General properties of sensations in psychology. Concept and classification of sensations. Basic properties and characteristics of sensations
For a long period in philosophy and psychology, sensation was interpreted as an elementary particle of a person’s conscious life, therefore, starting from the first works of sensualist philosophers, sensation was subjected to careful and critical analysis. Among the main properties of sensations, quality, intensity, spatial and temporal extent, clarity and distinctness are traditionally distinguished.
Quality (.modality) - the form of reflection of a stimulus in a specific sensory system (visual, auditory, tactile, etc.).
Intensity - a quantitative characteristic of sensation, determined by the strength of the current stimulus and the functional state of the receptor. The intensity of sensation is limited by the sensory threshold (see Chapter 3 “Experimental study of sensations. Problems of psychophysics”). There are several types of sensory threshold, among which at the moment it is worth mentioning absolute and differential. The absolute threshold is the critical value of a stimulus, above which the action of this stimulus begins to cause a conscious sensation. The absolute threshold is inversely proportional sensory sensitivity - the body’s ability to perceive the action of stimuli: the higher the absolute threshold, the lower the subject’s sensitivity. Therefore, when characterizing the absolute threshold, they often talk about either absolute sensitivity, or about absolute sensitivity threshold. Differential threshold is defined as the minimum difference in stimuli below which both stimuli appear equal.
Spatial extent - sensation of the distribution of stimulus energy in space. Thanks to this property, we can determine the localization of a sensation in space (for example, to the right or left of us), as well as realize the area of influence of the stimulus (as in the case of tactile sensations). There is the concept of a spatial discrimination threshold (mainly in the tactile modality), which is understood as the minimum distance between two simultaneously presented stimuli at which two separate tactile sensations occur.
Temporal length - a sense of the distribution of stimulus energy over time. The temporal extent of the sensation is reflected in the subjective experience of the duration of the stimulus. The temporal characteristics of sensation are also reflected in the phenomenon of sensory adaptation. Sensory adaptation is a change over time in sensory sensitivity, which can decrease if a strong stimulus is applied and increase if a weak stimulus is applied. It is also worth mentioning the time threshold for discrimination. For example, for visual sensations the temporal discrimination threshold is approximately 50 ms, and for auditory sensations it is 180 ms. This means that in order for two sound sensations not to merge into one, the time interval between them must exceed 180 ms. Skin sensations have different time thresholds for discrimination depending on the type of sensation. It takes much less time to distinguish between the sensations of touch and pressure (i.e., tactile sensations) than to distinguish between sensations based on the quality of heat and cold, as well as the occurrence of pain. This is demonstrated by such an example from life when, through negligence, you take the handle of a hot kettle, but quickly manage to put it back in place before pain occurs. During this time, you can feel the touch of the handle, its texture, etc.
Clarity of sensation - level of awareness of sensation. Using Wundt's metaphor of consciousness, we can say that if a sensation is in the center of consciousness, it will be clearer than another sensation that is on the periphery of consciousness.
Distinctness of sensation- this is the delimitation of one sensation from another.
Depending on the properties of sensations, their different types can be described, i.e. give a classification of sensations. Thus, sensations can vary in intensity - be more intense or less, in clarity and distinctness, etc. However, in psychology, three criteria are most often used to classify sensations - structure, function and genesis; Moreover, many classifications use several criteria at once.
The structural criterion is associated primarily with the structural features of the organ involved in the occurrence of sensation, or the property of an object, which is reflected through sensation. Among the classifications of sensations that use such a criterion, we can name the most common classification by modality.
The classification of sensations by modality is the oldest in psychology and dates back to the works of ancient philosophers. For example,
Aristotle in his essay “On the Soul” wrote that “... there are no other [external] senses except the five (I mean sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch).” Over time, the list of main sense organs was revised and supplemented with other types. The classification criterion itself - modality - was identified by Hermann von Helmholtz. In modern psychology, the modality of sensations, as mentioned above, is understood as the belonging of a sensation to a certain sensory system. Based on this, the following types of sensations can be distinguished: visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, visceral, vestibular and cutaneous (Fig. 1.2). Visual, gustatory, olfactory and auditory sensations are the most “obvious”: they arise as a result of the impact of a stimulus on the visual, gustatory, olfactory and auditory sensory systems, respectively. Vestibular sensations(sensations of balance and orientation) carry information about the position and movement of the head and body in space; the basis for isolating this type of sensation is the vestibular apparatus. Sometimes vestibular sensations are classified as a group of kinesthetic sensations, which are multimodal sensations in nature. Visceral(from lat. viscera- entrails) Feel(otherwise - organic) - these are sensations arising as a result of shifts occurring in internal environment organism, they are the sensory basis for reflecting primary (organic, biological) needs. Typically, visceral sensations include feelings of hunger, thirst and satiety, as well as pain and sexual sensation.
Rice. 1.2.
Within each individual modality further division can be made according to the type of sensory impression. Within the visual modality one can distinguish sensations of lightness (achromatic sensations) and sensations of color (chromatic sensations), within the auditory modality there are sensations of different pitch and timbre, etc. The most “branched” classification is the classification of skin sensations. Dermal (comesthetic) Feel - this is a designation for a large group of sensations that arise from direct contact with an object in the external world. Skin sensations usually include temperature, pain and tactile, which in turn are divided into touch sensations, pressure, vibrations, texture And length(reflection of the area of the mechanical stimulus). From this list it follows that the classification of sensations by modality is rather arbitrary. Firstly, all sensations that are usually classified as cutaneous have a common property - their receptors are not grouped and do not form sensory organs (such as the eye or ear), but are scattered throughout the body. Secondly, the problem of classifying sensations by modality is that there are multimodal sensations, i.e. including several modalities at once, as, for example, in the case of pain sensitivity, which belongs to the group of skin and organic sensations.
In different sources you can find a different list of sensations that differ in modality. For example, the types of sensations listed above often include touch. However, in our opinion, this is not entirely legal. Based on the definition of sensation as a reflection individual properties object, touch can rather be attributed to the area of perception, since by providing information about subject, it is based on signals from many sensations of different modalities (albeit predominantly cutaneous and kinesthetic). It is not for nothing that in scientific literature the term “touch” is synonymous with haptic perception (from Greek. hapto - I touch).
Kinesthetic sensations (from Greek. kinesis- movement and aisthetos- sensually perceived) is a synonym for motor sensations. The main qualitative types of kinesthetic sensations are sensations provisions, efforts And movements. Kinesthetic sensations arise from several sources of sensory information: receptors of the skin, muscles, tendons, vestibular apparatus and visual system. Therefore, kinesthetic sensations are also more likely to belong to the group of multimodal sensations than to the group of independent sensations based on the functioning of any one sensory system. There is also some confusion regarding vibration sensations. Vibratory sensations are sensations of vibration; Discussions continue in science about which group of sensations they can be attributed to. According to one theory, vibration sensitivity is part of kinesthetic sensitivity, another theory states that vibration sensation is a transitional form from tactile sensitivity to auditory sensitivity. The most common theory relates vibration sensitivity to tactile. In the literature you can find information that specific receptors, and therefore the sensory system, vibration sensitivity have not been found, however, it has been proven that nerve receptors located in the subcutaneous fatty tissue, as well as in the tissues of joints, muscles and tendons and called corpuscles
Pacini, respond to changes in tactile stimulation, i.e. give a response to sinusoidal stimuli. This suggested that it is the Pacinian corpuscles that are nerve vibration sensors, which relates vibration sensitivity to the field of tactile sensations.
