United Nations Organization (UN). It is not true that the UN system includes the following organizations:

2.1. General economic organizations.

2.1.1. Regional integration groupings (or trade and economic unions):

· Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).

· North American Free Trade Area (NAFTA).

· European Union(EU).

· Association of countries South-East Asia(ASEAN).

· Arab Free Trade Area (AFTA).

· Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC).

· South American Common Market (MERCOSUR);

· Free Trade Area of ​​the Americas (FTAA).

2.1.2. Other economic organizations:

· Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).

· Organization of the Red Cross and Crescent.

2.2. Industry organizations.

2.2.1. Organizations in the field of trade:

· Worldwide trade Organization(since January 1, 1995). Became the successor to GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade).

· International Trade Center.

· International Chamber of Commerce.

· International Customs Union.

2.2.2. Financial organizations:

· The Paris Club represents the interests of 19 creditor countries.

· The London Club of Creditor Banks unites more than 600 of the largest commercial banks in the United States, Western Europe and Japan.

· Bank for International Settlements (BIS).

· International Finance Corporation (IFC).

· International Bank for Economic Cooperation (IBEC).

· International Investment Bank (IIB).

· European Financial Society (ETF).

· European Investment Bank (EIB).

· European Economic Monetary Union (EEMU).

2.2.3. Production and trade regulating certain types of goods and raw materials:

· Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).

· European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).

2.2.4. Production and trade of agricultural raw materials and food:

· International Coffee Organization.

· International Sugar Organization.

· International Organization of Banana Exporting Countries.

2.2.5. Others:

· International Union of Railway Transport Workers.

UN: main organizations and their characteristics.

Classification of international economic organizations according to the scope of regulation.

a) International economic organizations regulating economic and industrial cooperation and sectors of the world economy:

· United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO).

· United Nations Development Program (UNDP).

· International Energy Agency (IEA);

b) International economic organizations in the system of regulation of world trade:

· World Trade Organization (WTO);

· United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD);

· International organizations of producing and exporting countries of food and raw materials.

c) Regional economic organizations.

d) International monetary and financial organizations:

· International currency board;

· World Bank Group;

· European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD).

e) International organizations regulating business activities:

· UN Commission on Transnational Companies.

f) International non-governmental organizations promoting the development of international business:

· International and regional unions of entrepreneurs;

· International Chamber of Commerce;

· Regional chambers of commerce.

The third criterion for classifying international economic organizations is based on the nature of their competence.

a) International organizations with general competence, for example, the UN.

Competence is not limited to any one area of ​​cooperation, with the exception of specific issues within the competence of its specialized institutions.

b) International organizations with special competence:

Ø UN specialized agencies:

· World Meteorological Organization (WMO).

· World organization health (WHO).

· World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).

· Universal Postal Union (UPU).

· International Development Association (IDA).

· International Labor Organization (ILO).

· International Telecommunication Union (ITU).

In total - 15 UN specialized agencies.

The UN is the most universal international organization. It includes a number of bodies and international organizations.

Economic issues occupy a prominent place in the activities of the UN General Assembly - GA, the most representative body of this authoritative international organization.

In the Millennium Declaration, adopted in September 2000, UN member states defined the “Millennium Development Goals”, the main one of which is the need to reduce poverty in all its forms. The development goals were developed based on agreements and resolutions of international conferences organized by the UN during the 1990s. XX century

The agenda of the 64th session of the General Assembly (2009) included critical issues of the global economy, including promoting sustained economic growth and sustainable development. The problem of achieving socio-economic progress in African countries was raised as a special topic for discussion.

We think for ourselves. Why do we consider the international organizations of the UN system as the main, leading ones in the totality of international economic organizations of our time?

Economic problems are regularly highlighted in the reports of the UN Secretary General.

The main UN body coordinating all economic, social and cultural activities of this organization is Economic and Social Council - ECOSOC (Economic and Social Council - ECOSOC). Its competence also includes humanitarian issues.

The Council consists of 54 members who are elected by the UN General Assembly for a three-year period. A third of the members are re-elected every year. The Council has established the following standards of representation: Asia - 11, Africa - 14, Eastern Europe - 6, Western Europe - 13, Latin America - 10. Council meetings are held alternately in New York and Geneva.

Decisions in ECOSOC are made by a simple majority, each member of the Council has one vote, and no member country has a veto.

ECOSOC consists of three sessional committees: First (Economic); Second (Social); Third (on Programs and Cooperation). All Council members serve on each of these committees.

The Council has a number of functional commissions and standing committees, as well as expert bodies.

ECOSOC reports to five UN regional commissions: Economic Commission for Europe (Geneva, Switzerland), Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (Bangkok, Thailand), Economic Commission for Africa (Addis Ababa, Ethiopia), Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean basin (Santiago, Chile), Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (Lebanon, Beirut).

Regional economic commissions study the economic and social problems of the respective regions and develop recommendations, and also carry out research, advisory, information and analytical functions.

In particular, the European Economic Commission - EEC (Economic Commission for Europe - ECE), created by ECOSOC in 1947, aims to main goal strengthening cooperation between European Member States. The EEC conducts economic research of an analytical nature on general problems, the state of the environment and living conditions, statistics, sustainable energy supply, trade, industry and business development, on problems of the forestry complex and transport.

We think for ourselves. Is it possible to believe that the activities of international organizations of the UN system combine the solution of both universal (global) and regional problems? What could be the argument here?

In 1964, the UN General Assembly established UN Conference on Trade and Development - UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development - UNCTAD). UNCTAD's headquarters are located in Geneva. The number of members of the organization exceeds 190. This organization was designed to consider the entire range of issues related to international trade and development, including the principles of exchange and trade in raw materials and industrial goods, financing of development projects, issues of external debt, and transfer of technology to developing countries. UNCTAD paid significant attention to the situation of the least developed countries.

UNCTAD interacts both with the governments of member countries and with various UN bodies, non-governmental organizations, representatives of private capital, research institutes and universities in various countries of the world. Although its decisions are not binding, they play a large role in shaping world public opinion, which government agencies are forced to take into account. In general, UNCTAD's activities promote the development of international trade by establishing equal cooperation between states.

UNCTAD has become one of the important international economic forums, whose recommendations and decisions have had a significant impact on world trade. However, the emergence of the WTO required clarification of the scope and directions of UNCTAD's activities. At the IX session of this organization, held in 1996, it was decided that UNCTAD should be retained as the body of the UN General Assembly on trade and development issues. Its mission will remain to highlight changes in the global economy as they relate to trade, investment, technology, services and development. In doing so, it will cooperate and coordinate its activities with the WTO and other multilateral institutions.

At the X session of UNCTAD in 2000 (Bangkok, Thailand), the role of this organization in the process of integrating the economies of developing countries into the world economy and into the world trading system on a healthy and equal basis was confirmed.

