Powerful forces are conspiring against you - gravity in particular. If an object above the Earth's surface wants to fly freely, it must literally shoot upward at speeds in excess of 43,000 km per hour. This entails large financial costs.

For example, it took almost $200 million to launch the Curiosity rover to Mars. And if we talk about a mission with crew members, the amount will increase significantly.

The reusable use of flying ships will help save money. Rockets, for example, were designed to be reusable, and as we know, there have already been attempts to land successfully.

2. Flight

Flying through space is easy. It is a vacuum, after all; nothing slows you down. But when launching a rocket, difficulties arise. How more mass object, the more force is needed to move it, and rockets have enormous mass.

Chemical rocket fuel is great for the initial boost, but the precious kerosene burns out in minutes. Pulse acceleration will make it possible to reach Jupiter in 5-7 years. That's a hell of a lot of in-flight movies. We need a radical new method for developing airspeed.

Congratulations! You have successfully launched a rocket into orbit. But before you break out into space, out of nowhere a piece of an old satellite appears and crashes into your fuel tank. That's it, the rocket is gone.

It's a space debris problem, and it's very real. The US Space Surveillance Network has discovered 17,000 objects - each the size of a ball - racing around the Earth at speeds of more than 28,000 km per hour; and almost 500,000 more pieces smaller than 10 cm. Launch adapters, lens caps, even a spot of paint can crater critical systems.

Whipple shields - layers of metal and Kevlar - can protect against tiny parts, but nothing can save you from an entire satellite. There are about 4,000 of them in Earth's orbit, most of whom died in the air. Flight control helps you avoid dangerous paths, but it's not perfect.

It's not realistic to push them out of orbit - it would take an entire mission to get rid of just one dead satellite. So now all satellites will fall from orbit on their own. They would jettison extra fuel and then use rocket boosters or a solar sail to fly down toward Earth and burn up in the atmosphere.

4. Navigation

The “Open Space Network,” antennas in California, Australia, and Spain, are the only navigation tool for space. Everything that is launched into space is from satellites student projects to the New Horizons probe wandering through the Copyre Belt depends on them.

Nose big amount missions, the network becomes crowded. The switch is often busy. So in the near future, NASA is working to lighten the load. Atomic clocks on the ships themselves would cut transmission times in half, allowing distances to be calculated with a single transmission of information from space. And the increased capacity of lasers will handle larger packets of data, such as photos or video messages.

But the further the rockets move away from Earth, the less reliable this method becomes. Of course, radio waves travel at the speed of light, but transmissions into deep space still take several hours. And the stars can show you the direction, but they are too far away to show you where you are.

Deep space navigation expert Joseph Ginn wants to design an autonomous system for future missions that would collect images of targets and nearby objects and use their relative locations to triangulate spacecraft coordinates without requiring any ground control.

It will be like GPS on Earth. You install a GPS receiver on your car and the problem is solved.

5. Radiation

Outside the safe cocoon of Earth's atmosphere and magnetic field, cosmic radiation awaits you, and it's deadly. Besides cancer, it can also cause cataracts and possibly Alzheimer's disease.

When subatomic particles hit the aluminum atoms that make up the spacecraft's body, their nuclei explode, releasing more ultra-fast particles called secondary radiation.

Solution to the problem? One word: plastic. It is light and strong, and it is full of hydrogen atoms, whose small nuclei do not produce much secondary radiation. NASA is testing a plastic that could mitigate radiation in spacecraft or space suits.

Or how about this word: magnets. Scientists on the space radiation project “Superconductivity Shield” are working on magnesium diboride – a superconductor that would deflect charged particles away from the ship.

6. Food and water

Last August, astronauts on ISS ate some lettuce they grew in space for the first time. But large-scale landscaping in zero gravity is difficult. Water floats around in bubbles instead of seeping through the soil, so engineers invented ceramic pipes to direct water down to plant roots.

Some vegetables are already quite space-efficient, but scientists are working on a genetically modified dwarf plum that is less than a meter tall. Proteins, fats and carbohydrates can be replenished by eating more varied crops - like potatoes and peanuts.

But it will all be in vain if you run out of water. (The ISS's urine and water recycling system requires periodic repairs, and interplanetary crews won't be able to rely on restocking new parts.) GMOs can help here, too. Michael Flynn, an engineer at NASA Research Center, is working on a water filter made from genetically modified bacteria. He compared it to the way the small intestine processes what you drink. Basically you are a water recycling system with a useful life of 75 or 80 years.

7. Muscles and bones

Weightlessness wreaks havoc on the body: certain immune cells are unable to do their jobs and red blood cells explode. It promotes kidney stones and makes your heart lazy.

Astronauts on ISS train to combat muscle atrophy and bone loss, but they still lose bone mass in space, and those spinning cycles of zero gravity don't help other problems. Artificial gravity would fix all this.

In his laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, former astronaut Lawrence Young conducts tests on a centrifuge: subjects lie on their sides on a platform and pedal with their feet on a stationary wheel, while the entire structure gradually spins around its axis. The resulting force acts on the astronauts' legs, vaguely reminiscent of gravitational influence.

Yang's simulator is too limited, it can be used for more than an hour or two a day, for constant gravity, the entire spacecraft would have to become a centrifuge.

8. Mental health

When a person has a stroke or heart attack, doctors sometimes lower the patient's temperature, slowing their metabolism to reduce the damage from lack of oxygen. This is a trick that could work for astronauts too. Interplanetary travel for a year (at least), living in a cramped spaceship with bad food and zero private life- a recipe for cosmic madness.

This is why John Bradford says we should sleep during space travel. President of engineering firm SpaceWorks and co-author of a report for NASA on long missions, Bradford believes that cryogenically freezing crews would cut down on food, water, and prevent crew mental breakdown.

9. Landing

Hello planet! You have been in space for many months or even several years. The distant world is finally visible through your porthole. All you have to do is land. But you're careening through frictionless space at 200,000 miles per hour. Oh yeah, and then there's the planet's gravity.

The landing problem is still one of the most pressing that engineers have to solve. Remember the unsuccessful one to Mars.

10. Resources

When spaceships go on a long journey, they will take supplies with them from Earth. But you can't take everything with you. Seeds, oxygen generators, perhaps a few machines for infrastructure construction. But the settlers will have to do the rest themselves.

Luckily, space is not completely barren. “Every planet has all the chemical elements, although the concentrations differ,” says Ian Crawford, a planetary scientist at Birkbeck, University of London. The moon has a lot of aluminum. Mars has quartz and iron oxide. Nearby asteroids are a big source of carbon and platinum ores - and water, once pioneers figure out how to explode matter in space. If the fuses and drillers are too heavy to carry on the ship, they will have to extract the fossils by other methods: melting, magnets or metal-digesting microbes. And NASA is exploring a 3D printing process to print entire buildings - and there will be no need to import special equipment.

11. Research

Dogs helped humans colonize the Earth, but they wouldn't have survived on Earth. To spread into the new world, we will need a new best friend: a robot.

Colonizing a planet requires a lot of hard work, and robots can dig all day long without having to eat or breathe. Current prototypes are large and bulky and have difficulty moving on the ground. So the robots would have to be different from us; it could be a lightweight, steerable bot with backhoe-shaped claws, designed by NASA to dig up ice on Mars.