Another structural classification is that of Wilhelm Wundt. Wundt's classification, in fact, is a generalization of the classification by modality, but the scientist proposes to divide all sensations into two groups depending on what happens to the energy of external influence in the nervous apparatus, as a result of whose functioning these sensations arose. According to this criterion, sensations are mechanical and chemical. Chemical sensations arise as a result of the transformation by the nervous apparatus of the sensory organ of external influence, and it is this transformed influence that becomes irritation, as a result of which sensations appear. Wundt included such sensations as gustatory, olfactory and visual sensations. In the sense organs involved in the occurrence of these sensations, the transformation of external influences is of a chemical nature (hence the name - chemical sensations): in the field of vision, light rays cause chemical processes in cells, and these chemical processes play the role of irritations, and in the field of smell and taste - the external chemical substances themselves are transformed in the nervous apparatus of the sense organs. Mechanical sensations arise as a result of the work of the nervous apparatus of a completely different kind. Wundt included pressure and sound sensations as such sensations. The structure of the perceptive apparatus is adapted to transferring physical irritations to deeper nerve fibers and is completely unadapted to transform irritation.
Currently according to physiological characteristics receptors are divided into primary-sensing (or primary) and secondary-sensing (or secondary). In primary receptors, the substrate that perceives external influences is embedded in the sensory neuron itself, which is directly (primarily) excited by the stimulus. In secondary receptors, between the active stimulus and the sensory neuron there are additional, specialized (receptive) cells in which the energy of external stimuli is converted (transformed) into nerve impulses.
Functional classifications of sensations, as the name implies, are based on the role or function that various sensations perform in the process of providing information about the properties of the external world. The synthesis of structural and functional classifications is the classification of receptors underlying the emergence of various sensations, proposed by the English physiologist, Nobel laureate
prize in 1932 in physiology by Charles Sherrington. Based on the receptors identified by Sherrington - interoceptors, exteroceptors and proprioceptors - intero-, extero- and proprioceptive sensations are distinguished. The basis for the classification of receptors was their localization - external and internal, as well as function. Based on the localization criterion, all receptors (and therefore the corresponding sensations) are of two types - superficial and deep (Fig. 1.3).
Rice. 1.3.
Sherrington called deep reception proprioception(from lat. propnus- own). Proprioception signals the position of the body or its parts in space. The proprioception receptor apparatus includes mechanoreceptors of muscles, tendons and joints, vestibuloreceptors of the semicircular canals. Surface sensitivity is divided into exteroception, which can be contact and distant (otherwise - telereception), and interoception- sensitivity to changes within the body. The division of sensations into proprioceptive, exteroceptive and interoceptive is based not only on the location of the corresponding receptors, but also on the function that these receptors perform. According to its functions, proprioception is aimed at coordinating body parts relative to each other, interoception is aimed at maintaining metabolism and their homeostasis, exteroception is aimed at communication with the external environment. Most sensations from the classification can be divided into these three groups of sensations, however, there are exceptions that do not fit into this scheme. As in the case of classification by modality, pain sensations belong to several groups at once, since pain can be both superficial and deep.
The functional significance of sensory sensitivity was discussed by the domestic physiologist N.A. Bernstein, who pointed out the role of sensations in the process of constructing a complex motor act. Bernstein identifies two functions that the reception of complex living organisms, including humans, performs: signaling And control and coordination" Whitefish-
The main function of reception is to detect and analyze actual and (or) potential stimuli. Based on their biological significance, this function is performed primarily by olfactory, auditory and visual sensations, since they are the result of the functioning of telereceptors (otherwise known as distant receptors) - receptors that are capable of distinguishing between events occurring at a considerable distance from a living organism (in contrast to contact receptors , stimulation of which occurs only through direct contact with them). The second function of reception - control and coordination - is to adequately reflect not only external influences, but also the states of the organism itself. The control-coordination function of reception manifests itself in the synthesis of signals from proprio-, tango-1 and telereceptors for the purpose of constant correction of each stage of a complex motor act. Bernstein noted that the process of constructing movement cannot be carried out according to the simple scheme of the reflex arc, which behaviorists used to explain motor acts. Consequently, the reception of complex living organisms is not limited to the signal function. Instead of a reflex arc, Bernstein introduces the concept of a reflex ring, the work of which is based on principle of sensory corrections. This principle consists of constant correction of the implementation of a motor act using signals from external sensory organs, as well as from muscles, ligaments and tendons. In order for the actual motor act to coincide with the intention, it is necessary, according to Bernstein, “...to continuously, from the very first moment, vigilantly verify the movement with the help of reports from the senses and conduct it all the time on the leash of appropriate corrections.” Consequently, the sensations involved in providing the brain with feedback about the implementation of an action perform a completely different function than simply signaling the presence of a stimulus.
The genetic classification of sensations is associated with the time and sequence of occurrence and development of one or another type of sensitivity. Among the most common genetic classifications is the evolutionary classification of the English neurologist Henry Head. In 1903, Head, together with his colleagues, neurologist William Rivers and surgeon James Sherren, conducted an experiment: Sherron cut a branch of the cutaneous nerve on the outer surface of the forearm of Head's left hand. Over a long period (about 5 years), Head and Rivers observed how sensation was restored in the hand after this operation. Based on these observations, Head identified two types of sensitivity, which he called epicritic And protopathic. Both types of sensitivity were restored consistently and suggested that protopathic and epicritic sensitivity represent two stages in the phylogenetic development of general human sensitivity. Protopathic (from Greek. protos - first and pathos - disease) sensitivity has formed for more early stage, therefore, it is more ancient. Protoiatic sensations are unclear, indefinite, unformed in nature; they do not carry information about the localization of the impact and are accompanied by affectively colored (most often unpleasant) experiences that cause the desire to withdraw the hand as quickly as possible in order to interrupt contact with the stimulus that caused this sensation. Protopathic sensations do not indicate what kind of object is in contact with the body - only whether this contact is pleasant or unpleasant. Protopathic sensations include pain, and Head noted that at the stage of restoration of protopathic sensitivity, the strength of pain was inadequate external influence: a slight prick from a needle caused a feeling of unbearable, excruciating pain, and Head could not establish where this sensation came from and where it then spread.
Epicritic (from Greek. epikritikos - decisive, determining) sensitivity is formed at the second stage evolutionary development human sensitivity. In Head's experiment, she recovered from protopathic (1.5 years after surgery). Enicritical sensations are characterized by “fine” sensitivity: they allow you to localize the impact, distinguish between irritation of different intensity and temperature fluctuations (up to 3°).
The classifications presented above represent a rather conditional distribution of all known species sensations mainly for the convenience of the researcher. Full picture types of sensations can only be obtained by combining these classifications.
- Filimonov V.I. Guide to general and clinical physiology. M.: Medical Information Society, 2002. Bernshtein N. A. Urgent problems of regulation of motor acts // Bernshtein N. A. Essays on the physiology of movements and physiology of activity. M.: Medicine, 1966.