UNCTAD publishes a number of studies that have received worldwide recognition, in particular the Handbook of Trade and Development Statistics, World Investment Report.

The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) operates in 166 countries around the world. UNDP was established in 1965. The organization's headquarters are in New York.

The main task of this organization is defined as assisting countries in sharing knowledge and global development experience in order to improve their socio-economic situation.

Currently, UNDP is coordinating efforts aimed at implementing the development goals that were set by the UN for the third millennium, in particular, halving the poverty level by 2015.

UNDP compiles and annually publishes the Human Development Report, which has long become a prominent phenomenon among the publications of international organizations. One of the main indicators of the reports is the Human Development Index (HDI), which summarizes data on three main indicators:

■ life expectancy of a healthy person;

■ level of education;

■ standard of living.

The HDI is calculated on the basis of three indices: a) the life expectancy index at birth; b) education index; c) GDP per capita index.

Despite the certain conventionality of the methodology for calculating this Index, it allows one to compare and, to some extent, compare the levels of development of countries not only in terms of gross domestic product, but also in a wider range of socio-economic indicators.

We think for ourselves. In which topics in the World Economy course have we already addressed issues related to the Human Development Index?

The Economic and Social Council coordinates the activities of 19 UN specialized agencies (Table 23.1)

Table 23.1. UN specialized agencies

Title in Russian	Title in English	Year of creation or establishment	Location
World Meteorological Organization. WMO	World Meteorological Organization. WMO
World Health Organization. WHO	World Health Organization. WHO
World Intellectual Property Organization, WIPO	World Intellectual Property Organization, WIPO
World Tourism Organization. UNWTO	World Tourism Organization
Universal Postal Union, UPU	Universal Postal Union, UPU
World Bank Group Including: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, IBRD	World Bank Group International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, IBRD		Washington
International Development Association. IDA	International Development Association. IDA		Washington
International Finance Corporation, IFC	International Finance Corporation. IFC		Washington
Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency. MIGA	Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency. MIGA		Washington
International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes, ICSID	International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes, ICSID		Washington
International Maritime Organization. IMO	International Maritime Organization, IMO
International Civil Aviation Organization, ICAO	International Civil Aviation Organization, ICAO		Montreal
International Labor Organization, ILO	International Labor Organization. ILO
International Monetary Fund, IMF	International Monetary Fund. IMF		Washington
International Telecommunication Union. ITU	Telecommunication Union. ITU
International Fund for Agricultural Development, IFAD	International Fund for Agricultural Development, IFAD
United Nations Educational Organization. science and culture, UNESCO	United Nations Educational. Scientific and Cultural Organization. UNESCO
United Nations Industrial Development Organization, UNIDO	United Nations Industrial Development Organization, UNIDO
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAO	Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAO

Let us consider the activities of some specialized UN agencies that play a significant role in international economic relations.

From the presented table it is obvious that some international organizations appeared much earlier than the UN, and only much later received the status of specialized agencies. These include, in particular, the ILO, which in 1946 became the first specialized agency associated with the UN.

The organization develops international policies and programs in the field of labor relations, adopts international labor standards, promotes their adoption by member countries, and assists in organizing vocational training and training.

The ILO has a unique character: representatives of governments, workers and employers participate in the preparation of decisions on equal terms. Its main body is the International Confederation of Labor, where each country is represented by four delegates (two from the government and one each from workers and entrepreneurs), convenes at least once a year (usually in June in Geneva). Each delegate votes individually. Therefore, labor and business delegates can vote against the position taken by government delegates.

One of the largest specialized agencies of the UN is Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations - FAO, designed to solve the problems of increasing the level of food supply, improving the living conditions of the rural population, and increasing labor productivity in agriculture. Almost all UN member countries are members of FAO. The EU is also a collective member of FAO.

FAO monitors global agriculture, forestry and fisheries. In recent years, the organization has been paying increased attention to the problems of ensuring long-term sustainable development of agriculture, increasing food production and ensuring food security, taking into account the requirements of environmental conservation.

FAO annually publishes statistical yearbooks, including on the state of agricultural production and trade in agricultural products. The most famous is the annual State of Food and Agriculture (SOFA) Report. A large amount of information about the state of agriculture in various countries is contained in the database on the organization’s website.

UN Industrial Development Organization - UNIDO received UN specialized agency status in 1985. As the name suggests, UNIDO is designed to assist developing countries and countries with economies in transition in implementing industrialization programs and strengthening their industrial potential. IN Lately The organization also aims to help strengthen the positions of the above countries in the face of increasing competition in the global economy.

UNIDO's main efforts are aimed at mobilizing knowledge, skills, information and technology to create new jobs, competitive economies and environmentally friendly and sustainable development. All this should help reduce global poverty.

UNIDO's activities are carried out in the form of integrated (complex) programs and individual projects.

The main source of funds for the implementation of projects through UNIDO is the United Nations Development Program. However, a certain part of the funds comes in the form of contributions from member countries and sponsorships.

In the field of nuclear energy, the activities of International Atomic Energy Agency - IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency), founded in 1957 as an autonomous agency under the auspices of the UN. IAEA headquarters in Vienna. The Agency has become the central intergovernmental body for scientific and technical cooperation in the field of nuclear energy. In recent years, the importance of the IAEA has increased due to the increase in the number of nuclear programs in various countries around the world.

We think for ourselves. In your opinion, the activities of which of the named international organizations of the UN system are related to solving global problems of our time?

In the global financial and banking sphere, a prominent place is occupied by specialized UN agencies - the IMF and organizations included in the World Bank Group.

April 25 marks the 65th anniversary of the day when delegates from 50 countries gathered in San Francisco for the United Nations conference on the creation of an international organization - the UN. During the conference, delegates prepared a charter of 111 articles, which was adopted on June 25.

The United Nations (UN) is an international organization of states created to maintain and strengthen international peace, security, and develop cooperation between countries.

The name United Nations, proposed by United States President Franklin Roosevelt, was first used in the Declaration of the United Nations on January 1, 1942, when, during World War II, representatives of 26 states pledged on behalf of their governments to continue the joint struggle against the countries of the Nazi bloc.

The first contours of the UN were outlined at a conference in Washington at the Dumbarton Oaks mansion. In two series of meetings held from September 21 to October 7, 1944, the United States, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and China agreed on the goals, structure, and functions of the world organization.

On February 11, 1945, after meetings in Yalta, the leaders of the United States, Great Britain and the USSR, Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin, declared their determination to establish “a universal international organization for the maintenance of peace and security.”

On April 25, 1945, representatives from 50 countries met in San Francisco at the United Nations Conference on the Establishment of an International Organization to develop the UN Charter.