However, if the work requires dexterity and precision, then you cannot do without human fingers. Today's space suit is designed for weightlessness, not for walking on an exoplanet. NASA's Z-2 prototype has flexible joints and a helmet that gives a clear view of any fine-grained wiring needs.

12. Space is huge

The fastest thing humans have ever built is a probe called Helios 2. It is no longer operational, but if there was sound in space, you would hear it scream as it still orbits the sun at speeds greater than 157,000 miles per hour. That's nearly 100 times faster than a bullet, but even at that speed it would take approximately 19,000 years to reach our closest star, Alpha Centauri. During such a long flight, thousands of generations would change. And hardly anyone dreams of dying of old age in a spaceship.

To beat time we need energy - a lot of energy. Perhaps you could get enough helium 3 on Jupiter for fusion (after we invent fusion engines, of course). Theoretically, near-light speeds can be achieved using the energy of annihilation of matter and antimatter, but doing this on Earth is dangerous.

“You would never want to do this on Earth,” says Les Johnson, a NASA technician who works on crazy Starship ideas. “If you do it in outer space and something goes wrong, you don't destroy the continent.” Too much? What about solar energy? All you need is a sail the size of Texas.

A much more elegant solution to cracking the source code of the universe is using physics. Miguel Alcubierre's theoretical drive would compress spacetime in front of your ship and expand it behind it, so you could travel faster than the speed of light.

Humanity will need a few more Einsteins working in places like the Large Hadron Collider to untangle all the theoretical knots. It is quite possible that we will make some discovery that will change everything, but this breakthrough is unlikely to save the current situation. If you want more discoveries, you have to invest more money in them.

13. There is only one Earth

A couple of decades ago, science fiction author Kim Stanley Robinson diagrammed future utopia on Mars, built by scientists from an overpopulated, overstressed Earth. His “Mars Trilogy” made a powerful push for colonization. But, in fact, besides science, why do we strive for space?

The need to explore is embedded in our genes, this is the only argument - the pioneering spirit and the desire to find out our purpose. “A few years ago, dreams of conquering space occupied our imagination,” recalls NASA astronomer Heidi Hummel. - We spoke the language of brave space explorers, but everything changed after the New Horizons station in July 2015. The whole diversity of worlds in the solar system has opened up before us.”

What about the fate and purpose of humanity? Historians know better. The expansion of the West was a land grab, and the great explorers were mainly in it for resources or treasure. Human wanderlust is expressed only in the service of political or economic desire.

Of course, the impending destruction of the Earth may be an incentive. Exhaust the planet's resources, change the climate, and space will become the only hope for survival.

But this is a dangerous line of thinking. This creates moral hazard. People think that if we , we can start with clean slate somewhere on Mars. This is a wrong judgment.

As far as we know, Earth is the only habitable place in the known universe. And if we are going to leave this planet, then this should be our desire, and not the result of a hopeless situation.

Second half of the 20th century was marked not only by theoretical research to find ways to explore outer space, but also by the practical creation and launch of automatic vehicles into near-Earth orbits and to other planets, the first manned flight into space and long-term flights at orbital stations, and the landing of a man on the surface of the Moon. Theoretical research in the field of space technology and the design of controlled aircraft has dramatically stimulated the development of many sciences, including a new branch of knowledge - space medicine.

The main objectives of space medicine are the following:

study of the influence of space flight conditions on the human body, including the study of phenomenology and mechanisms of occurrence of shifts in physiological parameters in space flight;

development of methods for selecting and training cosmonauts;

Space medicine in its own way historical development has gone from modeling the factors of space flight in laboratory conditions and during animal flights on rockets and satellites to research related to long-term flights of orbital stations and flights of international crews.

In the formation and development of space biology and medicine in the USSR, the works of the founders of cosmonautics K. E. Tsiolkovsky, F. A. Tsander and others were important, they formulated a number of biological problems, the resolution of which was to be a necessary prerequisite for human exploration of outer space. The theoretical aspects of space biology and medicine are based on the classical principles of such founders of natural science as I. M. Sechenov, K. A. Timiryazev, I. P. Pavlov, V. V. Dokuchaev, L. A. Orbeli and others, in whose works The red thread reflects the doctrine of the interaction of the body and the external environment, fundamental issues of the body’s adaptation to changing environmental conditions have been developed.

Work carried out in the field of aviation medicine, as well as research carried out on biophysical rockets and spacecraft in the 50-60s, played a major role in the formation of a number of provisions and sections of space medicine.

The practical exploration of outer space with the help of manned flights began with the historical flight of Yu. A. Gagarin, the world's first cosmonaut, on April 12, 1961 on the Vostok spacecraft. We all remember his simple human phrase. “Let's go,” uttered during the launch of the Vostok spacecraft. This phrase succinctly and at the same time quite succinctly characterized the greatest achievement of mankind. Among other things, Yu. A. Gagarin’s flight was an examination of the maturity of both cosmonautics in general and space medicine in particular.

The medical and biological research conducted before this flight and the life support system developed on its basis provided normal living conditions in the spacecraft cabin necessary for the astronaut to complete the flight. The system of selection and training of cosmonauts created by this time, the system of biotelemetric monitoring of the condition and performance of a person in flight and the hygienic parameters of the cabin determined the possibility and safety of the flight.

However, all the previous work, all the numerous flights of animals on spacecraft could not answer some questions related to human flight. For example, before the flight of Yu. A. Gagarin, it was not known how weightlessness conditions affect purely human functions: thinking, memory, coordination of movements, perception of the surrounding world, etc. Only the flight of the first man into space showed that these functions do not undergo significant changes in weightlessness. That is why Yu. A. Gagarin is called throughout the world the discoverer of “star roads”, the man who paved the way for all subsequent manned flights.

Over the 20 years that have passed since Yu. A. Gagarin's flight, humanity has steadily and comprehensively continued to explore outer space. And in connection with this glorious anniversary, there seems to be an opportunity not only to analyze today’s achievements in space medicine, but also to make a historical excursion into the past and the decades preceding it.

Throughout its entire development, space flights can be divided into several stages. The first stage was the preparation of a human flight into outer space; it covered a significant period of time. It was accompanied by such studies as: 1) generalization of data from physiology and aviation medicine that studied the influence of unfavorable environmental factors on the body of animals and humans; 2) conducting numerous laboratory studies in which some factors of space flight were simulated and their effect on the human body was studied; 3) specially prepared experiments on animals during rocket flights into the upper atmosphere, as well as during orbital flights on artificial Earth satellites.

The main tasks at that time were aimed at studying the question of the fundamental possibility of human flight into space and solving the problem of creating systems that would ensure a person’s stay in the cabin of a spacecraft during an orbital flight. The fact is that at that time there was a definite opinion of a number of fairly authoritative scientists about the incompatibility of human life with conditions of long-term weightlessness, since this could supposedly cause significant disturbances in the function of breathing and blood circulation. In addition, they feared that a person might not be able to withstand the psychological stress of the flight.

Moreover, the duration of weightlessness, depending on the flight altitude, ranged from 4 to 10 minutes. Analysis of the results of these studies showed that during rocket flight there were only moderate changes in physiological indicators, manifested in increased heart rate and increased blood pressure when exposed to accelerations during take-off and landing of the rocket (with a tendency for these indicators to normalize or even decrease during stay in weightlessness ).

In general, exposure to rocket flight factors did not cause significant disturbances in the physiological functions of animals. Biological experiments during vertical rocket launches have shown that dogs can satisfactorily withstand fairly large overloads and short-term weightlessness.

