomas from the Council of Europe. Among the most famous is the "Sikhote-Alin Mountain Range", which contains an array of some of the most biologically diverse and unusual temperate forests in the world. The reserve has great importance for the survival of many endangered species - such as the Amur tiger. The “Volcanic Region of Kamchatka”, the world-famous Baikal, the “Virgin Komi Forests” (the largest tract of forests preserved in Europe that have never seen an ax and saw), and the “Ukok Quiet Zone” in Altai, which are under the auspices of UNESCO, are unique.
Marine biological resources. Fishing is one of the types of environmental management that involves the extraction of fish and other seafood - sea animals, invertebrates, and algae.
Fish and fish products are an important element of a balanced diet, a source of about 1/4 of protein foods of animal origin. It is not surprising that 72-75% of the world's catch is intended for human nutrition, the rest is processed
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processed into fishmeal, nutritional supplements, fish oil, livestock feed or pharmaceuticals.
The main types of marine fishing are shown in table. 7.
Marine fisheries products: ten main species
Table 7

Source: State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation (FAO), 2011.

The main fishing areas of the world are the north-western, south-eastern and central-western parts Pacific Ocean, as well as the northeastern part of the Atlantic Ocean (Fig. 2.11).
In terms of fish and seafood catch, Russia is in 8th place in the world (Fig. 2.12).
The volume of world fisheries production reached 74.5 million tons, and together with aquaculture - 145 million tons (without China - 92) (Fig. 2.13, 2.14).
Inland waters make a significant contribution to the total global volume of fisheries production, reaching 10.2 million tons (Table 8). Two thirds of the world's volume comes from Asia. Russia ranks 14th among other countries.
In the modern world, there is a tendency to increase fish resources through the use of advances in biotechnology for growing fish and crustaceans in coastal sea waters. An important sector of such protein-rich food production is ac-


Rice. 2.11. Main marine fishing areas.

Rice. 2.12. Marine and inland fisheries. Ten main producing countries. Ibid.

Millions of Tonys

Rice. 2.13. World fisheries and aquaculture production. Ibid.

Rice. 2.14. World fishery products. Ibid.

Fishing in inland waters(leading countries), 2008, thousand tons
Table 8.

	A country	Catch volume		A country	Catch volume
1.	China	2248	8.	Nigeria	304
2.	Bangladesh	1060	9.	Tanzania	282
3.	India	953	10.	Brazil	243
4.	Myanmar	815	11.	Egypt	238
5.	Uganda	450	12.	Thailand	231
6.	Cambodia	365	13.	DRC	230
7.	Indonesia	323	14.	Russia	217

Source: ibid.

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Vaculture, the share of which in the total volume of fisheries and fish farming products is more than 36%. Aquaculture production is growing faster than others food fish(passing and sea ​​fish). The rest comes from mollusks, crustaceans and aquatic animals. Cultivation is also developing successfully in this sector. aquatic plants, above all, seaweed. On a per capita basis, aquaculture production has increased more than 10-fold since 1970. Leaders - Norway, China, Japan, USA.
In Russia, commercial fish are divided into salmon (Salmonidae), sturgeon (Acipenseridae) and small fish. Important commercial fish are herring (Clupeidae) and cod (Gadidae). Big commercial value have fish from the carp family (Cyprinidae). Russia ranks 1st in the world in terms of reserves of crabs, pollock, and sturgeon, and 2nd in terms of herring, cod, flounder, saffron cod, and salmon. Russia's reserves are also large for other marine fisheries - perch, sprats, halibut. The leaders in catch are the Kamchatka and Primorsky territories and Sakhalin (720-475 thousand tons). The fish stocks of the Russian 200-mile economic zone, with proper management and appropriate control over fishing, allow the production of about 4.4-4.8 million tons annually.
The use of the raw material base of Russian fisheries has a number of features related to the seasonality of fishing, the mobility of aquatic biological resources, the difficulty of forecasting their reserves and determining the rational share of their withdrawal without harming reproduction. Marine biological resources are concentrated mainly in the risky fishing zone - in the harsh northern seas: Barents, Okhotsk, Bering, which causes periodic fluctuations in their numbers. The state of fish stocks is affected by “mono-fishery”, that is, a concentration on certain currency-intensive species that have increased demand in the market: crabs, sturgeon, cod, pollock eggs and others, which leads to underutilization of other fish species and damages fish stocks. "Beach"
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marine fisheries in Russia - the so-called “outliers”, when fishing industry, in pursuit of profit, choose big fish, throwing overboard all others that have a lower market value. In addition, in the 200-mile Far Eastern zone of Russia, and primarily in the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, fishermen have been fishing for a long time under special intergovernmental agreements foreign countries, including those outside the Far Eastern region. Over the years, foreign ships seize from 200 thousand to 600 thousand tons of fish and seafood. All this also causes significant damage to fish stocks.
Based on the experience of other countries (USA, China, Norway), Russia needs to expand the reproduction and cultivation of fish in the marine coastal zone, strengthen research work on the study, production, conservation and reproduction of aquatic biological resources by specialized scientific, fishing, and fish conservation organizations.
Despite these problems, Russia retains significant potential for aquatic biological resources and natural competitive advantages in the production of fish and seafood.
Mineral resources. The total value of Russia's mineral resource base in terms of proven reserves of all types of minerals is at least 28 trillion US dollars, but the estimate of their profitable part is only 1.5 trillion dollars, of which fuel and energy resources account for 71.9%.
In addition to a wide range of the most important types of mineral raw materials, the Russian mineral resource complex has developed infrastructure and powerful scientific and technical potential. This complex plays an important role in economics and politics, ensuring a sustainable supply of economic sectors with mineral resources. By the end of the 20th century, enterprises of the mineral resource complex provided more than 30% of the country’s GDP, more than 50% of foreign exchange earnings, about 50% of state budget revenues (including taxes and indirect deductions).
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niy). The cost of raw materials extracted from the subsoil annually ranges from 100 billion to 110 billion dollars. Of this, about 80% are energy resources (gas, oil, coal, uranium).
The investment capacity of the Russian Federation's subsoil, taking into account proven reserves and forecast resources for export-oriented mineral raw materials, amounts to 147-170 billion dollars, of which 100-110 billion are for oil and gas fields, 14-19 billion for precious metals, 12-17 billion - for diamonds. However, despite the significant investment attractiveness of Russia's subsoil, real investments in the exploration and development of mineral deposits remain insignificant.
The State Fund contains about 20 thousand deposits of the main types of minerals, of which one third is being developed. Russia remains the leading country in the world in terms of reserves of fuel and energy resources - oil, gas and coal. Its total hydropower potential is 2,500 billion kW/hour, ranking second in the world after China.
Huge reserves of fuel and energy resources are distributed extremely unevenly across the territory of Russia. The main energy consumers are in the European part of the Russian Federation, and more than 80% of proven fuel reserves are concentrated in the eastern regions of Russia (including 83% of oil, 84% of natural gas and more than 90% of coal), which determines the transportation distance and an increase in production costs.
Russia's place in terms of oil reserves in the world is shown in Fig. 2.15. Oil from the fields of the main production area - the Tyumen region (Table 10) - is predominantly of the light type, characterized by a low content of sulfur and paraffin. The main reserves are concentrated at depths of 1.5-3.5 km. About 55% are hard-to-recover reserves in deposits complicated by tectonic disturbances.
The main share of reserves is at the disposal of vertically integrated companies (VIOC) OJSC NK Lukoil, JSC Surgutneftegaz, OJSC Sibneft and OJSC Tyumen Oil Company.