Delegates from countries representing over 80% of the world's population gathered in San Francisco. The Conference was attended by 850 delegates, and together with their advisers, delegation staff and the Conference secretariat, the total number of persons taking part in the work of the Conference reached 3,500. In addition, there were more than 2,500 representatives of the press, radio and newsreels, as well as observers from various societies and organizations. The San Francisco Conference was not only one of the most important in history, but in all likelihood also the largest international gathering ever held.

The agenda of the Conference included proposals developed by representatives of China, the Soviet Union, Great Britain and the United States at Dumbarton Oaks, on the basis of which the delegates were to develop a Charter acceptable to all states.

The Charter was signed on June 26, 1945 by representatives of 50 countries. Poland, not represented at the Conference, signed it later and became the 51st founding state.

The UN has officially existed since October 24, 1945. - to this day, the Charter had been ratified by China, France, the Soviet Union, Great Britain, the United States and most of the other signatory states. October 24 is celebrated annually as United Nations Day.

The preamble to the Charter speaks of the determination of the peoples of the United Nations to “save succeeding generations from the scourge of war.”

The purposes of the UN, as enshrined in its Charter, are the maintenance of international peace and security, the prevention and elimination of threats to peace, and the suppression of acts of aggression, the settlement or resolution by peaceful means of international disputes, the development of friendly relations between nations based on respect for the principle of equality and self-determination of peoples; implementation of international cooperation in economic, social, cultural and humanitarian fields, promotion and development of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all, without distinction of race, gender, language and religion.

UN members have pledged to act in accordance with the following principles: sovereign equality of states; resolution of international disputes by peaceful means; refusal in international relations to threaten or use force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state.

192 states of the world are members of the UN.

Main organs of the UN:
- The UN General Assembly (UNGA) is the main deliberative body, consisting of representatives of all UN member states (each of them has 1 vote).
- The UN Security Council operates constantly. According to the Charter, the Security Council is entrusted with primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security. If all ways of peaceful resolution of the conflict have been used, the Security Council is competent to send observers or troops to maintain peace in conflict areas in order to ease tension and separate the troops of the warring parties.

Over the entire existence of the UN, UN peacekeeping forces have carried out about 40 peacekeeping operations.
- The UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) is authorized to conduct research and compile reports on international issues in the field of economic, social, culture, education, health, human rights, ecology, etc., and make recommendations to the General Assembly on any of them.
- The International Court of Justice, the main judicial body established in 1945, resolves legal disputes between states with their consent and provides advisory opinions on legal issues.
- The UN Secretariat was created to ensure proper conditions for the organization’s activities. The Secretariat is headed by the chief administrative official of the UN - the UN Secretary General (since January 1, 2007 - Ban Ki-moon (Korea).

The UN has a number of its own specialized agencies - international intergovernmental organizations on economic, social and humanitarian issues (UNESCO, WHO, FAO, IMF, ILO, UNIDO and others) associated with the UN, through ECOSOC, and international agreements. Most UN members are members of UN specialized agencies.

The UN common system also includes autonomous organizations such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

The official languages ​​of the UN and its organizations are English, Arabic, Spanish, Chinese, Russian and French.

The UN headquarters is located in New York.

The UN is a Nobel Peace Prize winner. In 2001, the award "For contribution to the creation of more organized world and strengthening world peace" was awarded jointly to the organization and its Secretary General Kofi Annan. In 1988, the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to the UN Peacekeeping Forces.

The material was prepared based on information from open sources

The creation of the UN became possible as a result of the combined efforts of the USSR, USA, Great Britain, France and other states in the fight against fascism during the Second World War. The stages in the formation of the new organization were: the Moscow Conference of the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, USA and Great Britain with the participation of the Chinese Ambassador to the USSR, which took place on October 30, 1943.

Declaration on General Security, which recognized the need for the establishment of a general international organization for the maintenance of international peace and security, based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all peace-loving states; Tehran Conference of the Governments of the USSR, USA and Great Britain (September - December 1943), which confirmed the importance of the task of creating a new organization; a conference in Dumbarton Oaks (near Washington) of representatives of the same powers and, at the second stage, China (September 1944), which developed a draft UN Charter; Crimean Conference of the leaders of the USSR, USA and Great Britain (February 1945), at which the issue of the voting procedure in the UN Security Council was agreed upon.

The final text of the UN Charter was adopted at a conference in San Francisco (April - June 1945) and signed on June 26, 1945. The date of its entry into force - October 24, 1945 - is celebrated in all UN member states as United Nations Day Nations.

The creation of the UN was a major political achievement in the field of interstate relations and international cooperation. During the preparation and adoption of the UN Charter at all stages of negotiations, the USSR played an exceptional role in the final consolidation of advanced, progressive principles in the Charter international relations and international law.

The delegates of the San Francisco Conference, in order to emphasize the historical importance of the UN Charter, deviated from some generally accepted procedures of international treaties when adopting and signing it. The UN Charter was approved unanimously, but not by a vote by show of hands or by name, but by the standing of all participants in the Conference. When signing the Charter, they deviated from the generally accepted alphabetical order. It was decided to give the first five places when signing the Charter to the main powers - the four states inviting to the San Francisco Conference in English alphabetical order: China, the USSR, Great Britain and the USA, then France, then all other states in alphabetical order. Poland, which did not take part in the conference, was left with a signature space.

It was also decided to give the opportunity to sign the Charter on behalf of their countries to all delegates who had the appropriate authority. The Charter was signed by 153 delegates from 51 states. From the USSR, the Charter was signed by seven representatives, including the first head of the Department of International Law of the Moscow State Institute of International Relations, Doctor of Law, Professor S. B. Krylov, who took an active part in all stages of the preparation of the draft Charter.

The UN was created as defined in Art. 1 of its Charter, for the following purposes: 1) to maintain international peace and security; 2)

develop friendly relations between nations based on respect for the principle of equality and self-determination of peoples; 3)

to carry out international cooperation in resolving international problems of an economic, social, cultural and humanitarian nature and in promoting and developing respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all, without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion; 4) be a center for coordinating the actions of nations in achieving these common goals.

The organization is based on progressive, democratic principles of international law.

In Art. 2 of the UN Charter provides that the UN and its members act in accordance with the principles of the sovereign equality of all its members; conscientious fulfillment of the obligations assumed by the UN Charter to resolve international disputes by peaceful means; refusal in international relations from the threat or use of force, either against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other way incompatible with the purposes of the UN; providing full assistance to the Organization in all its actions in accordance with the Charter and refusing assistance to any state against which the UN is taking preventive or enforcement action.

The UN Charter also reflects other important principles of modern international relations and international law: good neighborly relations (“show tolerance and live together in peace with each other, like good neighbors”); joint actions of states in order to maintain international peace and security; disarmament; equality and self-determination of peoples; broad international cooperation to promote the economic and social progress of all peoples, ensuring the equality of people, their fundamental rights and freedoms, respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law.