In 1957, the USSR launched the second artificial Earth satellite with the dog Laika. This event was of fundamental importance for space medicine, since for the first time it allowed a highly organized animal to remain in conditions of weightlessness for a sufficiently long time. As a result, satisfactory tolerance of space flight conditions was established by animals. Subsequent experiments with six dogs during the flights of the second, third, fourth and fifth Soviet satellites returning to Earth made it possible to obtain a large amount of material about the reactions of the basic physiological systems of the body of highly organized animals (both in flight and on Earth, including the post-flight period) .

small preserved areas of rabbit and human skin, insects, black and white laboratory mice and rats, Guinea pigs. All studies carried out with the help of satellites provided extensive experimental material that firmly convinced scientists of the safety of human flight (from a health point of view) in space.

During the same period, the tasks of creating life support systems for astronauts were also solved - a system for supplying oxygen to the cabin, removing carbon dioxide and harmful impurities, as well as nutrition, water supply, medical supervision and disposal of human waste products. Space medicine specialists took a direct part in this work.

The second stage, which coincided with the first decade of manned flights (1961-1970), was characterized by short-term human space flights (from one orbit in 108 minutes to 18 days). It begins with the historical flight of Yu. A. Gagarin.

The results of medical and biological research carried out during this time have reliably proven not only the possibility of a person being in space flight, but also maintaining sufficient performance when performing various tasks in a spacecraft cabin with a limited volume and when working in an unsupported space outside the spacecraft . However, a number of changes were identified in the motor sphere, cardiovascular system, blood system and other systems of the human body.

It was also found that the adaptation of astronauts to the usual conditions of earthly existence after space flights lasting from 18 days proceeds with certain difficulties and is accompanied by a more pronounced tension in regulatory mechanisms than the astronaut’s adaptation to weightlessness. Thus, with a further increase in flight time, it was necessary to create systems of appropriate preventive measures, improve medical monitoring systems and develop methods for predicting the condition of crew members during the flight and after its completion.

During manned flights specified programs, along with medical research of the crews, biological experiments were also carried out. Thus, on board the ships “Vostok-3”, “Vostok-6”, “Voskhod”, “Voskhod-2”, “Soyuz” there were such biological objects as lysogenic bacteria, chlorella, tradescantia, hella cells; normal and cancerous human cells, dry plant seeds, turtles.

The third stage of manned space flights is associated with long-term flights of astronauts on board orbital stations; it coincides with the past decade (1971 -1980). A distinctive feature of manned flights at this stage, in addition to the significant duration of a person’s stay in flight, is the increase in the amount of free space in living quarters - from the spacecraft cabin to extensive living areas inside the orbital station. The latter circumstance had a dual significance for space medicine: on the one hand, it became possible to place on board the station a variety of equipment for medical and biological research and means of preventing the adverse effects of weightlessness, and on the other hand, to significantly reduce the impact on the human body from factors limiting motor activity - hypokinesia (i.e. associated with small sizes of free space).

It should be said that more comfortable living conditions, personal hygiene, etc. can be created at orbital stations. And the use of a set of preventive agents can significantly smooth out the body’s adverse reactions to weightlessness, which has a great positive effect. However, on the other hand, this, to a certain extent, smooths out the reactions of the human body to weightlessness, which makes it difficult to analyze the emerging shifts for various systems of the human body that are characteristic of conditions of weightlessness.

The first long-term orbital station (Salyut) was launched in the USSR in 1971. In subsequent years, manned flights were carried out on board the orbital stations Salyut-3, -4, -5, -6 (with the fourth main expedition of the Salyut station 6" was in space for 185 days). Numerous medical and biological studies carried out during the flight of orbital stations showed that with an increase in the duration of a person’s stay in space, there was generally no progression in the severity of the body’s reactions to flight conditions.

The complexes of preventive agents used ensured the maintenance of good health and performance of the astronauts during such flights, and also helped smooth out reactions and facilitated adaptation to terrestrial conditions in the post-flight period. It is important to note that the medical studies conducted did not reveal any changes in the astronauts’ bodies that would prevent a systematic increase in flight duration. At the same time, functional changes were discovered in some body systems, which are the subject of further consideration.

To date, 99 people from different countries have already made space flights on board 78 spacecraft and 6 long-term orbital stations2. The total travel time was about 8 person-years. In the USSR, as of January 1, 1981, 46 manned space flights were carried out, in which 49 Soviet cosmonauts and 7 cosmonauts from socialist countries. Thus, over the course of two decades of manned spaceflight, the pace and scale of human penetration into outer space has increased rapidly.

Next, we will consider the main results of research in space medicine performed during this time. During space flights, the human body can be exposed to various unfavorable factors, which can be divided into the following groups: 1) characterizing outer space as a unique physical environment (extremely low barometric pressure, lack of oxygen, ionizing radiation, etc.); 2) due to the dynamics of the aircraft (acceleration, vibration, weightlessness); 3) associated with the stay of astronauts in the pressurized cabin of a spacecraft (artificial atmosphere, dietary habits; hypokinesia, etc.); 4) psychological features of space flight (emotional tension, isolation, etc.).

life support creates the necessary conditions for life and work in the cabin space. An exception to this group of factors is cosmic radiation: during some solar flares, the level of cosmic radiation can increase so much that the walls of the cabin cannot protect the astronaut from the effects of cosmic rays.

and the fact that scientists have not yet learned how to simulate the full spectrum of cosmic radiation under Earth conditions. This naturally creates significant difficulties in studying the biological effects of cosmic radiation and in developing protective measures.

In this direction, various studies are being carried out to create electrostatic protection for a spacecraft, that is, attempts are being made to create an electromagnetic field around the spacecraft that will deflect charged particles, preventing them from entering the cabin. A large amount of work is also being carried out in the field of developing pharmacochemical means for the prevention and treatment of radiation injuries.

Most of the factors of the second group are successfully modeled under the conditions of an earthly experiment and have been studied for a long time (vibration, noise, overloads). Their effect on the human body is quite clear, and, therefore, the measures to prevent possible disorders are clear. The most important and specific factor during space flight is the weightlessness factor. It should be noted that during long-term operation it can only be studied under real flight conditions, since in this case its modeling on Earth is very approximate.

Finally, the third and fourth groups of flight factors are not so much space factors, but the conditions of space flight introduce so much of their own, inherent only to this type of activity, that the study of the resulting psychological characteristics, as well as work and rest schedules, psychological compatibility and other factors, represents an independent and very complex problem.

It is quite obvious that the multifaceted nature of the problems of space medicine does not allow us to exhaustively consider all of them, and here we will focus only on some of these problems.

Medical control and medical research in flight

In the complex of measures to ensure the safety of astronauts in flight, an important role is played by medical control, the task of which is to assess and predict the health status of crew members and issue recommendations for preventive and therapeutic measures.

The peculiarity of medical control in space flight is that the doctors’ “patients” are healthy, physically well-trained people. In this case, the task of medical control is mainly to identify functional adaptive changes that may occur in the human body under the influence of space flight factors (primarily weightlessness), to evaluate and analyze these changes, to determine indications for the use of prophylactic agents, as well as V; choosing the most optimal modes of their use.