Share (in%) and place of Russia in the world in reserves and production
certain types of fuel and mineral raw materials
Table 9

Useful fossils	Reserves, 2010		Extraction, 1991		Extraction, 2011		Provide value, years
	share, %	place	share, %	place	share,%	place
Oil	6,6	7	13,3	2	12,9	1	21
Natural gas	23,7	1	29,1	1	19,0	1	70
Coal	18	2	4,3	3	4,3	6	more than 500
Uranus	11,4	3	n/a	n/a	6,6	6	n/a
Iron ore	26,3	1-2 (shared with Brazil)	10	4	4,3	5	more than 500
Bauxite	4,2	6	4,4	6	2,8	7	more than 100
Copper	3,3	11-12	7,5	4	4,7	6	more than 25
Nickel	13,7	1	27,1	1	more than 20	1	about 30
Zinc	6,2	6	6,6		1,5	14	more than 90
Lead	8,1	3	5,2		less than 1	16	250
Tungsten	10	3	14,3	2	more than 3	3	120
Molybdenum	2,1	9	n/a	n/a	2	7	60
Titanium	n/a	2-3	n/a	n/a	23	2	n/a
Cobalt	2,51	7-8	n/a	n/a	9	4	over 30
Gold	9,4	2	6,3	5	6,7	6	35
Silver	10,5	1	n/a	n/a	1,3	5	50
Diamonds		1-2		3	more than 20	2	n/a
Platinum	13	2	n/a	n/a	more than 25	2	n/a
Apatites and phosphorites	11 and 3.1	1 7	n/a	n/a	6,8 (phosph. conc.)	4	n/a
Potassium	31,4	2	n/a	n/a	20,0	2	n/a

Sources: www.mineral.ru; Oil and Gas Journal Russia; Statistical Review of World Energy 2011; Russian Oil Output Hits Post-Soviet Record in 2010, http://www.uralgold. ru; www.mineral.ru; Reference materials on the geography of the world economy. M., 2013.



Rice. 2.15. Anamorphosis of the distribution of proven oil reserves by region of the world (2007). Source: http://altz-gamer

For the Volga-Ural oil province, which until the early 1980s. was the main region in terms of production volume, characterized by high depletion of reserves (in Bashkortostan it is almost 83%). Here, medium and heavy oils predominate (with a density above 0.87 g/cm3), usually medium and high sulfur (sulfur content more than 2%), concentrated mainly in small deposits. The main license holders are OJSC NK Lukoil, OJSC Tatneft, OJSC ANK Bashneft, OJSC NK Rosneft and OJSC Gazprom. The development of new fields is moving east: to Eastern Siberia - Vankorskoye (Krasnoyarsk Territory, launched by Rosneft since 2009), Verkhnechonskoye in the Irkutsk region, to Sakhalin (Odoptu, Chaivo, etc.). At the same time, in 2008, Lukoil put into operation the Yuzhno-Khylchuyuskoye, and in 2012, the Priobskoye field in the Nenets Autonomous Okrug in the north of European Russia.

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At least 20% of Russian oil reserves are concentrated on the shelves of the Barents, Kara, East Siberian, Chukotka and Sea of ​​Okhotsk.
Table 10
The largest oil fields in Russia, neighboring countries and the world
and oil and gas condensate production, million tons, 2010

Countries	Place of Birth	Production
Russia
	Priobskoe (KhMAO)	OK. 40
	Samotlor (KhMAD)	29,5
	Romashkinskoe (Tatarstan)	15,1
	Fedorovskoe (KhMAO)	12,5
	Krasnoleninskoe (KhMAO)	10,0
	Tevlinsko-Russkinskoe (KhMAD)	9,5
	Sugmutskoye (Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug)	OK. 9
	Vatyeganskoe (KhMAO)	8,3
	Mamontovskoe (KhMAO)	7,6
	Lyantorskoye (KhMAD)	7,5
Near Abroad
Azerbaijan	Azeri (sea)	16
Kazakhstan	Tengiz	13
Kazakhstan	Karachaganak (gas condensate)	10
Kazakhstan	Kashagan East and West	Production since 2013
Far abroad
Saudi Arabia	Gavar	250
Mexico	Cantarel	86,7
Kuwait	Greater Burgan	80
China	Daqing	43,4
Iraq	Rumaila	40
Iran	Ahwaz	35
UAE	Zakum	27,5
Algeria	Hassi-Messaoud	22
Brazil	Marlin	20
Norway	Ekofisk	15,8
USA	Prudhoe Bay	12,6
Qatar	Ash Shaheen	12
Norway	Troll-II	10,8
Indonesia	Duri	9
Canada	Hibernia	8,9

Source: materials of the Ministry of Natural Resources, 2012.