You can often come across expressions according to which man is the crown of nature. However, in such phrases, attention is most often paid to the word “crown”, demonstrating perfection species Homo sapiens, its undeniable advantages over other animals and its unique ability to transform environment. The idea that man, despite his special position among other living beings, still remains a part of nature, usually fades into the background.
In contact with
Introduction
But completely discount it natural component of man- impossible. It manifests itself from an early age in the first stages of understanding the world: color, taste, smell, sound - all this information characterizing an object can be obtained by a person only through the senses. This process seems simple on the surface. One of the above characteristics affects a specific organ, which perceives the characteristic and transmits it to the brain for processing. It should be understood that taste or smell are primarily illusory categories that are registered in the form of images by the senses.
It is these images that arise in the process of sensory cognition that are called sensations. The brain, processing and interpreting the received image, turns it into a fact of consciousness - something that can be called a specific word.
The very existence of consciousness and, as a consequence, thinking is determined by the presence of sensations. Loss of functionality of one of the sense organs leads to a lack of necessary information. The consequences of this can be different: from memory deterioration to irreversible mental deformations. At the same time, the number and quality of images received by properly functioning sense organs increases. There is a kind of compensation going on. Another property of consciousness, closely related to sensations, is the creation of synesthesia: one sense organ provokes the formation of an image for which usually another organ responds. For example, smelling a flower, a person imagines the flower visually, or, as soon as he sees an apple, he already imagines its taste.
The situations described above represent only probable combinations of images received from different senses. In fact, each of them has its own specifics and properties, so it is impossible, for example, to confuse sound with taste.
But despite significant differences in the types and properties of sensations, General characteristics can be identified:
It should be separately noted what ideas exist about the threshold of sensations in psychology. Apart from the purely utilitarian definition used to postulate a definition of the intensity of sensation, there are other consequences of the very fact of the existence of thresholds of perception. One of the most important findings is that there is a clear relationship between the absolute lower threshold and the sensitivity of the analyzer: the lower the threshold, the higher the sensitivity. This is easily explained: difficulties in obtaining the necessary information require the development of methods for obtaining it.
The last consideration is confirmed not only by logical operations, but also by scientific data. Yes, it has been established that the senses not only improved in the process of evolution, but also improved in ontogenesis ( individual development) each individual. Of course, different analyzers have different sensitivities.
The relationship and implementation of the above characteristics of sensations depends on many factors. An important role in their combination is played by the age, health and operating conditions of the individual. It is assumed that in absolute darkness a healthy young person is able to distinguish very weak light source(for example, a splinter or a candle) at a distance of up to 27 km. With age or the presence of diseases, this figure inevitably decreases.
The sense organs make it possible not only to register the presence/absence of a stimulus, but also make it possible to record differences in strength and intensity between two stimuli. This value is called the difference threshold and is relative. This is manifested in that in order to realize the change that has occurred in the perception of the stimulus, it is necessary to make a certain increment to the latter, depending on the initial force of influence. Simply put, the greater the value of the initial irritation, the greater the increment required.
Principles of classification of sensations
Availability general properties does not negate the variety of stimuli and the significant number of ways they influence the senses, making it necessary to introduce various criteria for their systematization into classes. The basis of the classification, depending on the goals pursued, can be stated as physiological criteria, and purely psychological. Since in both cases we are talking for the most part about the same sensation, both classifications are closely related to each other.
Classification by location and function of receptors
So, one of the classifications of sensations in psychology is based on the location of the receptors and the nature of the reflection of the image they form:
- Interoceptive. Their receptors are located in the internal organs and tissues of the body and directly reflect their condition. Under normal conditions, the information transmitted by such receptors is beyond the lower threshold of sensitivity. This is a kind of first-class chemical laboratory: interoceptors collect and transmit information to the brain about the presence or absence of both harmful and useful substances, determine the chemical composition of body fluids. In addition, it is the interoceptors that notify the brain about changes in body temperature or pressure. In a critical situation, when at work internal organs failures occur due to illness or some external reason, pain occurs.
- Proprioceptive, the essence of which is the creation and subsequent transmission to the brain of an image about the position of the body in space and the movement it makes. This is done with the help of receptors located in ligaments and muscles.
- Exteroceptive sensations are focused on the perception and reflection of the properties of objects and phenomena of the external environment. Their receptors are located on the surface of the body and are divided into contact and distant. As the name itself suggests, for the functioning of contact receptors, direct exposure to the stimulus (touch, taste) is necessary. Distant receptors receive information from a distant object and form sound, visual and olfactory images.
Of course, all of the above types of receptors and the images they create do not exist in isolation from each other. Often, to obtain one sensation, a complex of information collected by exteroceptors and interoceptors is required. For example, the idea of the position of the body in space is not only created with the participation of proprioceptors, but is also inevitably supplemented by a visual image.
Another classification is based on the participation in the formation of sensations of various senses. To a large extent, the very concept of sensations became possible only thanks to the presence of these organs and the desire to understand the principles of their functioning. Accordingly, we can distinguish gustatory, visual, olfactory, tactile and auditory sensations.
Tactile sensations (touch) can be considered the leader in terms of the amount received and transmitted information. This happens thanks to that the sense of touch involves both types of exteroceptors (located over the entire area of the skin) and, thus, can record both touch and temperature.
The sense of smell provides a person with information about smells that played a huge role in the life of animals in prehistoric eras. The enormous importance of smell is evidenced by the fact that the receptors that perceive odors are located on the protruding part of the body, and information about them is transmitted to the brain along the shortest and most direct path.
Taste sensations There are four types: sweet, salty, sour and bitter. On the basis of these modalities, the entire palette of tastes is formed, just as the color scheme is formed from the basic red, yellow and blue. Taste is closely related to the sense of smell, since it is caused by the same molecules of the substance, but perceived by different receptors. It is easy to verify the existence of this connection by your own example: when your nose is stuffy during a cold, the taste of food either disappears completely or changes completely.
Visual
Visual sensations are caused by electromagnetic waves of a certain length. The human eye perceives only part of the spectrum: from red to violet. And although infrared and ultraviolet radiation have a significant impact on humans, this can only be known by the consequences. In complex visual sensations can be distinguished:
- achromatic (transition from absolute darkness to light through shades of gray);
- chromatic (reflect all the colors of the gamut with their shades);
Psychology notes that different colors and their combinations can have different emotional effects on a person. This fact is used in various tests (for example, the Luscher test).
Auditory
Auditory sensations are close in nature to visual ones: they are also caused by waves of a certain range. Infra- and ultrasound remain beyond audibility. Sound is determined by timbre(otherwise, the color of the sound), duration, height (depending on the frequency of wave oscillations) and loudness (determined by the period of wave oscillation). There are three types of sound sensations: noise, speech and music.
One sensation may be different from another, even if they belong to the same modality (vision, hearing, etc.). The individual characteristics of each sensation are determined by the concept of “properties of sensations.”
Each sensation can be characterized by its properties. The properties of sensations can be not only specific to a given modality, but also common to all types of sensations. The main properties of sensations, most often used:
Quality,
Intensity,
Duration,
Spatial localization,
Absolute threshold
Relative threshold.