Generalization of the results of medical research in space flights and numerous studies with modeling of flight factors under Earth conditions makes it possible to obtain data on the influence of various loads on the human body, on the permissible limits of fluctuations in physiological parameters and on the characteristics of the body’s reactions under these conditions.

It should be emphasized that such studies in space medicine, clarifying our knowledge about the normal manifestations of the vital functions of the human body and more clearly drawing the line between its normal and altered reactions, have great importance to identify initial signs of deviations not only among spacecraft crews in flight, but also in clinical practice, when analyzing the initial and latent forms of diseases and their prevention.

Data from conversations between a doctor and cosmonauts, reports from cosmonauts about their well-being and the results of self- and mutual monitoring, and analysis of radio conversations (including spectral analysis of speech) are used as sources of information. Important sources of information are objective registration data physiological parameters, environmental indicators in the spacecraft cabin (pressure, oxygen and carbon dioxide content, humidity, temperature, etc.), as well as analysis of the results of the most complex operations to control the spacecraft and scientific and technical experiments.

This information, using telemetry systems, enters the flight control center, where it is processed using computers and analyzed by doctors. Physiological parameters to be recorded and transmitted to Earth are determined in accordance with the specifics of the flight program and the specifics of the crew’s activities. When assessing the health status of astronauts, information about the state of the most vital systems of the human body (breathing and blood circulation), as well as changes in the physical performance of astronauts, is of paramount importance.

b unusual environment habitats, help to clarify the mechanisms of changes in physiological functions and adaptation of the body to conditions of weightlessness. All this is necessary for the development of preventive measures and for planning medical support for subsequent flights.

The amount of medical information transmitted via biotelemetry to Earth varied between flights. In the first flights of the Vostok and Voskhod programs, when our knowledge about the effect of space flight factors on the human body was very limited, a fairly wide range of physiological parameters were recorded, since it was necessary not only to monitor the health status of the cosmonauts, but also to study it widely physiological reactions to flight conditions. During flights under the Soyuz program, the number of physiological indicators transmitted to Earth is limited and was optimal for monitoring the health status of astronauts.

which existed before, during flights at orbital stations periodic in-depth medical examinations were carried out, carried out every 7-10 days. The latter included clinical electrocardiographic examinations (at rest and during functional tests), registration of arterial and venous pressure indicators, study of the phase structure of the cardiac cycle according to kinetocardiography, studies of stroke and minute volume of the heart, pulse blood filling various areas body (by rheography method) and a number of other examinations.

As functional tests, dosed physical load of the astronaut’s body was used on a bicycle ergometer (“space bicycle”), as well as a test with the application of negative pressure to the lower part of the body. In the latter case, using the Chibis vacuum kit, which is a corrugated “trouser”, negative pressure was created in the lower abdomen and lower extremities, which caused a rush of blood to these areas, similar to that which occurs on Earth during human stay in a vertical position.

This simulation of a vertical posture allows us to obtain additional information about the expected state of the crew in the post-flight period. This circumstance seems extremely important, since, as was established in previous flights, a long stay in weightlessness is accompanied by a decrease in so-called orthostatic stability, which is manifested by pronounced changes in the parameters of the cardiovascular system when a person is in an upright position.

At the Salyut-6 orbital station (see table), a person’s body weight was measured, the volume of the lower leg was studied, and the state of the vestibular apparatus and the function of external respiration were studied. During the flight, samples of blood and other body fluids were taken, the microflora of external integuments, human mucous membranes and station surfaces was examined, and air samples were analyzed. The research materials taken during the flight were delivered on visiting expeditions to Earth for detailed analysis.

Research methods in space flights

Spacecraft Launch years Methods of physiological measurements

“Easts” 1961-1963 Electrocardiography (1-2 leads, pnemography, seismocardiography and kinetocardiography (characterize the mechanical function of the heart), electrooculography (registration of eye movements), electroencephalography (registration of biocurrents of the cerebral cortex), galvanic skin reflex.

“Sunrises” 1964-1965 Electrocardiography, pneumography, seismocardiography, electroencephalography, registration of motor acts of writing.

single 1967-1970 Electrocardiography, pneumography, seismocardiography, body temperature.

tachooscillography (for measuring blood pressure), phlebography (for recording the pulse curve of the jugular vein and determining venous pressure, regraphy (for studying the stroke and minute volume of the heart and pulse blood supply to various areas of the body), measuring body weight, calf volume, blood sampling, studying external respiration, microbiological studies, as well as studies of water-salt metabolism, etc.

During long flights on the Salyut-Soyuz orbital complexes, medical management was given great importance. Medical control is a part (subsystem) of a more general system “crew - ship - flight control center”, and its functions are aimed at maintaining maximum organization of the entire system as a whole by maintaining good health of the crew and its necessary performance. To this end, the medical service worked closely with the crew and flight program planners. The working control body was the medical support group in the flight control center, which came into mutual contact with the crew, with the advisory and forecast group and with other groups of the flight control center.

The results of the examinations and the recommendations formed on their basis on the use of prophylactic agents, work and rest schedules and other medical measures were systematically discussed with the crew and accepted by them for implementation. All this created an atmosphere of goodwill and business cooperation between the medical support group and the crew in solving the problem of preserving the health of the crew during the flight and in preparing for their meeting with the Earth.

Prevention means

a prerequisite for the development of prophylactic agents and a rational medical control system for long-duration space flights. The currently available data allow us to formulate some working hypotheses, which can be considered as a blueprint for further research.

The main link in the pathogenesis of the action of the weightlessness factor is, apparently, a decrease in the functional load on a number of systems of the human body due to the lack of weight and the associated mechanical stress of body structures. The functional underload of the human body in a state of weightlessness manifests itself, probably, as a change in afferentation from mechanoreceptors, as well as a change in the distribution of liquid media and a decrease in the load on the astronaut’s musculoskeletal system and his tonic muscles.

There is always tension in the structures due to the force of weight. Wherein a large number of muscles, as well as ligaments, some joints, counteracting this tendency, are constantly under load, regardless of the position of the human body. Under the influence of weight, the internal organs tend to shift towards the Earth, straining the ligaments that fix them.

Numerous nerve sensors (receptors) located in muscles, ligaments, internal organs, blood vessels, etc., send impulses to the central nervous system, signaling the position of the body. The same signals come from the vestibular apparatus, located in the inner ear, where crystals of carbon dioxide salts (stolits), displacing nerve endings under the influence of their weight, signal the movement of the body.

However, during a long flight and its indispensable attribute - weightlessness - the weight of the body and its individual parts is absent. Receptors of muscles, internal organs, ligaments, and blood vessels, when in weightlessness, work as if “in a different way.” Information about the position of the body comes mainly from the visual analyzer, and the interaction of space analyzers (vision, vestibular apparatus, muscle sense, etc.) developed throughout the development of the human body is disrupted. Muscle tone and stress on the muscular system as a whole are reduced, since there is no need to resist the force of weight.