Rice. 2.16. Proven gas reserves. Anamorphosis of the Earth's proven natural gas reserves. Source: http://www.neftegazpress.ru/analisis

The development of oil fields in remote and hard-to-reach areas of the country requires the introduction of fundamentally new technologies to curb the rising costs of its production.
Explored reserves of natural gas in Russia amount to 48.5 trillion m3 - 23.7% of the world's reserves (Fig. 2.16). About 2/3 of the explored and almost half of the preliminary estimated reserves are concentrated in the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug. The European part of the country accounts for about 10%.
Less than a third of explored reserves are classified as highly efficient reserves that can be developed using domestically proven production technologies and located in the territory covered by the existing gas transportation system. About 30% of proven reserves are ethane-containing
The largest gas fields in Russia
Table 11.

Field	Balance reserves, trillion. m3	Year of development	Subsoil user
Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug
Nadym-Pur-Tazovsky district
Urengoyskoe	5,94	1978	Gazprom Dobycha Urengoy LLC
Yamburgskoe	4.29	1986	Gazprom Dobycha Yamburg LLC
Zapolyarnoe	3.49	2001	Gazprom dobycha Yamburg LLC
Kharampurskoye	0.77		LLC "Rosneft-Purneftegaz"
Yuzhno-Russkoe	0.69		"Severneftegazprom"
Severo-Urengoyskoye-1	0.33	1987	Gazprom Dobycha Urengoy LLC
Severo-Urengoyskoe-2	0.33	2001	Gazprom Dobycha Urengoy LLC
Bearish	0.58	1972	Gazprom Dobycha Nadym LLC
Komsomolskoe	0.54	1992	LLC "Rosneft-Purneftegaz"
Yamal Peninsula
Bovanenkovskoe	4.37	2007	Gazprom Dobycha Nadym LLC
Kharasaveyskoe	1.26	2012	Gazprom Dobycha Nadym LLC
Kruzenshternovskoe	0.96		Gazprom Dobycha Nadym LLC
South Tambeyskoe	1.02	2020	Yamal LNG
Severo-Tambeyskoe	0.72	2020	Yamal LNG
Kara Sea		(Priamal shelf)
Leningradskoe	0.07		Gazprom Dobycha Shelf LLC
Rusanovskoe	0.24		Gazprom Dobycha Shelf LLC
	Ba	renets sea
Shtokmanovskoe	254	Gazprom Dobycha Shelf LLC
Orenburg region
Orenburgskoe	0.86	1974	Gazprom dobycha Orenburg LLC
Astrakhan region
Astrakhan	2.62	1986	Gazprom Dobycha Astrakhan LLC
Former Evenki Autonomous Okrug
Yurubcheno-Tokhomskoe	0.13		OJSC "East Siberian Oil and Gas Company"
The Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)
Chayandinskoe	0.38		Gazprom
Irkutsk region
Kovyktinskoe	1.50	2008	Gazprom
Sakhalin shelf (Sea of ​​Okhotsk)
Lunskoye	0.45	2007	Sakhalin Energy Investment Co Ltd.

Source: www.mineral.ru

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gases, which, in addition to methane, also contain the most valuable chemical raw materials - ethane, propane, butanes and heavier hydrocarbons. These are deposits of the Caspian region, the Ural-Volga region, and deeper horizons of deposits Western Siberia, Paleozoic deposits of Eastern Siberia and the Far East. About 13% of Russia's natural gas reserves contain helium; In terms of its reserves, the country is in 2nd place in the world after the United States. The main helium reserves are concentrated in the fields of Eastern Siberia and the Far East.
Of the more than 800 natural gas fields registered in Russia, the 24 largest (with reserves of more than 500 billion m3) account for more than 73% of proven reserves; 15 of them (about 55% of reserves) are located in the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug (Table 11).
About 60% of reserves are controlled by OJSC Gazprom (1st place in the world).
The development of new fields will be carried out on the Yamal Peninsula, in Eastern Siberia and the Far East, on the shelves of the Kara, Barents and Okhotsk seas, projects for which are highly capital-intensive, and completely new technologies will be required for fields on the Arctic shelf.
Russia has colossal total coal reserves, and in category A + B + C1 (proven reserves) it is second only to the United States (157 billion tons). Of this amount, almost half (about 48%) comes from bituminous coals and anthracites, the rest from brown coals. The main reserves are concentrated in just a few of the largest basins located in the eastern regions of the country (80% in Siberia, mainly in Kuznetsk and Kansk-Achinsk). The Pechora and Donetsk basins (meaning the Russian part of Donbass) account for only 9.5% of reserves.
More than 20% of this category (A + B + C1) consists of coking coals (Fig. 2.17), more than half of which are located within Kuzbass. There are also significant reserves of coking coal in the Pechora and South Yakutsk basins. Coal seams in the Pechora basin are characterized by low thickness and lie at great depth. Less significant is the Ulughem basin in Tyva.
A third of Russian coal reserves do not meet the quality standards accepted in world practice (ash content, sulfur content, gas and explosion hazard).