Quality of feeling
The characteristics of not only sensations, but all characteristics in general can be divided into qualitative and quantitative. For example, the title of a book or its author are qualitative characteristics; The weight of a book or its length is quantitative. The quality of a sensation is a property that characterizes the basic information displayed by a given sensation, distinguishing it from other sensations. We can say this: the quality of sensation is a property that cannot be measured using numbers or compared with some kind of numerical scale.For visual sensation, quality can be the color of the perceived object. For taste or smell - the chemical characteristic of an object: sweet or sour, bitter or salty, floral smell, almond smell, hydrogen sulfide smell, etc.
Sometimes the quality of a sensation means its modality (auditory, visual or other). This also makes sense, since often in a practical or theoretical sense we have to talk about sensations in general. For example, during an experiment, a psychologist can ask the subject a general question: “Tell me about your feelings during...” And then modality will be one of the main properties of the described sensations.
Intensity of sensation
Perhaps the main quantitative characteristic of a sensation is its intensity. In fact, it matters a lot to us whether we listen to quiet or loud music, whether it is light in the room or whether we can barely see our hands.It is important to understand that the intensity of the sensation depends on two factors, which can be designated as objective and subjective:
The strength of the current stimulus (its physical characteristics),
The functional state of the receptor on which a given stimulus acts.
The more significant the physical parameters of the stimulus, the more intense the sensation. For example, the higher the amplitude sound wave, the louder the sound seems to us. And the higher the sensitivity of the receptor, the more intense the sensation. For example, if you are in a dark room after a long stay and go out into a moderately lit room, you can become “blind” from the bright light.
Duration of sensation
The duration of the sensation is different important characteristic Feel. It, as the name suggests, indicates the duration of existence of the sensation that has arisen. Paradoxically, the duration of the sensation is also influenced by objective and subjective factors. The main factor, of course, is objective - the longer the effect of the stimulus, the longer the sensation. However, the duration of the sensation is influenced by both the functional state of the sensory organ and some of its inertia.Suppose the intensity of a certain stimulus first gradually increases, then gradually decreases. For example, this could be a sound signal - from zero strength it increases until it is clearly audible, and then decreases again to zero strength. We do not hear a very weak signal - it is below the threshold of our perception. Therefore in in this example the duration of the sensation will be less than the objective duration of the signal. Moreover, if our hearing previously perceived strong sounds for a long period and did not have time to “move away”, then the duration of the sensation of a weak signal will be even shorter, because the perception threshold is high.
After the stimulus begins to influence the sense organ, the sensation does not arise immediately, but after some time. The latent period of different types of sensations is not the same. For tactile sensations - 130 ms, for pain - 370 ms, for taste - only 50 ms. The sensation does not appear simultaneously with the onset of the stimulus and does not disappear simultaneously with the cessation of its effect. This inertia of sensations manifests itself in the so-called aftereffect. The visual sensation, as is known, has some inertia and does not disappear immediately after the cessation of the action of the stimulus that caused it. The trace of the stimulus remains in the form of a consistent image.
Spatial localization of sensation
A person exists in space, and the stimuli that act on the senses are also located at certain points in space. Therefore, it is important not only to perceive the sensation, but also to spatially localize it. The analysis carried out by the receptors gives us information about the localization of the stimulus in space, that is, we can tell where the light comes from, the heat comes from, or what part of the body the stimulus affects.Absolute threshold of sensation
The absolute threshold of sensation is those minimal physical characteristics of the stimulus, starting from which sensation arises. Stimuli whose strength is below the absolute threshold of sensation do not produce sensation. By the way, this does not mean at all that they do not have any effect on the body. Research by G.V. Gershuni has shown that sound stimulation below the threshold of sensation can cause changes in the electrical activity of the brain and even dilation of the pupil. The zone of influence of stimuli that do not cause sensations was called by G.V. Gershuni the “subsensory area.”There is not only a lower absolute threshold, but also a so-called upper one - the value of the stimulus at which it ceases to be perceived adequately. Another name for the upper absolute threshold is the pain threshold, because when we overcome it we experience pain: pain in the eyes when the light is too bright, pain in the ears when the sound is too loud, etc. However, there are some physical characteristics of stimuli that are not related to the intensity of the stimulus. This is, for example, the frequency of sound. We don't perceive very much low frequencies, nor very high: approximate range from 20 to 20,000 Hz. However, ultrasound does not cause us pain.
Relative sensation threshold
The relative threshold of sensation is also an important characteristic. Can we tell the difference between the weight of a pound weight and a balloon? Can we tell the difference in the store between the weight of two sausage sticks that look the same? It is often more important to evaluate not the absolute characteristics of a sensation, but rather the relative ones. This kind of sensitivity is called relative, or difference.It is used both to compare two different sensations and to determine changes in one sensation. Suppose we heard a musician play two notes on his instrument. Were the pitches of these notes the same? or different? Was one sound louder than the other? or wasn't it?
The relative threshold of sensation is the minimum difference in physical characteristics sensation that will be noticeable. It is interesting that for all types of sensation there is a general pattern: the relative threshold of sensation is proportional to the intensity of the sensation. For example, if you need to add three grams (no less) to a load of 100 grams in order to feel the difference, then to a load of 200 grams you will need to add six grams for the same purpose.
All sensations can be characterized in terms of their properties. Moreover, the properties can be not only specific, but also common to all types of sensations.
The main properties of sensations include:
1. Quality of experience- this is a property that characterizes the basic information displayed by a given sensation, distinguishes it from other types of sensations and varies within a given type of sensation.
It should be borne in mind that very often, when they talk about the quality of sensations, they mean the modality of sensations, since it is the modality that reflects the main quality of the corresponding sensation.
2. Intensity of sensations- quantitative characteristics depend on the strength of the current stimulus and the functional state of the receptor, which determines the degree of readiness of the receptor to perform its functions.
3. Duration of sensation- this is a temporary characteristic of the sensation that has arisen. It is also determined by the functional state of the sensory organ, but mainly by the time of action of the stimulus and its intensity. It should be noted that sensations have a so-called latent (hidden) period. When a stimulus acts on a sense organ, the sensation does not occur immediately, but after some time. The latent period of different types of sensations is not the same. For tactile sensations it is 130 ms, for pain - 370 ms, and for taste - 50 ms.
The sensation does not appear simultaneously with the onset of the stimulus and does not disappear simultaneously with the cessation of its effect. This inertia of sensations manifests itself in the so-called aftereffect.
The trace of the stimulus remains in the form of a consistent image. Distinguish positive And negative sequential images.
Positive consistent image corresponds to the initial irritation, consists in maintaining a trace of irritation of the same quality as the actual stimulus.
Negative sequential image consists in the emergence of a quality of sensation opposite to the quality of the stimulus that acts. The appearance of negative sequential images is explained by a decrease in the sensitivity of this receptor to a certain effect.
4. Spatial localization of the stimulus. Analysis carried out by receptors gives us information about the localization of the stimulus in space.
All properties, to one degree or another, reflect the qualitative characteristics of sensations. Quantitative parameters of the main characteristics of sensations are important, in other words, degree of sensitivity. There are two types of sensitivity:
1. Absolute sensitivity- ability to sense weak stimuli.
2. Sensitivity to difference- the ability to perceive subtle differences between stimuli.
In order for a sensation to arise, the force of irritation must have a certain magnitude.