As a result, in weightlessness the total volume of impulses from the perceiving elements (receptors) going to the central nervous system decreases. This leads to a decrease in the activity of the central nervous system, which, in turn, affects the regulation of internal organs and other functions of the human body. However, the human body is an extremely plastic structure, and after some time a person remains in a state of weightlessness, the adaptation of his body to these conditions is noted, and the work of the internal organs is already taking place at a new, different (compared to the Earth) functional level of interaction between systems.

thanks to its weight, it tends to the underlying parts of the body (legs, lower abdomen). In this regard, the astronaut’s body develops a system of mechanisms that prevent such movement. In weightlessness, there is no force other than the energy of the heartbeat, which would help move blood to the lower parts of the body. As a result, there is a rush of blood to the head and chest organs.

veins and atria. This is the reason for a signal to the central nervous system to activate mechanisms that help reduce excess fluid in the blood. As a result, a number of reflex reactions occur, leading to an increase in the removal of fluid, and with it salts, from the body. Ultimately, body weight may decrease and the levels of some electrolytes, particularly potassium, may change, as well as changes in the condition of the cardiovascular system.

Redistribution of blood apparently plays a certain role in the development of vestibular disorders (space motion sickness) in the initial period of being in weightlessness. However, the leading role here still probably belongs to the disruption of the coordinated functioning of the sense organs in conditions of weightlessness, which carry out spatial orientation.

to a corresponding change in the so-called anti-gravity muscles, a decrease in their tone, and atrophy. A decrease in muscle tone and strength, in turn, contributes to a deterioration in the regulation of vertical posture and gait disturbance in an astronaut in the post-flight period. At the same time, the cause of these phenomena may also be a restructuring of the motor stereotype in the process.

The presented ideas about the mechanism of changes in certain functions of the human body under conditions of weightlessness are, naturally, quite schematic, and have not yet been confirmed experimentally in all their links. We carried out these discussions only with the aim of showing the interconnectedness of all functions of the astronaut’s body, when changes in one link cause a whole range of reactions from different systems. On the other hand, it is important to emphasize the reversibility of changes, the wide possibilities of adaptation of the human body to the action of the most unusual environmental factors.

The described changes in the functions of an astronaut's body in a state of weightlessness can be considered as a reflection of a person's adaptive reactions to new conditions of existence - to the absence of weight force. Naturally, these changes largely determine the corresponding reactions on the part of the human body, which take place when the astronaut returns to Earth and during the subsequent adaptation of his body to the conditions of the Earth, or, as doctors say, during readaptation.

Shifts in a number of functions of the cosmonaut’s body, which progressed with increasing duration of flights, revealed after short-term flights into space, raised the question of developing means to prevent the adverse effects of weightlessness. Theoretically, it could be assumed that the use of artificial gravity (AG) would be the most radical means of protection against weightlessness. However, the creation of IST gives rise to a number of physiological problems associated with being in a rotating system, as well as technical problems that must ensure the creation of IST in space flight.

In connection with this, researchers, long before the start of space flights, began searching for other ways to prevent adverse changes in the human body during space flight conditions. These studies tested numerous methods for preventing the adverse effects of weightlessness that did not involve the use of IST. These include, for example, physical methods, aimed at reducing the redistribution of blood in the astronaut’s body during or after the end of the flight, as well as stimulating the neuro-reflex mechanisms that regulate blood circulation in the vertical position of the body. For this purpose, the application of negative pressure to the lower part of the body, inflatable cuffs placed on the arms and legs, suits for creating a differential positive pressure, rotation on a small radius centrifuge, inertial shock effects, electrical stimulation of the muscles of the lower extremities, elastic and anti-overload suits, etc. .

Among other methods of such prevention, we note physical activity aimed at maintaining the body’s fitness and stimulating certain groups of receptors (physical training, weight-bearing suits, stress on the skeleton); impacts related to nutrition regulation (adding salts, proteins and vitamins to food, rationing nutrition and water consumption); targeted impact using so-called medications and an altered gas environment.

Preventive drugs against any unfavorable changes in the astronaut’s body can only be effective if they are prescribed taking into account the mechanism of these disorders. In relation to weightlessness, preventive measures should be aimed primarily at replenishing the deficiency of muscle activity, as well as at reproducing the effects that, under Earth conditions, are determined by the weight of blood and tissue fluid.

physical exercises on a treadmill and bicycle ergometer, as well as strength exercises with expanders; 2) creating a constant load on the musculoskeletal system and skeletal muscles of the astronaut (daily stay for 10-16 hours in load suits); 3) training with negative pressure applied to the lower body, carried out at the end of the flight; 4) use of water-salt supplements on the day of the end of the flight; 5) use of a post-flight anti-g suit.

Using special suits and a system of rubber shock absorbers, when performing “space exercises,” a load of 50 kg was created in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the body, as well as a static load on the main groups of anti-gravity muscles.

Physical training was also carried out on a bicycle ergometer - a device similar to a bicycle, but standing still. On it, the astronauts pedaled with their feet or hands, thereby creating a corresponding load on the corresponding muscle groups.

Load suits reproduced a constant static load on the musculoskeletal system and skeletal muscles of the astronaut, which to a certain extent compensated for the lack of earthly gravity. Structurally, the suits are made as semi-fitting overalls, including elastic elements such as rubber shock absorbers.

To create negative pressure on the lower part of the body, a vacuum kit was used in the form of trousers, which are a sealed bag on a frame in which a vacuum can be created. When the pressure decreases, conditions are created for the outflow of blood to the legs, which contributes to its distribution, which is typical for a person in a vertical position under Earth conditions.

Water-salt supplements were intended to retain water in the body and increase blood plasma volume. The post-flight prophylactic suit, worn under the spacesuit before descent, was designed to create excess pressure on the legs, which on Earth prevents the accumulation of blood in the lower extremities when the body is in a vertical position and favors the preservation of normal blood circulation when moving from a horizontal to a vertical position.

Changes in the basic functions of the human body in weightlessness

The main result of the study of outer space (from a medical point of view) was the proof of the possibility of not only a person’s long stay in space flight conditions, but also his versatile activities there. This now gives us the right to consider outer space as the environment for the future habitat of man, and the spacecraft and the flight into space itself as the most effective, direct way to study the reactions of the human body under these conditions. To date, quite a lot of information has accumulated on the reactions of various physiological systems of the astronaut’s body during different phases of the flight and in the post-flight period.

A symptom complex that is outwardly similar to motion sickness (decreased appetite, dizziness, increased salivation, nausea and sometimes vomiting, spatial illusions) is observed to varying degrees of severity in approximately every third cosmonaut and manifests itself in the first 3-6 days of the flight. It is important to note that at present it is not yet possible to reliably predict the severity of these phenomena in astronauts during flight. Some cosmonauts also showed signs of motion sickness on the first day after returning to Earth. The development of the symptom complex of motion sickness during flight is currently explained by a change in the functional state of the cosmonaut’s vestibular apparatus and a disruption in the interaction of his sensory systems, as well as hemodynamic features (blood redistribution) in conditions of weightlessness.

The symptom complex of blood redistribution to the upper body occurs in almost all astronauts during flight, occurs on the first day and then at various times, on average within a week, gradually smoothes out (but does not always completely disappear). This symptom complex is manifested by a feeling of a rush of blood and heaviness in the head, nasal congestion, smoothness of wrinkles and puffiness of the face, increased blood flow and pressure in the veins of the neck and blood flow indicators of the head. The volume of the lower leg decreases. The described phenomena are associated with the redistribution of blood due to the absence of its weight in zero gravity, which leads to a decrease in blood accumulation in the lower extremities and an increase in the flow to the upper body.

certain work operations and makes it difficult to assess the muscle effort required to perform a number of movements. However, already within the first few days of the flight these movements regain the necessary accuracy and decrease necessary efforts to fulfill them, the efficiency of motor performance increases. When returning to Earth, the weight of objects and one’s own body subjectively increases, and the regulation of vertical posture changes. A post-flight study of the motor sphere in cosmonauts reveals a decrease in the volume of the lower extremities, some loss of muscle mass and subatrophy of the anti-gravity muscles, mainly the long and broad muscles of the back.