About 50% of Russia's industrial reserves meet international coal quality standards (ash content no more than 15%, sulfur content less than 1%). The main coal basins in Russia are given in table. 12.
The Kansk-Achinsk brown coal basin in the Krasnoyarsk Territory contains about 23% of Russian coal reserves. The coals here lie at shallow depths. The largest developed deposits are Berezovskoye, Borodinskoye, Nazarovskoye. The main subsoil user is OJSC Krasnoyarskugol. The Pechora coal basin in the Komi Republic (2.3% of Russian reserves) is of regional importance.
Eastern Donbass in Rostov region(3.4% of Russian reserves), despite the difficult mining and geological conditions and the high cost of coal mining, is unique, since most of the reserves and 95% of anthracite production in the country are concentrated here. Mining is carried out mainly by Rostovugol Company LLC and Gukovugol OJSC.
In the Khabarovsk Territory (Bureinsky basin) and in Primorye (Razdolnensky basin) hard coal is mined open method. Since 2002, new deposits have been developed in the Irkutsk region, where the Golovinsky open-pit mine began work and the Zheronsky open-pit mine is being prepared for commissioning, and in Sakhalin region, where JSC Leonidovskoye began development of a new site at the Leonidovskoye field.
In terms of proven uranium reserves, Russia ranks third in the world (11.4%), behind Australia (27.9%) and Kazakhstan (17.3%). About 63% of uranium is concentrated in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) in the Elkon ore district (Fig. 2.18).
Russian uranium ores are poorer than foreign ones. In Russian deposits exploited underground they contain only 0.18% uranium, while Canadian underground mines produce ores with a uranium content of up to 1%, in Nigerian ores - 0.43%, Australian ores - on average 0.15%.
The reserves of the Dalmatovsky deposit in the Kurgan region are small, and the reserves of the Streltsovsky ore district in Transbaikalia are close to exhaustion. Pilot development of the Khiagdinskoye deposit in the Republic of Buryatia is underway (company OJSC Khiagda).
Russia is the largest exporter nuclear fuel(about 17% of its supplies to the world market). Russian uranium products are purchased in more than 50 countries around the world.


Rice. 2.18. Areas of occurrence of uranium ore, main deposits, volume of resources and share in the reserves of the Russian Federation (%). Source: www.mineral.ru

The development of uranium deposits abroad can help solve the problem of providing the Russian nuclear industry with natural uranium. In Kazakhstan, a joint venture of the company OJSC Atomredmetzoloto and the Kazakh company NAC Kazatomprom operates at the Zarechnoye field owned by it. Raw materials are processed in Russia. The company JSC Atomredmetzoloto is implementing similar projects in Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Namibia, South Africa, Australia, Canada, and Mongolia.
In addition to fuel and energy resources, Russia has large reserves of many metallic minerals, a variety of raw materials for the chemical industry, as well as non-metallic minerals.
In terms of the number of explored iron ore reserves, Russia ranks first in the world (more than 26% of the world), the balance reserves of the Russian Federation exceed 100 billion tons. Two-thirds of reserves and resources are concentrated within the Kursk magnetic anomaly. Powerful mineral

Rice. 2.19. Distribution of proven iron ore reserves by constituent entities of the Russian Federation, %

there is also a raw material base in the Urals, Siberia and the Far East (Fig. 2.19). The explored reserves are dominated by poor and medium-quality ores containing 16-40% iron; the share of rich ores with an iron content of 60% that do not require beneficiation is 12%. In terms of the number of explored rich ores, Russia is inferior to Australia and comparable to Brazil. About 45% of proven reserves are concentrated in seven unique large fields, which account for about 84% of production.
The main deposits of the Kursk magnetic anomaly are Mikhailovskoye ( Kursk region), Stoilenskoye, Lebedinskoye, Yakovlevskoye, Stoilo-Lebedinskoye (Belgorod region) - in terms of reserves they are classified as unique (from 2.4 billion to 8.5 billion tons). Their ores contain from 33 to 40% iron; There are also ores that do not require beneficiation. Licenses for the development of deposits were issued to OJSC Mikhailovsky GOK, OJSC Stoilensky GOK, OJSC Lebedinsky GOK.
The Gusevogorsk deposit of complex vanadium-titanium-magnetite ores in the Sverdlovsk region is unique in terms of reserves. The ores are easy to process, but the content of iron mined here as a by-product is very low - less than 16%. The operating license is held by JSC Kachkanarsky GOK-Vanadium. Kovdor apatite-magnetite deposit in the Murmansk region in the West
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he himself belongs to the large ones. Iron is mined along with zirconium and phosphorus, its average content is low - from 11 to 21%. The license for its development was issued to Kovdorsky GOK JSC. The ores of the large Kostomuksha deposit in the Republic of Karelia are low-quality (about 30% iron), but easy to process. The subsoil user is JSC Karelsky Okatysh Mining and Processing Plant.
Balance reserves manganese ores in Russia are insignificant - only about 3.1% of the world. The world leaders - Ukraine (42.4%), South Africa (19.8%), Kazakhstan (8.1%), Gabon (4.3%) and Georgia (4.2%) - account for almost 80% of reserves. The bulk of Russian reserves are concentrated in Western Siberia (Usinskoye and Durnovskoye fields in Kemerovo region) and the Komi Republic (Parnok deposit of high-quality iron-manganese ores with a manganese content of 31%). The main consumer is the Serov Ferroalloy Plant. The Tynyinskoye and Berezovskoye fields in the Sverdlovsk region have been prepared for production. The Porozhinskoye field is located in an undeveloped area of ​​the Krasnoyarsk Territory. In the future, it is possible to develop deposits in the Jewish Autonomous Okrug (South Khingan and Bidzhan deposits), as well as the Vikhrevoye deposit of iron-manganese nodules in the Gulf of Finland. About 90% of Russian reserves are represented by difficult-to-process carbonate ores with an average manganese content of 20% (rich ores of foreign countries contain 40-50% manganese or more).
Russia's balance reserves of chromium ores account for 0.5% of the world's reserves. The bulk of the reserves are concentrated in Karelia (Aganozersk) and the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug (Rai-Iz). The ores are mostly low-grade. The average content of Cr2O3 is less than 27% (in South Africa - 37%, in Zimbabwe - 43%, in Kazakhstan - 50%). Currently, the main source of chromite raw materials in the country is the Saranovskoye deposit in the Perm region. The holder of the mining license is JSC Saranovskaya Mine Rudnaya.
The country has a diverse and rich raw material base for the development of non-ferrous metallurgy. Balance copper reserves account for 3.3% of the world's reserves. They are mainly concentrated in the Norilsk ore region, the Urals and Transbaikalia (Fig. 2.20).
The average copper content in Russian deposits is relatively low - 1.06%, but the ores have a multicomponent composition.