Absolute threshold of sensation- the minimum magnitude of the stimulus at which sensation first occurs.
Stimuli whose strength lies below the absolute threshold of sensation do not produce sensations, but this does not mean that they do not have any effect on the body.
Subsensory area (according to G.IN.Gershuni)- zone of influence of irritants on the body that do not cause sensations.
The study of sensation thresholds began German physicist, psychologist and philosopher G.T.Fechner, who believed that the material and the ideal are two sides of a single whole.
According to G.T. For Fechner, the process of creating a mental image can be represented by the following diagram:
Irritation -> Excitement -> Feeling -> Judgment (physics) (physiology) (psychology) (logic).
The most important thing in Fechner's idea was that he was the first to include elementary sensations in the range of interests of psychology.
According to Fechner, the sought-for boundary passes where sensation begins, i.e., the first mental process.
Lower absolute threshold (Fechner)- the magnitude of the stimulus at which sensation begins.
To determine this threshold, Fechner developed methods that are actively used in our time. Fechner based his research methodology on two statements called the first and second paradigms of classical psychophysics:
1. Human sensory system is a measuring device that responds appropriately to physical stimuli.
2. Psychophysical characteristics in people are distributed according to normal law, i.e. they randomly differ from some average size, similar to anthropometric characteristics.
The magnitude of the stimulus at which the subject’s responses change corresponds to threshold of disappearance of sensation (P 1) At the second stage of measurement, in the first presentation, the subject is offered a stimulus that he cannot hear in any way. Then, at each step, the stimulus magnitude increases until the subject's responses move from “no” to “yes” or “maybe yes.” This stimulus value corresponds threshold of sensation (P 2). There are two possible cases:
P 1 >P 2 or P 1< Р 2 .
Absolute threshold ( Stp) is equal to the arithmetic mean of the appearance and disappearance thresholds:
Stp = (P 1 + P 2)/ 2
Upper absolute threshold - the value of the stimulus at which it ceases to be perceived adequately. The upper absolute threshold is sometimes called pain threshold, because with the stimulus values corresponding to it, a person experiences pain.
Absolute thresholds- upper and lower - determine the boundaries of the surrounding world accessible to our perception. By analogy with measuring instrument Absolute thresholds define the range over which the sensory system can measure stimuli, but beyond this range, the performance of the device is characterized by its accuracy, or sensitivity. The absolute threshold value characterizes absolute sensitivity.
The weaker the stimulus that causes the sensation, the higher the sensitivity.
Absolute sensitivity is numerically equal to the value,inversely proportional to the absolute threshold of sensations. If absolute sensitivity is denoted by the letter E, and the value of the absolute threshold R, then the relationship between absolute sensitivity and absolute threshold can be expressed by the formula:
Different analyzers have different sensitivities.
The absolute sensitivity of the analyzer depends equally on both the lower and upper threshold of sensation. The value of absolute thresholds, both lower and upper, varies depending on different conditions: nature of activity and age of a person, functional state of the receptor, strength and duration of irritation etc.
Another characteristic of sensitivity is sensitivity to difference. She is also called relative,or difference, since it is sensitivity to changes in stimulus. In order to feel an increase in weight, you need to add three to five grams. Thus, in order to feel a minimal difference in the characteristics of the influencing stimulus, it is necessary to change the strength of its effect by a certain amount.
Discrimination threshold- the minimum difference between stimuli, which gives a barely noticeable difference in sensations.
More in 1760 French physicist P. Booger based on the material of light sensations, he established very important fact concerning the magnitude of discrimination thresholds: in order to feel a change in illumination, it is necessary to change the flow of light by a certain amount.
In the first half of the 19th century. German scientist M. Weber, studying the feeling of heaviness, came to the conclusion that when comparing objects and observing the differences between them, a person perceives not the differences between the objects, but the ratio of the differences to the size of the objects being compared. To notice an increase in weight, you need to add approximately 3% of its mass to the original load. Further research showed that a similar pattern exists for other types of sensations.
The threshold for differences in sensations is determined by the ratio:
D.I.- the amount by which the original stimulus that has already generated the sensation must be changed in order for a person to notice that it has really changed.
I- the magnitude of the current stimulus.
Thus, the discrimination threshold has a constant relative value, that is, it is always expressed as a ratio showing what part of the original value of the stimulus must be added to this stimulus in order to obtain a barely noticeable difference in sensations . This position was called Bouguer's law-Weber. In mathematical form, this law can be written as follows:
DI / I = const
Const (constant)- a constant value characterizing the threshold of difference in sensation, called Weber's constant. The parameters of the Weber constant are given in the table.
Table. The value of Weber's constant for various senses.
Based on Weber's experimental data, another German scientist - G. Fechner- formulated the following law, usually called Fechner's law: if the intensity of stimulation increases in geometric progression, then sensations will increase in arithmetic progression. In another formulation, this law sounds like this: the intensity of sensations increases in proportion to the logarithm of the intensity of the stimulus.
The main meaning of this pattern is that the intensity of sensations does not increase in proportion to the change in stimuli, but much more slowly. In mathematical form, the dependence of the intensity of sensations on the strength of the stimulus is expressed by the formula:
S = K * LgI + C
S - intensity of sensation.
I - stimulus strength.
K And C- constants.
This formula reflects the situation, which is called basic psychophysical law, or Weber-Fechner law.
American scientist S. Stevens proceeded from the assumption that sensations, or sensory space, are characterized by the same relationship as stimulus space. This pattern can be represented by the following mathematical expression:
DE / E = K
E - primary sensation.
DE - the minimal change in sensation that occurs when the acting stimulus changes by the minimum amount noticeable to a person.
Thus, from this mathematical expression it follows that the relationship between the minimum possible change in our sensations and the primary sensation is a constant value - TO. And if this is so, then the relationship between stimulus space and sensory space (our sensations) can be represented by the following equation:
DE / E = K x DI / I
This equation got the name Stevens law. The solution to this equation is expressed by the following formula:
S = K x R n
S- strength of sensations.
TO- a constant defined by the chosen unit of measurement.
n- an indicator that depends on the modality of sensations and varies from 0.3 for the sensation of loudness to 3.5 for the sensation obtained from an electric shock.
R- the value of the influencing stimulus.
The world of stimuli is again represented by the Bouguer-Weber law, and Zabrodin proposed the structure of sensory space in the following form:
DE / E z = K x DI / I
Obviously, when z =0 the formula of the generalized law transforms into Fechner’s logarithmic law, and when z = 1 - Stevens' power law.
Thus, the law proposed Yu. M. Zabrodin, removes the contradiction between Stevens' and Fechner's laws. Therefore, it is no coincidence that it received the name generalized psychophysical law.
No matter how the contradiction between Fechner's and Stevens' laws is resolved, both options quite accurately reflect the essence of the change in sensations when the magnitude of stimulation changes. First, sensations change disproportionately to the strength of the physical stimuli acting on the senses. Secondly, the strength of sensation grows much more slowly than the magnitude of physical stimuli. This is precisely the meaning of psychophysical laws.