The principles of international law enshrined in the Charter have been confirmed and further developed in resolutions and declarations of the UN General Assembly, such as, for example, the resolution on general and complete disarmament of 1959, the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples of 1960, the Declaration

on the principles of international law concerning friendly relations and cooperation between states in accordance with the UN Charter, 1970, Definition of Aggression 1974, Declaration on Strengthening the Effectiveness of the Principle of Non-Threat or Use of Force in International Relations 1987, etc.

The UN distinguishes between original and accepted members. The original members are the 50 states that attended the San Francisco Conference and signed and ratified the Charter. The 51st state, Poland, was given the right to sign the Charter as an original member.

According to Art. 4 of the Charter, members of the UN may be peace-loving states that accept the obligations contained in this Charter and which, in the judgment of the Organization, are able and willing to fulfill these obligations. Admission to UN membership requires a recommendation from the UN Security Council adopted by at least nine votes, including the concurring votes of all five of its permanent members, and a resolution of the UN General Assembly made by 2/3 of the states present and voting. A UN member who systematically violates the principles of the UN Charter may be expelled from the Organization by a decision of the UN General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council (Article 6). The UN has not yet resorted to such a measure.

Although the Charter does not say anything about the possibility of leaving the Organization, such a right belongs to each UN member as a sovereign state. In January 1965, Indonesia announced the termination of its participation in the work of the UN, and in September 1966 it resumed its participation in its activities. The Charter provides for the possibility of suspending the rights and privileges of a UN member state if preventive or coercive measures have been taken against it by the Security Council. Such a stop is carried out by the UN General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council, and restoration is carried out by the Security Council.

Since the creation of the UN, the number of its members has reached 192; Montenegro became the last member of the UN on June 28, 2006. Further growth in the number of members is possible in the event of decolonization of the remaining colonial possessions and dependent territories.

As a rule, member states establish their permanent missions to the Organization. Non-member states can establish relations with the UN and establish permanent observer missions. Currently, the Vatican has such a mission. Palestine has its mission. Observer status may also be granted to liberation movements, specialized institutions, and other intergovernmental organizations. The EU, OAS, LAS, AU, etc. have this status.

In accordance with the Charter (Article 7), the main bodies of the UN are the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice and the Secretariat. Competence and legal status each of them are enshrined in the UN Charter. They are central links in their field of activity, but this does not mean that they are equal in their role and legal status. Of most importance to ensuring the goals and principles of the UN is the UN GA as the broadest international forum in which all member countries of the UN are represented, and the Security Council as the body entrusted with the primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security and which, in the performance of its duties, acts on behalf of all members of the Organization. The General Assembly and the UN Security Council are independent bodies that are not subordinate to each other or to other bodies of the UN system.

ECOSOC and the Trusteeship Council carry out their functions under the guidance and control of the General Assembly and, in some cases, the UN Security Council. The International Court of Justice is the main judicial organ of the UN, consisting of a panel of independent judges. The Secretariat, as the main administrative and technical body, is called upon to assist and ensure the normal functioning of all other bodies.

Subsidiary bodies can be established by all main bodies of the UN on the basis of its Charter, and their competence must be part of the competence of the main body. As a rule, UN bodies consist of all or some member states, represented by plenipotentiaries or delegation. Sometimes bodies are staffed on the basis of personal representation. Thus, the International Law Commission consists of persons with recognized authority in the field of international law. The composition of the International Court must be representative of the major legal systems of the world.

To organize the work of bodies in the UN system, "official and working languages" are established. The list of these languages ​​is defined (in the rules of procedure of each body. According to the Rules of Procedure of the General Assembly, Provisional Rules of Procedure

I Security Council The official and working languages ​​of the Assembly and the Security Council, as well as their main subsidiary bodies, are English, Arabic, Spanish, Chinese, Russian and French. In ECOSOC, the official languages ​​are the same six languages, and the working languages ​​are English, Spanish and French. All major UN documents, including resolutions, are published in official languages. Verbatim reports of meetings are published in the working languages ​​and speeches delivered in any official language are translated into them.

The UNGA consists of all UN member states, represented at its sessions by no more than five representatives. Each delegation may also include five alternate representatives and the required number of advisers and experts. Regardless of the number of representatives, each state has one vote. The state itself decides how representative its delegation will be. Some states include parliamentarians, scientists, political and public figures, journalists. Delegations from our country have repeatedly included scientists from the Moscow State Institute of International Relations (S. B. Krylov, F. I. Kozhevnikov, N. N. Lyubimov, A. V. Torkunov, etc.). The delegation can be headed either by the head of the permanent mission to the UN or by a higher representative - the minister of foreign affairs, the head of state or government. The anniversary 50th session of the UN General Assembly (1995) was attended by 129 heads of state and government.

The General Assembly is vested with broad competence within the UN. She is authorized to discuss any issues or

matters within the limits of the UN Charter or relating to the powers and functions of any of the UN organs and make recommendations in relation to them to member states and the Security Council (Article 10 of the Charter). In the field of maintaining international peace and security, the Assembly: 1) considers the general principles of international cooperation, including the principles defining disarmament and arms regulation; 2) discusses any issues related to the maintenance of peace and international security; 3)

makes recommendations regarding these principles and issues to UN member states and the Security Council.

The UN Charter provides for two restrictions that are important for delimiting the competence of the General Assembly and the UN Security Council in the field of maintaining peace and international security: 1) The General Assembly cannot make any recommendations relating to any dispute or situation in respect of which the Security Council is acting its functions, unless the Council requests it (Article 12); 2) The General Assembly cannot take action on behalf of the UN: any issue on which action needs to be taken is referred to the Council before or after discussion (Article 11, paragraph 2).

To ensure the development of friendly relations between nations based on respect for the principle of equality and self-determination of peoples, the General Assembly is entrusted with the following functions: 1)

conduct research and make recommendations with a view to promoting international cooperation in the political field and encouraging the progressive development of international law and its codification; 2) to recommend measures for the peaceful settlement of any situation, whatever its origin, which might disturb the general welfare or other relations between nations; 3) promote the development of non-self-governing and trust territories in the political, economic, social, and cultural fields. The General Assembly must approve trusteeship agreements for territories not designated as strategic and monitor their implementation through the Trusteeship Council.

The UN Charter also entrusted the General Assembly with the task of facilitating international economic, social, cultural and humanitarian cooperation.

The General Assembly also performs other functions, in particular electing non-permanent members of the Security Council, members of ECOSOC, and the Trusteeship Council. Together with the Security Council, it elects judges of the International Court of Justice,, on the advice of the Council, appoints the Secretary-General and admits new members to the Organization. It reviews annual and special reports on the activities of all UN bodies and its specialized agencies.