Rice. 2.20. Distribution of proven reserves copper ores by constituent entities of the Russian Federation, %. Source: MPR www.mineral.ru

becoming and, in addition to copper, may contain nickel, cobalt, platinum group metals, gold, zinc and other valuable components, which determines the high profitability of their extraction even in the extreme conditions of the Far North. More than 40% of proven reserves are concentrated in three copper-nickel deposits on the Taimyr Peninsula - Oktyabrsky, Talnakhsky and Norilsk-I. The deposits are complex, the main components of the ores are nickel and copper, the average copper content is from 0.5 to 4.87%. Licenses for these deposits are at the disposal of OJSC MMC Norilsk Nickel.
In the Trans-Baikal Territory there is the Udokan deposit of cuprous sandstones, the explored reserves of which are very large (22.6% of Russian ones), the average copper content is 1.56%. The deposit is located in a poorly developed area. The license for its development has not yet been issued. Numerous copper-pyrite deposits with zinc have been explored in the Middle and Southern Urals. The largest of them is Gayskoye in the Orenburg region (8% of Russian reserves). The average copper content in ores is 1.3%. The license is held by OJSC Gaisky GOK. Deposits in Bashkortostan (Podolskoye), Sverdlovsk (Safyanovskoye) and Chelyabinsk regions (Uzelginskoye) also play an important role. All of these fields, except Podolsk, are being developed.
Russia is in 1st place in the world in terms of nickel reserves, and 3rd in cobalt reserves. The overwhelming majority of cobalt reserves are associated with nickel deposits, in the ores of which cobalt is an associated component. Explored reserves of nickel and cobalt are localized mainly in the Norilsk region (about 66% of the balance reserves of nickel and cobalt).