1. Quality- this is the main feature of this sensation, distinguishing it from other types of sensations. For example, auditory sensations differ in pitch, timbre, and volume; visual - by saturation, color tone, etc.
2. Intensity- determined by the strength of the current stimulus and the functional state of the receptor.
3. Duration- determined by the duration of action of the stimulus and the functional state of the sensory organ. Moreover, when a stimulus acts on a sense organ, sensations do not arise immediately, but after a certain period of time, which is called latent(hidden) period of sensation. This period is different for different types of sensations. The sensations also do not disappear immediately with the cessation of the stimulus (the so-called aftereffect).
For example, pain, sound, temperature, visual sensations (light a lamp in the dark and immediately turn it off). Thanks to this aftereffect, we do not notice the breaks between the following frames of the film: they are filled with traces of the frames that were in effect before.
3. Adaptation. The sensitivity of analyzers, determined by the magnitude of absolute thresholds, is not constant and changes under the influence of a number of physiological and psychological conditions, among which the phenomenon of adaptation occupies a special place.
Adaptation, or adjustment, is a change in the sensitivity of the senses under the influence of a stimulus.
Three types of this phenomenon can be distinguished.
1. Adaptation as the complete disappearance of sensation during the prolonged action of a stimulus. In the case of constant stimuli, the sensation tends to fade. For example, a light weight resting on the skin soon ceases to be felt. A common fact is the distinct disappearance of olfactory sensations soon after we enter an atmosphere with unpleasant smell. The intensity of the taste sensation weakens if the corresponding substance is kept in the mouth for some time and, finally, the sensation may fade away completely.
Full adaptation of the visual analyzer does not occur under the influence of a constant and motionless stimulus. This is explained by compensation for the immobility of the stimulus due to movements of the receptor apparatus itself. Constant voluntary and involuntary eye movements ensure continuity of visual sensation.
2. Adaptation is also called another phenomenon, close to the one described, which is expressed in a dulling of sensation under the influence of a strong stimulus. For example, when you immerse your hand in cold water, the intensity of the sensation caused by the cold stimulus decreases. When we move from a dimly lit room into a brightly lit space, we are initially blinded and unable to discern any details around us. After some time, the sensitivity of the visual analyzer decreases sharply, and we begin to see normally. This decrease in the sensitivity of the eye during intense light stimulation is called light adaptation.
The two types of adaptation described can be combined with the term negative adaptation, because as a result they reduce the sensitivity of the analyzers.
3. Finally, adaptation is an increase in sensitivity under the influence of a weak stimulus. This type of adaptation, characteristic of certain types of sensations, can be defined as positive adaptation.
In the visual analyzer, this is a dark adaptation, when the sensitivity of the eye increases under the influence of being in the dark. A similar form of auditory adaptation is adaptation to silence.
Studies have shown that some analyzers detect fast adaptation, while others detect slow adaptation. For example, tactile receptors adapt very quickly. When any prolonged stimulation is applied, only a small volley of impulses runs along their sensory nerve at the beginning of the action of the stimulus. The visual receptor adapts relatively slowly (the time of adaptation to darkness reaches several tens of minutes), olfactory and gustatory.
4. Interaction of sensations- this is a change in the sensitivity of one sense organ under the influence of irritation of another organ. It also manifests itself in a decrease or increase in sensitivity (weak stimuli increase, and strong stimuli decrease, the sensitivity of analyzers when they interact). Increased sensitivity as a result of interaction between analyzers is called sensitization .
It is well developed in the blind and deaf, appears with age, taste sensitivity increases during pregnancy, and in some professions. Trains with the help of exercises (play music and develop pitch hearing).
Sensitization of the senses is possible not only through the use of side stimuli, but also through exercise. The possibilities for training the senses and improving them are very great.
There are two areas that determine increased sensitivity of the senses:
1) sensitization, which spontaneously results from the need to compensate for sensory defects(blindness, deafness);
2) activity-induced sensitization specific requirements of the subject's profession.
The loss of vision or hearing is to a certain extent compensated by the development of other types of sensitivity.
All the properties of perception are acquired by us during life (people who have received their sight in adulthood are still unable to use all the capabilities of vision).
Memory
1. Concept and types of memory.
2. Memory processes.
1. Concept and types of memory.
Memorization, preservation and subsequent reproduction by an individual of his experience is called memory. Memory is a prerequisite for any activity. No actual action is conceivable without memory, because... the course of even the most elementary mental act presupposes the retention of each of its elements for “coupling” with subsequent ones.
Types of memory. Allocate memory genetic(this is information that is inherited) and lifetime. If we talk about lifetime memory, there are the following classifications.
Based on the nature of mental activity that predominates in the activity, the following types of memory are distinguished:
1. Motor memory - memorization, preservation and reproduction of various movements and their systems. This type of memory serves as the basis for the formation of various practical and work skills. It is detected earlier than other types of memory (since the first conditioned reflex of a newborn is memory for body position during feeding). For some people, this type of memory is the leading one. Signs of this will be a person’s physical dexterity, dexterity in work (“golden hands”).
2. Emotional memory - memory for feelings. Manifests itself in the preservation and subsequent reproduction of a certain emotional state upon repeated exposure to the situation in which this emotional condition arose for the first time. Feelings experienced and stored in memory act as signals that either encourage action or deter actions that caused negative experiences in the past.
3. Figurative memory - memory for pictures of life and nature, as well as sounds, smells, tastes. Information accumulates in the form of images. Images can be single (the image of a single object) and general (objects are recreated with a certain degree of generalization, for example, a forest, a city). Types of figurative memory: visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory.
In addition, there are special kind figurative memory - eidetic memory - This is the ability to recreate the image of a previously perceived object or situation in all details, with a brightness equal to perception.
4. Verbal-logical memory (symbolic) - memory for words, symbols, thoughts.
Based on the duration of fixed and stored material, the following are distinguished:
1. Instant Memory - a sensory image of a stimulus within a few fractions of a second. This information cannot be controlled, it cannot be delayed or reproduced. But its significance is great: it ensures the unity of the image, for example, when watching a movie.
2. Short-term memory - characterized by brief storage of material (a few seconds) after a single, very short perception and immediate reproduction (in the very first seconds after perception of the material). For example, the memory of a typist. If repeated, it can be retained for a longer period.
3. Long-term memory - long-term preservation of the material. The storage time and volume of stored information is unlimited. The main mechanism for data entry is repetition (meaningful) at the level short term memory. This is where the meaning is stored, but the surface form of the material may be lost. It is important to note that at every moment in time a person is not aware of everything that is stored in his long-term memory.
4. RAM - serves actual actions and operations directly carried out by a person. Storage time is up to several hours. If the material is not repeated after a few hours, it will be forgotten.
2. Memory processes.
The following basic processes are distinguished in memory: remembering, storing, reproducing and forgetting. These processes are not autonomous mental abilities. They are formed in activity and determined by it. Memorization certain material is associated with the accumulation of individual experience in the process of life. Using what you remember in future activities requires playback. The loss of certain material from activity leads to its forgetting. Retention of material in memory depends on its participation in the activities of the individual, since at any given moment a person’s behavior is determined all his life experience.