The General Assembly also carries out budgetary functions. It reviews and approves the UN budget, determines the contributions of members of the Organization and reviews the budgets of specialized agencies. The UN budget consists of annual contributions from member states, as well as those non-member states that participate in certain types of UN activities. For most developing countries there is a minimum contribution (0.01%). The main expenses for the regular budget are borne by the permanent members of the Security Council and the most economically developed states.

The UN Charter and the Rules of Procedure of the General Assembly determine the organization of its work. The General Assembly is a sessional body. It meets in regular, special and emergency special sessions.

The formula for convening regular sessions changed several times. Pursuant to General Assembly resolution 57/301 of 13 March 2003, the General Assembly meets annually in regular session on the Tuesday of the third week in September, commencing with the first week in which there is at least one working day.

The work of the annual regular sessions of the Assembly is conducted in plenary sessions and in main committees, which include all member states. Such committees, based on the decision of the General Assembly of August 17, 1993 (res. 47/233), are: Committee on Disarmament and International Security (First Committee); Economic and Financial Affairs Committee (Second Committee); Committee on Social, Humanitarian and Cultural Affairs (Third Committee); Special Political and Decolonization Committee (Fourth Committee); Committee on Administration and Budget (Fifth Committee); Legal Affairs Committee (Sixth Committee). Most committees' work is completed by December. However, individual committees, for example the Fifth Committee, continue their work after January of the following year, ending it, like the next session of the Assembly, a few days before the convening of the next session of the Assembly, i.e. in August - early September next year.

The work of the Assembly session is led by the General Committee, which includes the chairman of the session, 21 his deputies and 6 chairmen of the main committees. These persons are elected in accordance with the principle of equitable geographical representation, taking into account the number of seats established by resolutions of the General Assembly for the states of the five regions: Africa, Asia, of Eastern Europe, Latin America, Western Europe, etc. (by others we mean Australia, Canada, New Zealand). To verify the credentials of state representatives, a Credentials Committee of nine members is created.

The Chairman of the General Assembly is elected at the opening of the regular session and remains in office until the opening of the next regular session and the election of a new chairman. He generally presides over special and emergency special sessions during his term in office. The Chairman of the 1st session of the General Assembly was Paul-Henri Spaak (Belgium). According to the agreement reached before the opening of the 1st session of the General Assembly, representatives of the permanent members of the Security Council should not be elected as chairmen of the Assembly, but only as their deputies.

The work of the Assembly session begins with plenary sessions, where a general political discussion is held, within the framework of which delegations present the positions of their governments on the most important international issues. Agenda items are considered in the main committees or in plenary sessions, depending on their distribution. In committees, decisions are made by a simple majority of votes.

Special sessions (there were 28 from 1946 to 2008) can be convened on any issue at the request of the Security Council or a majority of UN members within 15 days from the date of receipt of such a request by the UN Secretary-General. Emergency special sessions (there were 10 from 1946 to 2008) are convened on issues related to threats to the peace, breaches of the peace or acts of aggression, at the request of the Security Council or a majority of UN members within 24 hours of the Secretary-General receiving such a request. At special and emergency special sessions, committees are not created; work is carried out in plenary sessions.

The UN Charter establishes a list of issues that are identified as important and on which decisions of the General Assembly are made by at least 2/3 of the states present and voting. Such matters include: recommendations regarding the maintenance of international peace and security, elections of non-permanent members of the Security Council, elections of members of ECOSOC, the Trusteeship Council, admission of new members, suspension of the rights and privileges of members of the Organization, expulsion from the UN, matters relating to the trusteeship system, budgetary questions (Article 18 of the Charter).

On all other issues, including the determination of additional categories of important issues, decisions are made by a simple majority of those present and voting. This form, used in the practice of UN system bodies, means that absentees and abstentions are considered as not participating in the vote.

To carry out its functions, the General Assembly creates permanent and temporary subsidiary bodies. The permanent bodies include the Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Issues, the Committee on Contributions, etc. An important place is occupied by the International Law Commission, created for the purpose of the progressive development of international law and its codification.

Over the years, the General Assembly has created more than 150 subsidiary bodies on a temporary basis, including such important ones as the Special Committee on the Principles of International Law relating to Friendly Relations and Cooperation of States in accordance with the UN Charter, the Special Committee on the Definition of Aggression, the Special Committee on the issue of the implementation of the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples (Committee of 24), the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations (Committee of 33), the Special Committee on the UN Charter and strengthening the role of the Organization, etc.

In the activities of the General Assembly, the practice of creating auxiliary units that enjoy significant autonomy and deal with issues of international cooperation in special areas has developed, for example, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP).

Currently, the General Assembly is the most representative global political forum, where all states can not only discuss and identify their positions on the most important issues of international politics, but also find mutually acceptable ways to resolve these problems peacefully, through diplomatic contacts and negotiations. Resolutions of the General Assembly, adopted with the greatest possible degree of consent of the main political forces participating in the UN, have significant moral and political influence. Many of them were an important step towards the development of conventions and international treaties, for example, the International Covenants on Human Rights, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, etc. Some resolutions of the General Assembly, which formulate the principles of international law and were adopted unanimously (without votes against), may acquire the meaning of mandatory, subject to their recognition by states as such.

In a number of cases, the General Assembly performs the functions of a diplomatic conference when, during a session, it develops and adopts or approves draft international treaties prepared by other bodies, which are then opened for signature (for example, treaties in the field of disarmament).

The UN Security Council is the most important permanent body on which UN member states have entrusted primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security. In discharging the duties arising from this responsibility, the Council acts on their behalf (Article 24 of the UN Charter). In accordance with Art. 25 of the Charter, UN members assumed obligations to obey and implement the decisions of the Security Council.

The Council consists of 15 states (before January 1, 1966 - out of 11), having the status of permanent and non-permanent members (Article 23). In accordance with the UN Charter, permanent members are Russia, the USA, Great Britain, France and China. They have a special responsibility for maintaining international peace.

Ten non-permanent members are elected by the UN General Assembly for two-year terms without the right of immediate re-election. In elections, due consideration shall be given to the degree of participation of States in the maintenance of international peace and security and to the achievement of other purposes of the Organization, as well as to equitable geographical distribution.

The UN General Assembly resolution of December 17, 1963 (1991 A (XVIII)) established the following quotas for filling the seats of non-permanent members: five - from the states of Asia and Africa; one from Eastern European states; two - from Latin American states; two - from Western European states and other states. Later it was clarified that two countries were elected from Asian states, and three from African states. From 1946 to 2008, 111 states were elected to the Security Council as non-permanent members, many of them two or more times. Statistics show that some states were elected as non-permanent members quite often (Brazil and Japan - nine times; Argentina - eight times; India, Italy, Canada, Colombia, Pakistan - six times; Egypt, the Netherlands, Poland - five times).