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Kel of Russia), Murmansk region and the Urals. Ores are different high quality, which ensures their cost-effective development even in Arctic conditions. The main object of development in recent years is rich ores with a nickel content of up to 3.65%, cobalt - up to 0.1%. Over 98% of the balance reserves of the Norilsk region are licensed and are at the disposal of OJSC MMC Norilsk Nickel.
More than 18% of Russian balance reserves of nickel are localized in the ores of sulfide copper-nickel deposits of the Murmansk region, in the Pechenga ore district, of which 13% are associated with the Zhdanov deposit. Licensed reserves in this area are also at the disposal of OJSC MMC Norilsk Nickel. Licensed balance reserves of nickel in the Urals belong to OJSC Yuzhuralnickel Combine and OJSC Ufaleynickel.
Balance reserves of lead are recorded in almost 100 deposits. Many of the domestic deposits are significantly inferior in quality to the ores of similar foreign objects. Thus, the average lead content in the ores of the Kholodninskoye deposit is 0.6%, while, for example, in the ores of the unique, now depleted Australian Broken Hill deposit it is 5.5%. In addition, Russian deposits are often located in difficult climatic, mining, technical and hydrogeological conditions, and some cannot be developed due to environmental reasons. The largest ones (Ozernoye and Kholodninskoye in the Republic of Buryatia and Gorevskoye in the Krasnoyarsk Territory) contain more than two-thirds of Russia’s proven reserves. The Nikolaevskoye lead-zinc deposit in the Primorsky Territory is significantly smaller, its ores are not rich, but it provides more than half of the production of lead ores. The subsoil user is JSC Dalpolimetal. The objects of the North Caucasus remain important (Dzhimidonskoye deposit in North Ossetia in the Sadonsky ore district).
In terms of proven zinc reserves (6.2% of the world's reserves), Russia ranks 6th in the world. Balance reserves are accounted for in more than 120 fields. The share of eight large deposits - Kholodninskoye and Ozernoye in the Republic of Buryatia, Korbalikhinskoye in the Altai Territory, Gaisky, Uzelginsky, Uchalinsky and Novouchalinsky in the Urals and Gorevsky in the Krasnoyarsk Territory - accounts for two thirds
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explored reserves of Russia. The quality of ores from many domestic deposits is noticeably inferior to foreign ones due to the lower content of useful components (as a rule, it does not rise above 5%, while, for example, in Australia, the zinc content in ores averages 6.4%).
The Korbalikhinskoe pyrite-polymetallic deposit in the Altai Territory (company OJSC Sibir-Polymetal) is distinguished by the highest quality of ores among the developed deposits. In the Ural region, zinc is extracted along with copper during the development of complex ores (Gayskoe copper-zinc). The license to develop the Gaisky deposit is held by the companies JSC Gaisky GOK and JSC Uchalinsky GOK. The development of a number of large deposits is complicated by unfavorable climatic, mining, technical and hydrogeological conditions, environmental problems and remoteness from metallurgical processing centers.
In Russia, unlike other countries of the world, the raw materials for the aluminum industry are not only bauxite, but also nepheline ores. The balance reserves of bauxite in Russia are quite large, but only 52% of them are suitable for profitable mining. In terms of the amount of economically recoverable reserves, Russia ranks 9th in the world. The main part of the balance reserves of bauxite (92%) is concentrated in the European part of Russia; 81% are reserves of categories A + B + Cr. In total, the State Balance Sheet of the Russian Federation takes into account more than 50 deposits. Seven main deposits (Kalinsky, Novokalinsky, Cheremukhovsky, Krasnaya Shapochka in the North Ural bauxite-bearing region of the Sverdlovsk region, Iksinsky in the Arkhangelsk region, Vezhayu-Vorykvinsky in the Komi Republic, Vislovsky in the Belgorod region) contain 70% of the explored bauxite reserves of Russia.
In terms of the volume of explored tin reserves, Russia ranks 7th in the world. More than 95% is concentrated in hard-to-reach and poorly developed areas of the Far East. In terms of quality, Russian ores are significantly inferior to raw materials from a number of foreign countries. The share of easily processed placer ores accounts for only about 12% of reserves, while in such tin-mining countries as Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand - up to 100%. The average tin content in the ores of explored primary deposits in Russia is 0.32%, foreign
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foreign countries - 0.74%. Due to low quality and poor concentration, difficult economic and geographical conditions, the share of profitable reserves is less than 25% of explored reserves. Explored reserves are concentrated in more than 200 fields. The main ones are Churpunnya, Tirekhtyakh and Deputatskoye in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), objects of the Komsomolsk ore district in the Khabarovsk Territory and the Khingan deposit in the Jewish Autonomous Okrug.
The Tirekhty placer contains more than 4% of Russia's proven tin reserves. The Churpunnya primary deposit, which is small in terms of reserves, contains rich, easily enriched cassiterite-quartz and tungsten ores with an average tin content of more than 2.5%. OJSC Deputatskolovo holds licenses for both deposits. The Kornoye Deputatskoye deposit includes significant reserves of rich but difficult-to-process ores with an average tin content of more than 1%; The deposit is in a state reserve. Licenses for the development of the Festivalnoye, Perevalnoye and Pravourmiyskoye deposits currently belong to OJSC Novosibirsk Tin Plant. The Khingan deposit of easily enriched cassiterite-quartz ores is being developed by JSC Khingan Tin. The Tigrinoye deposit (Primorsky Territory) was put on the state balance sheet. Russia's tungsten resources are almost entirely concentrated in the North Caucasus, Eastern Siberia and the Far East. In terms of proven reserves (10% of the world's), Russia ranks 3rd in the world after China (49.7%) and Canada (10.4%). The deposits are mostly complex; the ores also contain molybdenum, copper, bismuth, gold, silver, tellurium, tin, beryllium and scandium. The ores are mostly poor: the average tungsten content in them is only 0.15%, while in the ores of China - 0.33%, Canada - 0.3-1.32%, South Korea and Bolivia - 0.8-0 .9%, Australia - more than 1%. Deposits with rich ores, containing 3.5% of proven reserves, include Vostok-2 and Lermontovskoye (Primorsky Territory) and the vein Bom-Gorkhon (Trans-Baikal Territory). The Tyrnyauz skarn deposit in Kabardino-Balkaria is very large, but its ores are of low quality. The ores of the Bom-Gorkhon deposit are easy to process, but in terms of reserves it is classified as small. The Kholtoson field in Buryatia ranks second in terms of reserves in the world after the Xihuashan field in China.
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Currently the object is in reserve. Despite the large volumes of explored reserves, the tungsten mineral resource base of Russia has low quality and at current state the mining sector cannot meet the needs of Russian industry for raw materials. The problem is aggravated by the need to transport concentrates from the eastern regions to processing plants in the European part of the country and the Urals.
In terms of proven molybdenum reserves, Russia is among the top ten countries in the world (2.1% of the world). Almost 87% is contained in the ores of molybdenum deposits themselves. Most of the explored reserves are concentrated in the south of Eastern Siberia (Sorskoye in the Republic of Khakassia, developed by Sorsk Mining and Processing Plant LLC, and Zhirekenskoye in Transbaikalia, operated by Zhireken Mining and Processing Plant OJSC). Here, preparations for the development of a large complex (molybdenum, tungsten, lead, zinc, gold, silver) Bugdainskoye deposit are being carried out by the Priargunskoye Production Mining and Chemical Association OJSC. The asset also includes a large Orekitkan deposit in the Republic of Buryatia with rich ores, the explored reserves of which amount to almost 20% of Russian ones. A significant part of the reserves is in the North Caucasus (Tyrnyauz deposit in Kabardino-Balkaria, developed by OJSC Tyrnyauz Tungsten-Molybdenum Combine). Additional raw materials for the production of molybdenum can be waste dumps and tailings, huge volumes of which have been accumulated in operating mines.
Russia has large reserves of titanium dioxide, ranking 3rd in the world after China and Australia. About 58% of the reserves are concentrated in the Komi Republic (Yarega petro-titanium OJSC Yaregskaya Petro-Titanium Company), another almost 40% in the Trans-Baikal Territory (Chineiskoye and Kruchininskoye, Zabaikalinvest OJSC), Murmansk and Chelyabinsk regions (Medvedevskoye, Zlatoustskoye OJSC mine management"). There are also known deposits in Central Russia: Central ( Tambov Region) and Lukoyanovskoye (Nizhny Novgorod region, Geostar LLC), as well as Beshpagirskoye titanium-zirconium in the Stavropol Territory, Tarskoye in the Omsk region (Zircongeology OJSC), Tuganskoye in Tomsk (Tomskneftegazgeologiya OJSC). Titanium ores in Russia are significant
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but poorer than in the main countries producing titanium concentrates (Canada, Norway, Australia).
In terms of balance reserves of niobium pentoxide, Russia ranks second in the world after Brazil. More than 65% of ores are concentrated in Eastern Siberia (Beloziminskoye deposit in the Irkutsk region, Ulug-Tanzekskoye in the Republic of Tyva, Katuginskoye in the Chita region). About 30% is in the Murmansk region (Lovozerskoe deposit, CJSC Lovozersk Mining and Processing Company). The Tatarskoye apatite ore deposit in the Krasnoyarsk Territory is being developed for niobium (the subsoil user is Stalmag OJSC, a subsidiary of Severstal OJSC). The promising Tomtorskoye field in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). The main part of ferroniobium is used in the production of low-alloy structural steels used in bridge, ship and automotive industries, as well as in the production of large diameter pipes for gas and oil pipelines. The demand for niobium in Russia is very low, but it will obviously grow, since even without taking into account the construction of new pipelines, at least 1000 tons of niobium per year are required just for the production of pipes to replace old ones.
The bulk of the explored tantalum reserves are concentrated in three deposits: Ulug-Tanzeksky (37%) in the Republic of Tyva, Lovozersky (23%) in the Murmansk region and Katuginsky (14%) in Transbaikalia. Preparations are underway for the development of the Vishnyakovskoye tantalum deposit in the Irkutsk region.
Balance reserves rare earth metals concentrated mainly in poor complex apatite and rare metal ores of the Lovozersky deposit in the Murmansk region, very small - in the Trans-Baikal Territory (Katuginskoye deposit). The Tomtor deposit, unique in its content, in the north-west of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) is located in a remote, poorly developed area.
In terms of gold reserves, Russia ranks third in the world after South Africa and the United States; according to forecasts - 2nd after South Africa. The basis of the mineral resource base is made up of deposits in Siberia and the Far East, which contain up to 75% of the balance reserves of industrial categories. More than half is concentrated in large and super-large deposits (Table 13).