1. Memorization is a generalized name for the processes that ensure retention of material in memory. This retention occurs due to the consolidation of new material with previously acquired material. Memorization is called a mnemonic process.
There are two types of memorization: involuntary and voluntary. At involuntary When memorizing, a person does not set the task of remembering and memorization is carried out without volitional efforts. But with this type of memorization, not everything is retained in memory, but only what is interesting, important, etc. (as with involuntary attention). free memorization is a special action, the ultimate task of which is to remember for the maximum period for the purpose of subsequent reproduction.
In order to better remember this or that material, there are special methods of voluntary memorization:
Planning;
Identification of semantic reference points;
Presentation of material in the form of a visual visual image;
Correlation with existing knowledge;
Specification (example per rule);
Understanding the material;
Comparison;
Play;
Finding artificial meaning;
Setting to remember;
Setting for memorization time, etc.
2. Forgetting And preservation- two reverse processes. Forgetting is a process that leads to a loss of clarity and a decrease in the volume of material fixed in memory, resulting in the inability to reproduce or even recognize what was known. Retention is the retention of material that a person has memorized. Forgetting may be due to the influence of previous activities ( proactive braking, “action in advance”) or the negative influence of subsequent activities ( retroactive inhibition, “backward acting”).
This manifests itself especially when the previous or subsequent activity was complex or similar in content to the present activity, if the activity follows without interruption. Therefore, it is important to alternate subjects according to difficulty and take breaks. In this regard, as a rule, the middle of the material is remembered worse, because it is influenced by both proactive and retroactive inhibition. Sometimes there is a phenomenon reminiscences(temporary forgetting), when delayed reproduction is more complete than immediate.
The process of forgetting is especially intense immediately after memorization, then it slows down (therefore, it is recommended to repeat the lesson immediately upon arriving home). Forgetting occurs faster if the material is incomprehensible, uninteresting, and not directly related to his practical needs. Thus, the rate of forgetting is directly dependent on the volume of material and the degree of difficulty of its assimilation.
Forgetting can be caused by various illnesses nervous system, bruises, injuries. Forgetting occurs faster when tired, under the influence of extraneous stimuli. It is necessary to prevent the process of forgetting in educational process, but this process itself is necessary. If a person did not have the ability to forget at all, then the memory would be filled with a mass of unnecessary details and facts.
3. Playback- a memory process, as a result of which the fixed content of the psyche is updated by extraction from long-term and translation into operational or short-term memory.
Depending on the varying degrees Difficulties in the process of updating learned material highlight the following types of reproduction: recognition, actual reproduction and recall. Recognition- reproduction of an object under conditions of repeated perception. The lowest degree of recognition is manifested in the “feeling of familiarity,” when a person cannot accurately recognize the feature of an object, but is sure that it is familiar to him.
The greatest degree of recognition does not cause the subject to have any doubts about the knowledge of the object; a person can accurately classify the object into a certain category, can accurately name the time, place and other signs of familiarity with it. The actual playback carried out without re-perceiving the object that is being reproduced. In cases where you cannot remember what is necessary and have to be done active search, overcoming certain difficulties, reproduction will take place in the form recollection(the person remembers, but with difficulty).
There are also involuntary and voluntary reproduction. ABOUT involuntary reproduction refers to when a person does not set the task to reproduce. Involuntary reproduction occurs under the influence of ideas, feelings, thoughts caused by some object or situation, or activity performed in this moment. ABOUT arbitrary recall is said when a person sets the task of remembering. There are special random playback methods: drawing up a plan, using visual aids, etc.
In addition, immediate and delayed reproduction are distinguished. Direct reproduction occurs immediately after memorization, without interruption for other activities. Used when memorizing poems, rules, etc. Deferred occurs after a long period of time after memorization. Moreover, other processes occur between memorization and reproduction.
All memory processes are interconnected, because we remember in order to reproduce; reproduce when memorizing; we forget if we don’t reproduce it, etc.
Individual differences in memory. Memory manifests itself differently in people; it differs in the content and volume of stored information, the speed of memorization and reproduction, the strength of storage and the accuracy of reproduction. Some people have stronger memories, others weaker ones. There are people with phenomenal memory.
Individual differences in memory also manifest themselves in the type of ideas a person relies on when remembering. Some people remember better what they can hear, others what they can see, and others - what can be practically done. In accordance with this, motor, auditory and visual types of memory are distinguished. Most often, mixed types of memory are found - auditory-motor, visual-motor, visual-auditory, etc. The type of memory may depend both on the type of nervous system and on upbringing. The type of memory can be exercised depending on the nature of the profession.
Thinking
1. general characteristics thinking.
2. Thinking processes.
3. Thinking and problem solving.
4. Types of thinking.
1. General characteristics of thinking.
Human knowledge of the world begins with sensations and perceptions. But knowledge obtained only through analyzers is not enough for a deep and comprehensive knowledge of the world. Thinking is the most complex cognitive mental process characteristic of humans. In the course of thinking, deeper knowledge of the external world is realized.
Thanks to thinking, a person goes beyond the limits of sensory knowledge, i.e. begins to cognize such phenomena of the external world, their properties and relationships that are not directly given in perception (i.e., not directly observable). In this case we are talking about theoretical knowledge peace. However, any, even the most developed thinking always retains connection with sensory knowledge(based on sensations and perceptions).
Thinking- socially determined, inextricably linked with speech, mental process of searching and discovering new things, i.e. the process of a generalized and mediated reflection of reality in the course of analysis and synthesis.
Adult thinking normal person inextricably linked with speech. This reveals one of the fundamental differences between human thinking and the elementary, simplest thinking of animals. A thought acquires in a word the necessary material shell, in which it (thought) only becomes an immediate reality for other people and for ourselves. The more thoroughly a thought is thought out, the more clearly it is expressed in words. And, conversely, the more the verbal formulation is honed, the clearer and more understandable the thought itself becomes.
In addition, a person in his mental activity uses all the knowledge acquired during human history. Such transfer of information from generation to generation is also possible only through language. Thus, expanded speech is not only a means of communication, but also a tool of thinking. Thinking is inextricably linked with speech, but thinking and speech are not identical. For example, the same thought can be expressed in different words, or we don't always find the right words to express your thoughts.
Logic and psychology of thinking. Human thinking is studied by two complementary special sciences - logic and psychology. Logic studies already established ways of thinking, developed by mankind, logical forms of thinking - concepts, judgments, conclusions.
Concept- a thought that reflects the general, essential and distinctive features of objects and phenomena of reality (for example, the concept of “man”). There are concepts everyday(acquired through practical experience) and scientific(purchased during the training process). Concepts arise and develop in the process of development of science and technology. In them, people record the results of experience and knowledge.
The content of concepts is revealed in judgments. Judgment - reflection of connections between objects and phenomena of reality or between their properties and characteristics. For example, the proposition “The Earth revolves around the Sun” establishes a connection between two celestial bodies. There are judgments general(something is stated regarding all objects of this group: all fish breathe with gills), private(the statement applies only to some subjects: some students are excellent students), single(the statement refers to one subject of reality: this student did not learn the lesson). Judgments are formed in two ways: a) directly, i.e. when they express what is perceived, b) indirectly, i.e. by inference.