The Security Council is the only body in the UN system that must take action on behalf of all members of the Organization in the field of maintaining international peace and security. For these purposes, it is authorized to investigate any situation which may give rise to international friction or give rise to a dispute, in order to determine whether the continuation of that dispute or situation is likely to threaten the maintenance of international peace and security (Article 34 of the UN Charter). If the Council considers that it is dealing with disputes or situations that threaten the maintenance of peace, then it is obliged to seek the peaceful resolution of such disputes and the settlement of such situations (Chapter VI of the UN Charter). At the same time, according to the UN Charter, he can: 1) demand from the parties to the dispute that they fulfill their obligation to resolve disputes by peaceful means (clause 2 of Article 33); 2) recommend to the parties the appropriate procedure or methods for resolving disputes and situations (clause 1 of Article 36); 3) recommend the conditions for resolving the dispute, which the Council finds appropriate (clause 2 of Article 37);

The Security Council determines the existence of any threat to the peace, any breach of the peace or act of aggression and makes recommendations or decides what measures should be taken to maintain or restore international peace and security. "He may resort to measures not related to the use of armed forces (complete or partial rupture economic relations, cessation of railway, sea, air, postal, telegraphic, radio or other means of communication), or to actions by the combined armed forces of UN member states.

The Security Council also has the responsibility to develop disarmament plans and present them to UN members, but in practice it does not do this.

The Security Council, in exercising its powers in the field of maintaining international peace and security, must interact with other principal organs. It may request the UNGA to make any recommendations concerning a dispute or situation before the Security Council (Article 12). In turn, the UN GA is authorized to make recommendations to the Council (Article 10; subparagraphs 1, 2 of Article 11) and can draw its attention to situations that could threaten international peace and security (paragraph 3 of Article 11).

Certain relationships are provided between the Security Council and ECOSOC, which, according to Art. 65 of the Charter “is authorized to submit information to the Security Council and, upon proposal of the Security Council, is obliged to assist it.”

Article 94 of the UN Charter establishes the relationship between the International Court of Justice and the Council, providing that if any party to a case fails to fulfill the obligations imposed on it by a decision of the Court, the other party may appeal to the Council. The Council has the right, if it considers it necessary, to make recommendations or decide on the adoption of measures to enforce the decision.

The Council performs a number of functions jointly with the UN General Assembly: it recommends the admission of new members, the suspension of the exercise of the rights and privileges of UN members, and expulsion from UN membership. However, the restoration of suspended rights and privileges is carried out exclusively by the Security Council. In addition, the Council recommends the appointment of a Secretary General by the Assembly and participates in the election of international judges.

The Security Council adopts acts of two kinds: recommendations and decisions. Unlike recommendations, decisions of the Council, in accordance with the UN Charter, are legally binding on states.

The extremely important functions of the Council were also determined by its voting methods. Each member of the Council has one vote. Nine votes of any Council members are sufficient to make decisions on procedural issues. To make a decision on all other issues related to the activities of the Council, at least nine votes are required, including the concurring votes of all permanent members of the Council, and the party involved in the dispute must abstain from voting when making a decision on the basis of Chapter. VI and on the basis of clause 3 of Art. 52. This formula is called the principle of unanimity of permanent members.

The Council's decision is considered rejected if at least one permanent member votes against it. In this case, they talk about using a veto.

In Art. 27 of the Charter does not indicate which issues are procedural and which are not. Explanations on this matter were given during the San Francisco Conference in the Statement of the delegations of the four inviting governments on the voting procedure in the Security Council dated June 7, 1945. It listed all cases of procedural voting under Art. 28-32: adoption and change of rules of procedure, methods of electing the chairman, organization of the work of the Council, etc. All other cases of voting under Ch. VI and VII required the application of the principle of unanimity, including the determination of whether a matter was procedural or miscellaneous.

In the latter case, it becomes possible for the same permanent member of the Council to use a veto twice: first when deciding on an issue of its procedural or other nature, then when considering it on its merits. This is the so-called double veto. The practice of its application is very small: only six times in the first years of the Council’s activity.

Certain difficulties arose in the practice of applying the rule of mandatory abstinence of a permanent member - a party to a dispute: they were associated with establishing whether we are talking about a dispute or a situation, with determining the party to the dispute and with making a decision on the dispute on the basis of Chapter. VI or VII. In the practice of the Council, there were only five cases of the application of mandatory abstinence of a member of the Council - a party to the dispute. At the same time, a rule has developed and become widely applied, according to which the motivated abstention of a permanent member of the Council who is not a party to the dispute is considered not to interfere with the adoption of a decision.

The practice of the Security Council has proven the exceptional importance of the principle of unanimity.

From the principle of unanimity it follows that the activities of the Council are based on the principle of special responsibility of its permanent members, by virtue of which they are obliged to make every effort to ensure the normal functioning of the Council and the achievement by this body of agreed decisions on issues of maintaining peace and security.

The voting formula in the Security Council to a certain extent requires the coordinated actions of not only the permanent members, but also the non-permanent ones, since in addition to the five votes of the permanent members, at least four concurring votes of the non-permanent members are also required to make a decision. This means that the seven non-permanent members have a kind of collective veto. In this case, they talk about a “hidden” veto. It has never been used in practice yet. Consequently, the decision-making mechanism in the Security Council is based on taking into account the interests of all countries, both large and small. Recently, an increasing number of resolutions in the Council are adopted by consensus. Statements by the President of the Council, as well as communiqués and briefings, are distributed.

The Security Council is a permanent body. All its members must be permanently represented at the seat of the UN. The Council meets as necessary, but according to the Rules of Procedure, the interval between its meetings should not exceed 14 days. This rule is not always followed.

Meetings of the Security Council are held at the UN headquarters in New York. However, the Council may hold its meetings away from headquarters. Thus, in 1972, a meeting of the Council was held in Addis Ababa (Ethiopia) and in 1973 in Panama.

Other states, both UN members and non-members, can also take part in the work of the Council. Without the right to vote, the Security Council invites: 1) UN members who are not members of the Council if their interests are specifically affected by the issue discussed in the Council (Article 31 of the UN Charter); 2) members and non-members of the UN, if they are a party to a dispute considered in the Council (Article 32 of the UN Charter). With the right to vote, the Council may invite a State if it so desires when the question of the use of the military contingent of that State placed at the disposal of the Council is being discussed.

The practice of the Security Council in recent years has followed a very broad interpretation of Art. 31 (in particular, the concepts of “affected interests”, “issue”), which allows a significant number of invited states, as well as representatives of a number of subsidiary bodies of the UN and international organizations, to participate in the discussion without the right to vote.