Main gold deposits of Russia
Table 13

		Reserves (A + B + C1), t
Sukhoi Log (Irkutsk region)	Gold-sulfide-quartz, Unallocated fund	1378,9	2,1
Natalkinskoe (Magadan region)	Gold-sulfide-quartz, JSC "Mine named after. Matrosova"	1262,8	1,7
Nezhdaninskoye (Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)	Gold-sulfide-quartz, JSC “South Verkhoyan. salary ext. company"	219,9	5
Olimpiadinskoye (Krasnoyarsk Territory)	Gold- antimonite, ZAO ZDK Polyus	215,1	4
Berezovskoe (Sverdlovsk region)	Gold-sulfide-quartz, Berezovskoe Mining Management LLC	63,1	1,9
Klyuchevskoye (Trans-Baikal Territory)	Gold-sulfide-quartz, JSC "Mine "Zapadnaya-Klyuchi"	51	2,3
Mnogovershinnoe (Khabarovsk Territory)	Gold-adularia-quartz, Mnogovershinnoye LLC	48,3	10,5
Mayskoye (Chukotka Autonomous Okrug)	Gold- antimonite, LLC "ZRK "Maiskoe"	44,4	15
Khakanjinskoe (Khabarovsk Territory)	Gold-adularia-quartz, JV OAO Okhotsk GGK	35,4	7,2
Svetlinskoye (Chelyabinsk region)	Gold-quartz-sulfide, JSC "Yuzhuralzoloto Group of Companies"	34,3	2,7

Name of the deposit and its location	Geological and industrial type and subsoil user	Reserves (A + B + C1), t	Gold content in ores, g/t
Darasunskoye (Trans-Baikal Territory)	Gold-quartz-sulfide, Darasunsky mine LLC	31,5	14,8
Vorontsovskoe (Sverdlovsk region)	Gold-sulfide, CJSC "Gold of the Northern Urals"	30,7	8,4
Berezitovoye (Amur region)	Gold-sulfide, LLC "Berezitovy Mine"	30,3	3
Baleyskoe (Transbaikal region)	Gold-adular- quartz, Unallocated fund	28,8	2,1
Karalveemskoe (Chukotka Autonomous Okrug)	Gold - sulfide - quartz, OJSC “Karalveem Mine”	28,1	32,4
Amethyst (Kamchatka Territory)	Silver-Golden, Subsidiary Joint-Stock Company “Koryakgeold-ext. "Amethyst"	26,4	15,3
El Dorado (Krasnoyarsk region)	Gold-quartz-sulfide, Sovrudnik LLC	22,9	3
Zun-Kholbinskoye (Republic of Buryatia)	Gold - sulfide - quartz, Buryatzoloto LLC	22,2	10,6
Aginskoye (Kamchatka Territory)	Gold-silver, JSC "Kamgold"	22,0	41,4
Pokrovskoye (Amur region)	Gold-adularia-quartz, OJSC "Pokrovsky mine"	18,8	4,2
Big Kuranakh River (Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)	Alluvial placer, JSC "GDK "Aldgold"	17,5	241 mg/cub.m

Forests are a source of structural materials and raw materials that have multiple purposes; source of biological resources.

World forest resources are characterized, first of all, by indicators of forest cover, forest area and standing timber stock.

The forest area indicator reflects the size of the area covered by forests, including per capita. Forest cover shows the ratio of forest area to the total territory of the country. Standing wood reserves are usually determined by multiplying the average amount of wood (in cubic meters) per 1 m2 by the area occupied by forests.

The total forest area in the world is 4 billion hectares. The largest area of ​​forests remains in Eurasia. This is about 40% of all the world's forests and almost 42% of the total timber supply, including 2/3 of the volume of timber from the most valuable species. Australia has the least forest cover. Since the continents vary in size, it is important to consider their forest cover. According to this indicator, it ranks first in the world South America. When economically assessing forest resources, such a characteristic as timber reserves is of paramount importance. On this basis, the countries of Asia, South and North America are distinguished. Leading positions in this area are occupied by countries such as Russia, Canada, Brazil and the USA. Bahrain, Qatar, Libya, etc. are characterized by a virtual absence of forests. Most of the forested area is in countries Latin America(930 million hectares), CIS (810 million hectares), Africa (720 million hectares), North America (680 million hectares) and foreign Asia (540 million hectares). Here, in some places (the Asian part of Russia, Canada, the tropical countries of South and Southeast Asia, equatorial Africa, the countries of the Amazon and Central America), forests are located in huge continuous tracts (the forest cover is very high and sometimes reaches 75-95%).

In foreign Europe, forests occupy a relatively small area (160 million hectares) and are located mainly in its northern part (France, Germany, Finland, Sweden, Norway). The most forested European countries are Finland (59%) and Sweden (54%). The forested area of ​​Australia and Oceania is also small - 160 million hectares. This region of the world also has the lowest forest cover (20%).

The forests of the world form two huge forest belts - northern and southern. The northern forest belt is located in a zone of temperate and partly subtropical climate. It accounts for half of the world's forests and almost the same share of all timber reserves. The most forested countries within this belt are Russia, the USA, Canada, Finland, and Sweden. The southern forest belt is located mainly in the tropical and equatorial climate. It also accounts for about half of the world's forests and total timber supply. They are concentrated mainly in three areas: the Amazon, the Congo Basin and Southeast Asia.

Recently, there has been a catastrophically rapid destruction of tropical forests. They are under threat of complete destruction. Over the past 200 years, the forest area has decreased by at least 2 times. Every year, forests are destroyed on an area of ​​125 thousand km 2, which is equal to the territory of countries such as Austria and Switzerland combined. The main causes of forest destruction are: expansion of agricultural land and deforestation for timber use. Forests are being cut down due to the construction of communication lines. Most intensively destroyed green cover tropics. In most developing countries, logging is carried out in connection with the use of wood for fuel, and forests are also burned for arable land. Forests in highly developed countries are shrinking and degrading from air and soil pollution. There is a massive drying out of tree tops due to their damage by acid rain. The consequences of deforestation are unfavorable for pastures and arable land. This situation could not go unnoticed. The most developed and at the same time forest-poor countries are already implementing programs to preserve and improve forest lands. Thus, in Japan and Australia, as well as in some Western European countries, the area under forests

remain stable, and depletion of the forest stand is not observed.