Changes in the functions of the cardiovascular system during long-term space flights manifest themselves as a tendency to a slight decrease in some indicators of blood pressure, an increase in venous pressure in the veins of the neck and a decrease in it in the lower leg. The ejection of blood during cardiac contraction (stroke volume) initially increases, and the minute volume of blood circulation tends to exceed pre-flight values ​​throughout the flight. Indicators of blood supply to the head usually increased, their normalization occurred after 3-4 months of flight, and in the lower leg area they decreased.

The response of the cardiovascular system to functional tests involving the application of negative pressure to the lower body and physical activity underwent some changes in flight. During a test with the application of negative pressure, the astronaut’s reactions, in contrast to those on earth, were more pronounced, which indicated the development of orthostatic detraining phenomena. At the same time, the tolerability of tests with physical activity during six-month flights was assessed as good in almost all examinations, and the reactions did not differ qualitatively from the pre-flight period. This indicated that with the help of preventive measures it is possible to stabilize the body’s response to functional tests and even in some cases achieve their less pronounced intensity than in the pre-flight period.

In the post-flight period, when moving from a horizontal to a vertical position, as well as during an orthostatic test (passive vertical position on an inclined table), the severity of reactions is greater than before the flight. This is explained by the fact that under Earth conditions, blood regains its weight and rushes to the lower extremities and, due to a decrease in vascular and muscle tone in astronauts, more blood can accumulate here than usual. As a result, blood flows away from the brain.

Blood pressure may drop sharply, the brain will experience a lack of blood, and therefore oxygen.

salts after the flight. Immediately after flights, the excretion of fluid by the kidneys decreases and the excretion of calcium and magnesium ions, as well as potassium ions, increases. A negative potassium balance coupled with increased nitrogen excretion likely indicates a decrease in cell mass and a decrease in the cells' ability to fully assimilate potassium. Studies of some kidney functions using stress tests revealed a mismatch in the ionoregulation system in the form of multidirectional changes in the excretion of fluid and some ions. When analyzing the data obtained, one gets the impression that shifts in the water-salt balance are due to changes in regulatory systems and hormonal status under the influence of the flight factor.

A decrease in bone mineral saturation (loss of calcium and phosphorus in the bones) was noted in a number of flights. Thus, after 175- and 185-day flights, these losses amounted to 3.2-8.3%, which is significantly less than after long-term bed rest. Such a relatively small decrease in mineral components in bone tissue is a very significant circumstance, since a number of scientists considered demineralization of bone tissue as one of the factors that could be an obstacle to increasing the duration of space flights.

Biochemical studies have shown that under the influence of long-term space flights, a restructuring of metabolic processes occurs, due to the adaptation of the astronaut’s body to conditions of weightlessness. No pronounced changes in metabolism are observed.

and is restored approximately 1-1.5 months after the flight. Studies of the content of erythrocytes in the blood during and after flights are of great interest, since, as is known, the average lifespan of erythrocytes is 120 days.

blood plasma volume. As a result, compensatory mechanisms are activated, striving to maintain the basic constants of circulating blood, which leads (due to a decrease in blood plasma volume) to an adequate decrease in erythrocyte mass. A rapid restoration of the red blood cell mass after returning to Earth is impossible, since the formation of red blood cells occurs slowly, while the liquid part of the blood (plasma) is restored! much faster. This rapid restoration of circulating blood volume leads to an apparent further decrease in the red blood cell count, which is restored 6-7 weeks after the end of the flight.

Thus, the results of hematological studies obtained during and after long-term space flights allow us to optimistically assess the possibility of adapting the astronaut’s blood system to flight conditions and its restoration in the post-flight period. This circumstance is extremely important, since in the specialized literature possible hematological changes expected in long-term space flights are considered as one of the problems that can prevent a further increase in the duration of flights.

after the flight. It must still be said that we still do not know everything about the reactions of astronauts during a long flight, and we cannot combat all adverse events. There is still a lot of work to be done in this regard.

Space biology and medicine, like astronautics in general, could only appear when the scientific and economic potential of the country reached the world's peaks.

One of the leading experts in space biology and medicine is Academician Oleg Georgievich Gazenko. In 1956, he was included in a group of scientists tasked with providing medical support for future space flights. Since 1969, Oleg Georgievich has headed the Institute of Medical and Biological Problems of the USSR Ministry of Health.

O. Gazenko talks about the development of space biology and space medicine, about the problems that its specialists solve.

Space medicine

Sometimes they ask: where did space biology and space medicine begin? And in response you can sometimes hear and read that it began with fears, with questions like: will a person be able to breathe, eat, sleep, etc. in zero gravity?

Of course, these questions arose. But still, things were different than, say, in the era of the great geographical discoveries, when sailors and travelers set off on their journey without the slightest idea of ​​what awaited them. We basically knew what awaited man in space, and this knowledge was quite well founded.

Space biology and space medicine did not start out of nowhere. They grew out of general biology and absorbed the experience of ecology, climatology and other disciplines, including technical ones. The theoretical analysis that preceded Yuri Gagarin's flight was based on data from aviation, marine, and underwater medicine. There were also experimental data.

Back in 1934, first here and a little later in the USA, attempts were made to study the influence of the upper layers of the atmosphere on living organisms, in particular, on the mechanism of heredity of fruit flies. The first flights of animals - mice, rabbits, dogs - on geophysical rockets date back to 1949. In these experiments, the influence on a living organism was studied not only of the conditions of the upper atmosphere, but also of the rocket flight itself.

Birth of science

It is always difficult to determine the date of birth of any science: yesterday, they say, it did not yet exist, but today it appeared. But at the same time, in the history of any branch of knowledge there is an event that marks its formation.

And just as, say, the work of Galileo can be considered the beginning of experimental physics, so the orbital flights of animals marked the birth of space biology - everyone probably remembers the dog Laika, sent into space on the second Soviet artificial Earth satellite in 1957.

Then another series of biological tests was organized on satellite ships, which made it possible to study the reaction of animals to space flight conditions, observe them after the flight, and study long-term genetic consequences.

So, by the spring of 1961, we knew that a person would be able to make a space flight - a preliminary analysis showed that everything should be fine. And, nevertheless, since we were talking about a person, everyone wanted to have certain guarantees in case of unforeseen circumstances.

Therefore, the first flights were prepared with safety nets and even, if you like, with reinsurance. And here it is simply impossible not to remember Sergei Pavlovich Korolev. One can imagine how much work and worry the Chief Designer had as he prepared the first manned flight into space.

And, nevertheless, he delved into all the details of the medical and biological flight service, taking care of its maximum reliability. Thus, Yuri Alekseevich Gagarin, whose flight was supposed to last an hour and a half and who could generally do without food and water, was given food and other necessary supplies for several days. And they did the right thing.

The reason here is that we simply did not have enough information then. They knew, for example, that in zero gravity disorders of the vestibular apparatus could occur, but it was unclear whether they would be as we imagine them.

Another example is cosmic radiation. They knew that it existed, but how dangerous it was was difficult to determine at first. In that initial period, the study of outer space itself and its exploration by man proceeded in parallel: not all the properties of space had yet been studied, but flights had already begun.