Council meetings at the level of heads of state and government and foreign ministers have acquired great importance in the practice of the Security Council. The possibility of holding such periodic meetings is provided for in Art. 28 of the Charter. For example, meetings at the level of foreign ministers took place on October 21, 1970

and on September 26, 1995, on the occasion of the 25th and 50th anniversaries of the UN, respectively. On January 31, 1992, the first high-level meeting of the Council was held to discuss the role of the UN in maintaining international peace and security in the new conditions. It endorsed the Secretary-General's report “An Agenda for Peace”. On September 7, 2000, the second such meeting took place, and its main topic was strengthening the role of the UN in the 21st century.

In accordance with Art. 29 of the Charter, the Security Council may establish such subsidiary organs as it finds necessary for the performance of its functions. Such organs are divided into permanent and temporary. The permanent bodies include: the Committee of Experts (on procedural issues), the Committee on the Admission of New Members, the Committee on the Issue of Council Meetings Outside Headquarters. Temporary subsidiary bodies are created consisting of all or some members of the Council to study a specific situation (for example, Sanctions Committees, Counter-Terrorism Committee, etc.).

Particular attention should be paid to the Military Staff Committee, the creation of which is provided for by the UN Charter (Article 47). This is a permanent body of the Council, composed of the chiefs of staff of the permanent members of the Council or their representatives, designed to give advice and assistance on all matters relating to the military needs of the Council. Although the body holds its meetings once every two weeks, it has been virtually inactive since mid-1947, not receiving any assignments from the Council.

In the many years of activity of the Security Council, there have been certain methods and procedures for resolving various conflict situations. Particularly successful in the practice of the Council were fact-finding missions, mediation, preventive diplomacy, peacekeeping and peacekeeping operations, post-conflict peacebuilding, etc.

However, it still remains topical issue on increasing the effectiveness of the Security Council, including the use of all its statutory capabilities for maintaining peace. main reason The lack of effectiveness of the Council lies in its inability in a number of cases to ensure the implementation of its resolutions.

The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) is called upon in accordance with Art. 55 of the UN Charter to promote: 1) raising the standard of living, full employment of the population and the conditions for economic and social progress and development; 2) resolving international problems in the areas of economic, social, health, culture, education, etc.; 3) universal respect and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms for everyone, without distinction of race, gender, language and religion.

ECOSOC consists of 54 states (before January 1, 1966 - 18; from 1966 to 1973 - 27), elected by the UN General Assembly. A retiring Council member may be re-elected immediately. This rule makes it possible to elect permanent members of the Security Council to ECOSOC for each regular term. 18 ECOSOC members are elected annually. The UN General Assembly resolution of December 20, 1971 (2847 (XXVI)) established the following order of distribution of seats in ECOSOC: 14 from African states; 11 - Asia; 10 Latin America and

Caribbean; 13 - Western Europe and other countries; 6 - from Eastern European countries.

ECOSOC works in session. At the beginning of the year New York an organizational session is held and the main session is held in the summer, alternately in Geneva and New York (until 1992, two main sessions were held). The work of regular sessions of ECOSOC is carried out in three sessional committees consisting of all members of the Council: first (economic), second (social), third (program and coordination). During the session, meetings of heads of delegations are held at the ministerial level to discuss cardinal issues of ECOSOC activities.

The functions of ECOSOC are many and varied. The main directions of its actions: 1) qualified discussion of international economic and social problems and the development of principles for the activities and policies of the UN in this area; 2) coordination of all activities of the UN system on economic and social issues, including coordination of the activities of specialized agencies; 3) preparation of qualified studies and reports on general and special problems of international economic and social cooperation.

ECOSOC can also convene international conferences on issues within its competence and draw up draft conventions for submission to the UN General Assembly. With his participation, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Covenants on Human Rights, the Declaration and Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Convention on the Political Rights of Women, the Declaration and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, etc. were developed.

ECOSOC should coordinate the activities of the UN specialized agencies to unite actions in order to most effectively implement the tasks of international economic cooperation. It maintains regular relations with other intergovernmental organizations whose areas of activity coincide or are in contact with its activities, for example with the EU, OECD, CoE, and regional organizations. These relations include sending observers to sessions, exchanging information and documents, and consulting on issues of mutual interest. ECOSOC establishes contacts and holds consultations with international non-governmental organizations, and, if necessary, with national organizations. ECOSOC also grants consultative status to non-governmental organizations.

ECOSOC in accordance with Art. 68 of the Charter is vested with the power to create commissions in the economic and social fields and for the promotion of the question of human rights, as well as other commissions that may be required to carry out its functions. ECOSOC has eight functional commissions: the Statistical Commission, the Commission on Population and Development, the Commission for Social Development, the Commission on the Status of Women, the Commission on Narcotic Drugs, the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, the Commission on Science and Technology for Development and the Commission on Sustainable development.

The subsidiary bodies include five regional commissions: Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), Economic Commission for Europe (ECE), Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA). The purpose of the Commissions is to promote the socio-economic development of regions and the development of economic cooperation between the countries of the region, as well as with other countries of the world.

The ECOSOC structure also includes three standing committees: for program and coordination; for non-governmental organizations; on negotiations with intergovernmental institutions. In addition, a number of expert bodies operate within the framework of ECOSOC, in particular on geographical names, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, etc.

Over the years of its activity, ECOSOC has established itself as an important body for cooperation between states in the economic and social fields and in the field of human rights protection. UN programs in the field of sustainable development require further strengthening of the coordinating role of ECOSOC.

Guardianship Council. The UN Charter provided for the creation of an international trusteeship system, which was to include the former mandate territories; territories seized from enemy states as a result of World War II; territories voluntarily included in the trusteeship system by the states responsible for their administration. The trusteeship system included 11 territories: part of Cameroon and part of Togo, Tanganyika (under British administration), part of Cameroon and part of Togo (under French administration), Ruanda-Urundi (under Belgian administration), Somalia (under Italian administration), New Guinea (administered by Australia), Western Samoa and the Micronesian islands - Caroline, Marshall and Mariana (administered by the USA), Nauru (jointly administered by Great Britain, Australia and New Zealand).

The states administering trusteeship territories (there were seven in total - Australia, Belgium, Great Britain, Italy, New Zealand, USA, France) entered into agreements with the UN, which determined the terms of trusteeship for each territory. There were two types of trust territories: non-strategic areas and strategic areas (US Trusteeship Micronesia). In relation to the former, the trusteeship functions were carried out by the Trusteeship Council under the leadership of the UN General Assembly. With regard to strategic areas, the main role belonged to the Security Council in cooperation with the Trusteeship Council.