Forest is of great importance for life on Earth; it is a source of raw materials in various sectors of the economy (construction, woodworking, hydrolysis, pulp and paper industries, etc.). Wood is widely used both as fuel and in everyday life.

The forests of Russia, the world's leader in reserves (81.6 billion m3 or over 23% of world reserves) and area (771.1 million hectares) of forest resources, cover almost half (45%) of the country's territory. Coniferous species predominate (larch, pine, spruce, cedar, fir), which account for 82% of all wood reserves in the country, 16% are soft-leaved (aspen, birch, alder) and 2% are hard-leaved (oak and beech) breeds Forests are mainly concentrated in the eastern regions - about 80% of their reserves fall to Siberia and the Far East. The Krasnoyarsk Territory and Irkutsk Region, the Khabarovsk and Primorsky Territories, and the Amur Region are especially rich in forests. The forests in these areas are not only large in reserves, but also have a high quality composition (larch, pine, cedar, rare broad-leaved species).

In the rest of Russia, the European North (Komi Republic and Karelia, Arkhangelsk and Volgograd regions) and the Urals (Perm and Sverdlovsk regions) are distinguished by forest resources. In all the above-mentioned areas, active forest development is underway. Russia is also ahead of many countries in the world in terms of forest area per capita. This figure is equal to 3 hectares here, while in the world as a whole it is 0.8 hectares, in foreign Europe - 0.3 hectares, foreign Asia - 0.2 hectares, in Africa - 1.3 hectares, North America - 2.5 hectares, Latin America - 2.2 hectares, Australia and Oceania - 6.4 hectares. Russia also stands out in terms of the size of timber harvesting and transportation.

In Russia, as in countries Northern Europe, North and Latin America, Asia and Africa, forests suffer greatly from deforestation (currently, in the world as a whole, the volume of harvesting approximately corresponds to the annual increase in wood -3.6 billion m 3) forest fires, acid rain and other phenomena. As a result, the area of ​​forests on Earth is decreasing annually (up to 0.6% per year), which creates a real threat of their complete destruction.

These include: wood, mushrooms, berries, medicinal plants, fruits, etc. Also, part of these resources can be considered their beneficial properties, such as protection from natural disasters and soil erosion, health improvement, climate regulation, etc.

Importance and use of forest resources

Forests cover more than 26% of the land surface, which is just over 3.8 billion hectares. On total The world's forest reserves are adversely affected by deforestation, resulting in a global net loss of forests of approximately 8 million hectares per year. However, in parallel with deforestation, some regions are experiencing an increase in forest areas, due to natural processes or the planting of new plantings.

World Forest Resources Map

Ecology and problems of use of forest resources

Deforestation began thousands of years ago, and the wood was used to build ships and houses. However, over the past 20 years, more than 300 million hectares of tropical forest (more than the size of India) have been destroyed for agriculture, mining or urban development. Due to active human activity, forest resources have lost about 50% of the area, which in itself significantly disrupts the global carbon cycle.

Estimates from the World Resources Institute have shown that at current rates of tree cutting, about 40% of today's intact forests will disappear within 10-20 years. Their loss will lead to a decrease in the number of trees absorbing carbon dioxide, and, in addition, cut trees release accumulated carbon.

Causes of forest disappearance

The main reasons for the disappearance of forests are:

• agricultural activities (growing agricultural products, cattle breeding, etc.);
• logging industry;
• mining and oil production;
• the construction of large hydroelectric dams (which result in the flooding of vast forested areas);
• unwise policies that increase forest exports;
• global warming (deforestation contributes to global warming, which in turn leads to the disappearance of forests that are unable to adapt to climate change);
• forest fires (every year 6-14 million hectares of forests disappear from fires);
• illegal deforestation (accounting for almost 70% of total deforestation);
• use of forests for heat generation (mainly in undeveloped regions).

What are the consequences of deforestation?

Deforestation (and the destruction of their natural functions) causes many serious problems:

• Tree loss worsens global warming

The protection and rational use of forest natural resources involves the following steps:

Regulated and planned tree felling

One of the main causes of deforestation is commercial logging. Although trees are considered an inexhaustible and renewable natural resource, when exploited on a very large scale, their restoration may not be possible.

With this approach, only mature and useless trees are used for felling, and the area of ​​the felled area does not exceed 1/10 of the total. Then, young trees are planted in their place, which will perform all the necessary functions much better.

Forest fire control

Destruction or loss of forests due to fires is quite common. This is due to the easy flammability of trees and the difficulties in controlling and extinguishing fire. Sometimes a fire starts due to natural factors(lightning strike, friction of trees in strong winds or abnormal heat), however, in most cases this occurs due to the intentional or unintentional participation of people.

In order to save forests from fires, it is necessary to adopt the latest fire fighting techniques, which include comprehensive actions and special training for firefighters, as well as the maximum provision of modern equipment.

Reforestation and afforestation

Whenever trees are cut down, the treeless area is subject to reforestation. In this case, both natural and artificial methods can be used. Likewise, any wooded area that has been destroyed by fire or mining operations, must be restored.

In addition to all this, it is necessary to introduce promising afforestation programs. New forest areas will not only increase the total area of ​​forest resources, but will also help create an ecological balance. For afforestation, trees must be selected according to local geographical conditions.

Control of deforestation for agricultural and residential purposes

Most of today's agricultural land and land under human settlements was once forests that were cleared of trees and began to be actively used. Currently, this process has reached a stage where further deforestation will harm the entire ecosystem. To preserve forests, it is necessary to develop an alternative method that will not harm the ecological system, and at the same time, satisfy all the necessary needs of humanity.

Forest protection

Active government involvement in forest conservation

To preserve forests at the state level, it is necessary to introduce regional and national programs for the rational use and protection of forests, identify areas for reforestation, regulate the commercial use of forests, create National parks, encourage afforestation, and create short-term and long-term concepts for the efficient use of forests.