Therefore, the radiation protection on ships was more powerful than real conditions required. Here I would like to emphasize that scientific work in space biology from the very beginning was placed on a solid, academic basis; the approach to the development of these seemingly applied problems was very fundamental.

Development of space biology

Academician V.A. Engelhardt, being at that time the academician-secretary of the Department of General Biology of the USSR Academy of Sciences, devoted a lot of effort and attention to giving space biology and space medicine a good start.

Academician N. M. Sissakyan helped a lot in expanding research and creating new teams and laboratories: on his initiative, already in the early 60s, 14 laboratories of various academic institutes were working in the field of space biology and space medicine, and strong scientific personnel were concentrated in them.

Academician V. N. Chernigovsky made a great contribution to the development of space biology and space medicine. As vice-president of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, he involved many scientists from his academy in the development of these problems.

The immediate leaders of the first experiments in space biology were Academician V.V. Parin, who specifically studied the problems of space physiology, and Professor V.I. Yazdovsky. It is necessary to remember the first director of the Institute of Medical and Biological Problems, Professor A.V. Lebedinsky.

From the very beginning, the work was led by prominent scientists, and this ensured a good organization of research and, as a consequence, the depth and accuracy of theoretical foresight, which was perfectly confirmed by the practice of space flights.

Three of them deserve special mention.

— This is a biological experiment on the second artificial satellite, which showed that a living creature in a spacecraft can be in outer space without harm to itself.

— This is the flight of Yuri Gagarin, which showed that space does not have a negative impact on the emotional and mental sphere of a person (and there were such concerns), that a person, like on Earth, can think and work in space flight.

“And, finally, this is Alexei Leonov’s spacewalk: a man in a special spacesuit was and worked outside the ship and - the main thing that interested scientists - was confidently oriented in space.

The landing of American astronauts on the surface of the Moon should also be included in this category. The Apollo program also confirmed some of the concepts theoretically developed on Earth.

For example, the nature of human movements on the Moon, where the force of gravity is much less than on Earth, was confirmed. Practice has also confirmed the theoretical conclusion that rapid flight through the radiation belts surrounding the Earth is not dangerous for humans.

By “practice” I don’t just mean flying people. They were preceded by flights of our automatic stations such as “Luna” and “Zond” and the American “Surveyers”, which thoroughly reconnoitered the situation both on the route and on the Moon itself.

By the way, living beings flew around the Moon on the Probes and returned safely to Earth. So the flight of people to our night star was prepared very fundamentally.

As can be seen from the examples given, the most characteristic feature of the first period of space biology was the search for answers to fundamental questions. Today, when these answers, and quite detailed ones at that, have mostly been received, the search has gone deeper.

Cost of space flight

The modern stage is characterized by a more thorough and subtle study of the deep, fundamental biological, biophysical, biochemical processes occurring in a living organism under space flight conditions. And not just studying, but also trying to manage these processes.

How can we explain this?

A person's flight into space on a rocket is not indifferent to the state of the body. Of course, its adaptive capabilities are unusually great and flexible, but not unlimited.

Moreover, you always have to pay something for any device. Let's say your health will stabilize during the flight, but your work efficiency will decrease.

You will adapt to “extraordinary lightness” in weightlessness, but you will lose muscle strength and bone strength... These examples are on the surface. But, obviously, deep life processes also obey this law (and there is evidence of this). Their adaptation is not so noticeable; in short-term flights it may not appear at all, but flights are becoming longer and longer.

What is the fee for such a device? Can I agree with it or is it undesirable? It is known, for example, that the number of erythrocytes - red blood cells that carry oxygen - decreases in the blood of astronauts during a flight. The decrease is insignificant, not dangerous, but this is a short flight. How will this process go on a long flight?

All this needs to be known in order to build a preventive protective system and thereby expand a person’s ability to live and work in space. And not only for astronauts - specially selected and trained people, but also for scientists, engineers, workers, and perhaps artists.

The very concept of “space medicine and biology” is being deepened. According to the plan, this is an applied science that, based on general biology data, develops its own recommendations, methods and techniques for human behavior in space. At first it was like that. But now it has become clear that space biology and space medicine are not a derivative of general biology, but all biology as a whole, only studying organisms in special conditions of existence.

Mutual interests of science

After all, everything that a person does on Earth, he begins to do in space: he eats, sleeps, works, rests, on very distant flights people will be born and die - in a word, a person begins to live in space in the full biological sense. And therefore, now we will probably not find a single section of biological and medical knowledge that would be indifferent to us.

As a result, the scale of research has increased: if literally a dozen scientists took part in the first steps of space biology and space medicine, now hundreds of institutions and thousands of specialists of the most varied and sometimes unexpected, at first glance, profiles have entered its orbit.

Here is an example: the Institute of Organ and Tissue Transplantation, which is headed by the famous surgeon Professor V.I. Shumakov. It would seem, what could be in common between the study of a healthy organism under the special conditions of space flight and such an extreme measure of saving hopeless patients as organ transplantation? But there is something in common.

The area of ​​mutual interests relates to the problems of immunity - the body’s natural defense against the effects of bacteria, microbes and other foreign bodies. It has been established that during space flight the body’s immunological defense weakens. There are a number of reasons for this, one of them is as follows.

In ordinary life, we encounter microbes everywhere and always. In the confined space of a spaceship, the atmosphere is almost sterile, and the microflora is much poorer. The immune system becomes practically “unemployed” and “loses its shape,” just as an athlete loses it if he does not train for a long time.

But even during organ transplantation, so that the body does not reject them, it is necessary to artificially reduce the level of immunity. This is where our general questions arise: how does the body behave under these conditions, how to protect it from infectious diseases?..

There is another area of ​​mutual interests. We believe that over time, people will fly and live in space for a very long time. This means they can get sick. Therefore, there is a need, firstly, to imagine what kind of diseases these could be, and secondly, to provide people in flight with diagnostic equipment and, of course, treatment.

This could be medicine, but it could also be an artificial kidney - we cannot exclude the possibility that such funds will be needed on long-distance expeditions. So we are thinking, together with specialists from the Institute of Organ and Tissue Transplantation, about how to supply participants of future space expeditions with “spare parts” and what the “repair technology” should be.

However, an operation in space is, of course, an extreme case. The main role will be played by prevention and prevention of diseases. And here nutrition can play an important role as a means of managing metabolism and its changes if they arise, as well as a means of reducing neuro-emotional stress.

A diet prepared in a certain way with the inclusion of appropriate drugs in food will do its job unnoticed by the person; the procedure will not have the nature of taking a medicine. We have been conducting relevant research for a number of years with the Institute of Nutrition of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences under the leadership of Academician of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences A. A. Pokrovsky.

Another example: the Central Institute of Traumatology and Orthopedics named after N. N. Priorov (CITO), which is headed by Academician of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences M. V. Volkov. The institute's area of ​​interest is the human skeletal system. Moreover, not only methods of treating fractures and bruises, methods of prosthetics, but also all kinds of changes in bone tissue are being studied.

The latter also interests us, because certain changes in bone tissue also occur in space. The methods of influencing these processes, used both in space and in the clinic, are basically very similar.

Hypokinesia, which is common in our time - low mobility - is even more pronounced in space. The condition of a person who gets out of bed after a two-month illness is comparable to the condition of an astronaut returning from a flight: both need to learn to walk on the ground again.