Inference- such a connection between thoughts (concepts, judgments), as a result of which from one or more judgments we obtain another judgment, extracting it from the content of the original judgments. For example, all metals are electrically conductive; tin - metal; This means that tin is electrically conductive.
A person is freed from the need to obtain information from direct personal practice, because can assimilate the transmitted experience of generations, and receives many judgments in a theoretical, logical way. But a person cannot make conclusions at all stages of his development, but only after having previously learned to do so.
Thus, logic examines thoughts that have already arisen and establishes relationships between them, teaching how to think correctly. But these laws, although necessary, are not sufficient to fully explain human thinking. Logic does not explain how exactly the process of emergence and development of a given thought occurs. Unlike logic, psychology studies thinking as a process, i.e. how thought arises and develops, studies internal, hidden causes leading to the formation of results.
2. Thinking processes.
There are several basic mental processes (mental operations) with the help of which mental activity is carried out.
Analysis- mental division of an object or phenomenon into its constituent parts, highlighting in it individual signs. Analysis can be practical or mental.
Synthesis- mental connection individual elements, parts and characteristics into a single whole. But synthesis is not a mechanical connection of parts.
Analysis and synthesis are inextricably linked and provide comprehensive knowledge of reality. Analysis provides knowledge of individual elements, and synthesis, based on the results of analysis, provides knowledge of the object as a whole.
Comparison- comparison of objects and phenomena in order to find similarities or differences between them. Thanks to this thinking process, we understand most objects, because... we know an object only by equating it with something or distinguishing it from something. Comparison can be one-sided and multilateral, deep and superficial, unmediated and mediated.
As a result of comparison, we identify something common in the compared objects. That. Thus, a generalization is built on the basis of comparison. Generalization - mental grouping of objects into groups by topic common features, which stand out during the comparison process. Through this process, conclusions, rules and classifications are made (apples, pears, plums - fruits).
Abstraction consists in the fact that, by isolating any properties of the object being studied, a person is distracted from the rest. For example, the color green is good for the eyes, but we do not name which object is green. By abstraction, concepts are created (length, breadth, quantity, equality, value, etc.).
Specification involves the return of thought from the general and abstract to the concrete in order to reveal the content (give an example of a rule).
3. Thinking and problem solving.
The need for thinking arises primarily when a new problem appears in front of a person in the course of life. Those. thinking is necessary in situations in which a new goal arises, and the old methods of activity are no longer sufficient to achieve it. Such situations are called problematic . It is in a problem situation that the thinking process begins. In the course of activity, a person encounters something unknown, thinking is immediately included in the activity, and the problematic situation turns into a task conscious of the person.
Task - the goal of an activity given under certain conditions and requiring, in order to achieve it, the use of means adequate to these conditions. Any task includes: target, condition(known), what you're looking for(unknown). Depending on the nature of the final goal, tasks are distinguished practical(aimed at transforming material objects) and theoretical(aimed at understanding reality, for example, studying). Principle of solving the problem : the unknown is always connected with something known, i.e. the unknown, interacting with the known, reveals some of its qualities.
In cases where the old ways of acting can be done, a problematic situation does not arise and thinking is not required.
Thinking and problem solving are closely related to each other. But this connection is not clear-cut. Problem solving is carried out only with the help of thinking. But thinking is manifested not only in solving problems, but also, for example, in acquiring knowledge, understanding text, posing a problem, i.e. for cognition (mastery of experience). To acquire a concept is to perform a mental action.
Halperin identifies four stages in the formation of mental actions:
1) Action in the material plane.
2) Action in terms of loud speech.
3) Action in terms of speaking to oneself (this is the first form of mental action itself).
4) Action in mentally(a person writes, decides and does not think about “how” he does it).
4. Types of thinking.
The following types of thinking are distinguished.
Visually effective- here the solution to the problem is carried out using a real transformation of the situation based on a motor act. Those. the task is given clearly in a concrete form and the method of solution is practical action. This type of thinking is typical for a preschool child. This type of thinking also exists in higher animals.
Visual-figurative- a person recreates the situation necessary to solve a problem in a figurative form. Begins to form in older age preschool age. In this case, in order to think, the child does not have to manipulate the object, but must clearly perceive or visualize this object.
Verbal-logical(theoretical, rational, abstract) - thinking appears primarily in the form of abstract concepts and reasoning. Begins to develop at school age. Mastery of concepts occurs in the process of assimilation various sciences. At the end of schooling, a system of concepts is formed. Moreover, we use concepts that sometimes do not have a direct figurative expression (honesty, pride).
The development of verbal-logical thinking does not mean that the previous two types do not develop or disappear altogether. On the contrary, children and adults continue to develop all types of thinking. For example, an engineer or designer achieves greater perfection in visual and effective thinking (or when mastering new technology). In addition, all types of thinking are closely interrelated.
From the point of view of the originality of the problems being solved, thinking can be: creative(productive) and reproducing(reproductive). Creative is aimed at creating new ideas, reproductive is the application of ready-made knowledge and skills. A number of other concepts are associated with the concept of creative and reproductive thinking.
Creative - Non-creative
Productive - Reproductive
New - Old
Innovative - Dogmatic
Non-conformal - Conformal
Non-standard - Standard
Non-algarithmic - Algarithmic
Non-stereotypical - Stereotypical
Original - Unoriginal
Witty - Unwitty
Divergent - Convergent
Lateral - Straight
Divergent- thinking in which a person is able to give several correct answers to one question. Convergent - thinking in which a person believes that there is only one correct answer to a given question. Standard And non-standard thinking is related to the nature of the methods that a person uses to solve problems. Direct thinking: a person solves a problem, but if he hasn’t solved it, he puts it off. Lateral : a person constantly keeps a problem in the sphere of consciousness and tries to solve it periodically by remembering, while doing other activities.
According to the degree of development, thinking is: discursive(step by step process) and intuitive(fast flow, minimal awareness).
Based on the nature of the problems being solved, thinking is divided into theoretical And practical.
Depending on the nature of the subject area, thinking is distinguished natural science And humanitarian.
Depending on the nature of the generalization in the thinking process, there are empirical And theoretical thinking. The empirical is based on sensory, practical experience. The theoretical is based on logical, abstract categories.
Based on the degree of involvement of the individual in the thinking process, the following types of thinking are distinguished: autistic(manifests itself in the fact that a person tries to present what he wants as real), egocentric(manifests itself in the fact that a person weighs any task against his self-esteem, passes it through his self-awareness and expresses his position), realistic(thinking taking into account real facts).
Individual characteristics of thinking. The thinking of each person has some differences in certain properties (for all these properties there are also opposite ones).
Independence- a person’s ability to put forward new problems and find the necessary solutions without resorting to frequent help from other people.
Latitude- this is when a person’s cognitive activity covers various areas(broad outlook).
Flexibility- the ability to change the solution plan outlined at the beginning if it no longer satisfies.
Rapidity- a person’s ability to quickly understand a complex situation, quickly think and make a decision.
Depth- ability to penetrate into the essence the most complex issues, the ability to see a problem where other people do not have a question (you need to have a Newton's head to see a problem in a falling apple).
Criticality- the ability to objectively evaluate one’s own and others’ thoughts (not consider one’s thoughts to be absolutely true).