The fact is that in zero gravity, part of the blood moves from the lower part of the body to the upper part, flowing to the head. In addition, the muscles, not receiving the usual load, weaken. About the same thing happens when you lie in bed for a long time. When a person returns to Earth (or gets up after a long illness), the opposite process occurs - blood quickly flows from top to bottom, which is accompanied by dizziness and can even cause fainting.

To avoid such phenomena, during flight, astronauts load their muscles on a special simulator and use a so-called vacuum system, which helps move part of the blood to the lower half of the body. Having returned from the flight, they wear post-flight prophylactic suits for some time, which, on the contrary, prevent the rapid outflow of blood from the upper half of the body.

Now similar products are used in medical institutions. At CITO, space-type simulators allow patients to “walk” without getting out of bed. And the post-flight suits were successfully tested at the A.V. Vishnevsky Institute of Surgery - with their help, patients literally get back on their feet faster.

The redistribution of blood in the body is not just a mechanical process, it also affects physiological functions and is therefore of considerable interest both for space biology and medicine, and for clinical cardiology. Moreover, the issues of regulation of blood circulation when changing the spatial position of the body have not yet been sufficiently studied in healthy people.

And in joint research with the A.L. Myasnikov Institute of Cardiology and the Institute of Organ and Tissue Transplantation, we obtained the first interesting data on, for example, how pressure changes in various vessels and cavities of the heart when the position of the body in space changes. About how and at what pace the biochemical composition of the blood flowing from the brain, or from the liver, or from the muscles changes during physical activity, that is, separately from each organ.

This makes it possible to more deeply judge his work and condition. The research in question unusually enriches our knowledge of human physiology and biochemistry; this is an example of a fundamental study of the biological essence of man. And this is not the only example.

I have already mentioned that in space a person’s number of red blood cells decreases and that it is important to understand the reasons for this phenomenon. Special studies, in particular on the Cosmos-782 satellite, have shown that in space the stability (resistance) of these cells decreases, and therefore they are destroyed more often than in normal earthly conditions, their average life expectancy is reduced.

Now, naturally, we will have to figure out how to maintain the stability of red blood cells. This is important for space, but may also be useful for combating anemia and other blood diseases.

The fact that space biology is involved in fundamental research of the human body clearly characterizes the current stage of its development, Basic Research lay the foundations for further development of practical activities. In our case, the foundations are laid for the further advancement of man into space.

Who will fly into space

Already, the needs of space exploration are forcing scientists to think about expanding the number of specialists flying into space.

In the coming years, we can expect the appearance in orbit of scientists - space explorers, engineers - organizers of extraterrestrial production of various materials that cannot be obtained on Earth, workers for assembling space objects and servicing production facilities, etc.

For these specialists, it will apparently be necessary to expand the currently rather narrow “gate” of medical selection, that is, reduce the formal requirements for health status and reduce the amount of preparatory training.

At the same time, of course, complete safety and, I would say, harmlessness of the flight for these people must be guaranteed.

In an orbital flight, this is relatively simple to do: not only can constant monitoring of the crew’s condition be established, but, in extreme cases, it is always possible to return a person to Earth in a few hours. Interplanetary flights are another matter; they will be much more autonomous.

An expedition to, say, Mars will take 2.5-3 years. This means that the approach to organizing such expeditions should be different than during flights in orbit. Here, obviously, one cannot reduce the health requirements when selecting candidates.

Moreover, it seems to me that candidates should have not only excellent health, but also some specific properties - say, the ability to easily adapt to changing environmental conditions or a certain nature of reaction to extreme influences.

The body's ability to adapt to changes in biological rhythms is very important. The fact is that the rhythms characteristic of us are of purely earthly origin. For example, the most important of them - diurnal - is directly related to the change of day and night. But the earthly day exists only on Earth; on other planets, the day is naturally different, and you will have to adapt to them.

What to do during the flight

Issues related to the moral climate that will be established on board are becoming very important. And the point here is not only in the personal qualities of people, but also in the organization of their work, everyday life - life in general, taking into account the needs, including aesthetic ones, of each crew member. This range of issues is perhaps the most complex.

For example, the problem of free time. It is believed that during the flight to Mars, the workload for each crew member will be no more than 4 hours a day. Let's set aside 8 hours for sleep, 12 will remain. What to do with them? IN limited space spacecraft, with a constant crew composition, this is not so easy to do. Books? Music? Movies? Yes, but not any. Music, even favorite music, can cause excessive emotional arousal and increase the feeling of separation from home.

Books and films of a dramatic or tragic nature are also capable of causing negative reactions, but the genre of adventure, fantasy, books by travelers, polar explorers, speleologists, in which there is material for comparison and empathy, will undoubtedly be received well. You can solve crosswords and puzzles, but playing chess or checkers is hardly recommended, because in such games there is an element of competition that is undesirable in such a situation.

All these considerations arose from research already underway. They, in my opinion, greatly stimulate a close study of human psychology, and I think that over time, when the named problems are sufficiently developed, they will bring great benefit to earthly practice - in organizing people’s work and leisure.

Life support for expeditions

A special place in the development of interplanetary flights is occupied by the life support of expeditions. Now astronauts simply take everything they need during a flight from the Earth (the atmosphere is only partially regenerated; in some flights, experimental water regeneration was carried out).

But you can’t take three years’ worth of supplies with you. On the interplanetary ship it is necessary to create a closed ecological system, similar to the earthly one, but in miniature, which will supply the crew with food, water, fresh air and dispose of waste.

The task is incredibly difficult! Essentially, we are talking about competition with nature: what nature has been creating for many millions of years on the entire planet, people are trying to reproduce in the laboratory, and then transfer it to a spaceship.

Such work has been carried out for many years at our institute, at the Krasnoyarsk Institute of Physics named after L.V. Kirensky. Some things have already been done, but we still cannot talk about great successes here. Many experts generally believe that real practical success may be achieved only in 15-20 years. Perhaps, of course, earlier, but not by much.

Genetics

Finally, the problems of genetics and reproduction. Our institute, together with Moscow State University and the Institute of Developmental Biology of the USSR Academy of Sciences, is conducting research to determine the effect of weightlessness on embryogenesis and morphogenesis.

Experiments, in particular on the Cosmos-782 satellite, showed that weightlessness does not prevent insects (drosophila) from producing normal offspring, and in more complex organisms - fish, frogs - in a number of cases, violations and deviations from the norm were found. This suggests that for normal development in the very first stages of the embryo’s life, they need the force of gravity, and, therefore, this force should be created artificially.

Problems of long-term space flights

So, the problem of long-term space flights is the most significant in our work today. And here the question is legitimate: how long can a person’s stay in space be? It’s impossible to answer for sure right now. A number of processes occur in the body during a flight that cannot yet be controlled. They have not been fully studied; after all, a person has not yet flown for more than three months, and we do not know how these processes will go during longer flight periods.

An objective, experimental verification is necessary, and the question of the possibility of, say, a three-year stay of a person in space must be resolved in low-Earth orbit. Only then will we have a guarantee that such an expedition will go safely.

But I think that a person will not encounter insurmountable obstacles on this path. This conclusion can be drawn on the basis of current knowledge. After all, the space age of humanity has just begun, and, figuratively speaking, we are now just getting ready for the long journey that lies ahead of humanity in space.