The size of the Trusteeship Council was not defined in the Charter and depended on the number of administering powers. In accordance with Art. 86 of the UN Charter, the Council included: 1) trustee states; 2)

permanent members of the Security Council who do not administer trust territories; 3) the number of states elected for a three-year term that is necessary to equalize the first two groups of states. Taking into account these criteria, the size of the Council has changed several times. The largest number of members - 14 - was in the period from 1955 to 1960. Since 1975, the Council has consisted of five states - permanent members of the Security Council.

The Trusteeship Council fulfilled the tasks assigned to it under the Charter: all 11 trustee territories gained independence, the last of them - the islands of Palau - in 1994. In this regard, the Council decided that it should be convened only when necessary.

The issue of the future of the Council was discussed at the 50th session of the UN General Assembly and in the Special Committee on the UN Charter and strengthening the role of the UN. Among the proposals made is the transformation of this body into the Human Rights Council, the Council on Environment and Development, etc.

The International Court of Justice is the main judicial organ of the UN. Its Statute is an integral part of the UN Charter. All UN member states are ipso facto parties to the Statute. A non-member state of the UN can become a party to the Statute on conditions that are determined in each individual case by the UN GA on the recommendation of the Security Council (clause 2 of Article 93). The International Court of Justice consists of a panel of independent judges elected, regardless of their nationality, from among senior moral qualities who satisfy the requirements in their countries for appointment to the highest judicial positions, or who are jurists of recognized authority in the field of international law (Article 2 of the Statute).

The court consists of 15 members elected for nine years, with a third of its members renewed every three years. When the judges were first elected, it was decided by lot which five judges from among those elected would sit for three years and which five judges would sit for six years. Judges are elected by the General Assembly and the Security Council by an absolute majority of votes. Eight votes are sufficient in the Security Council, and the right of veto cannot be used. Elections in both bodies take place simultaneously and independently of each other. Candidates for election are nominated by national groups of the Permanent Court of Arbitration. States not represented in the House must appoint such groups, subject to the conditions laid down for members of the House.

The Statute of the Court recommends that each group, before making nominations, seek the opinion of the highest judicial institutions, law faculties, legal higher educational institutions and academies of their country, as well as national branches of international academies engaged in the study of law (Article 6). The Statute contains two instructions regarding the formation of the composition of the Court: it should not contain two citizens of the same state (clause 1 of article 3); the entire composition of judges must ensure representation of the main forms of civilization and the main legal systems of the world (Article 92). Since the beginning of the Court's activities, it has included a judge representing the Soviet and now Russian legal systems. Professors from the Moscow State Institute of International Relations were elected twice as members of the International Court: S. B. Krylov (1946-1952) and F. I. Kozhevnikov (1953-1961). Currently, a member of the Court is Russian lawyer L. Skotnikov, former head of the Legal Department of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

The Chairman and Vice-Chairman of the Court are elected by the Court itself for three years, and the Secretary of the Court - for seven years. The International Court of Justice is competent to consider disputes between states with their consent and to issue advisory opinions on legal issues at the request of the Security Council, the UN GA, as well as other UN bodies and specialized agencies with the permission of the UN GA (see Chapter 12).

Secretariat and Secretary General. The UN Secretariat is the main administrative and technical body, consisting of the Secretary-General and such personnel as may be required by the Organization. The Secretary General is appointed by the UN General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council, adopted using the principle of unanimity, for a period of five years with the possibility of re-election for a new term.

Since January 2007, the Secretary General is Ban Ki-moon (Republic of Korea). Before him, Trygve Lie (Norway, 1946-1953), Dag Hammarskjöld (Sweden, 1953-1961), U Thant (Burma, 1961-1971), Kurt Waldheim (Austria, 1972-1981) were appointed General Secretaries .), Javier Perez de Cuellar (Peru, 1982-1991), Boutros Boutros Ghali (England, 1992-1996), Kofi Annan (Ghana, 1997-2006).

The Secretary General is the chief administrative officer of the UN. In this capacity, he recruits Secretariat staff and provides personnel to UN bodies; is responsible for the preparation of documents when studying various issues by UN bodies, for the preparation and execution of the UN budget; represents the UN in its relations with other organizations and governments; submits an annual report to the UN General Assembly on the work of the Organization, etc. In addition to these functions, which are generally administrative and technical in nature, the Secretary General, in accordance with Art. 99 of the UN Charter gives the right to bring to the attention of the Security Council situations that, in its opinion, may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security.

The Secretariat is responsible for ensuring the normal functioning of all UN bodies, servicing their activities, and implementing their decisions. Its structure includes departments, directorates and other units, for example departments for political affairs and Security Council affairs, disarmament issues, international economic and social issues, etc.

Currently, the total number of the Secretariat is about 15 thousand people. The staff of the Secretariat is appointed by the Secretary General according to the rules established by the UN General Assembly. The main criteria for hiring are the level of efficiency, competence and integrity of employees, as well as the selection of personnel on “the widest possible geographical basis” (Article 101 of the UN Charter). UN member states are assigned quotas that determine the number and level of posts in the Secretariat that can be filled by their citizens. The procedure for filling vacant positions is competitive. The appointment of employees is made on the basis of a system of permanent (indefinite) and fixed-term (for a certain period) contracts.

Secretariat staff are divided into four main categories: executive staff, professional staff, general service staff, and field service staff. The leadership team consists of the Deputy and Assistant Secretary Generals, his advisers, special representatives and directors. Already at its 2nd session in 1947, the UN GA, pointing to the international character of the Secretariat, emphasized the need to “avoid the undue dominance of individual national practices.” Its decisions noted that “the policies and administrative methods of the Secretariat should reflect and, to the maximum extent possible, be enriched by different cultures and professional competence of all Member States" (resolution A/153/III). At the same time, there are still unresolved problems in staffing the UN Secretariat. As before, the middle and senior levels are staffed mainly by citizens of several large countries.

Institutional reform of the Secretariat should contribute to its better organization and efficiency. The main parameters of the reform are set out in the document “Renewing the UN: Reform Agenda. A/51/950/1997.” Its central element is the restructuring of the Secretariat's work in five areas: peace and security; economic and social issues; development cooperation; humanitarian issues; human rights. Executive committees have been created in the first four regions. Regarding human rights issues, they are considered cross-cutting and should be present in the activities of the four executive committees. All UN units should be assigned to these key areas.

The UN Charter is a multilateral universal treaty of a special kind and significance. It not only defined the rights and obligations of the member states of the Organization, but also consolidated the generally accepted principles and norms of international law.

The significance of the Charter is also determined by the fact that it formulates the goals of ensuring peace, peaceful coexistence and cooperation of states, and enshrines their agreement to take joint actions to achieve these goals within the UN on the basis of generally recognized principles and norms of international law. The provisions of the Charter take precedence over other international treaties. Article 103 of the Charter provides: “In the event that the obligations of the Members of the Organization under this Charter are in conflict with their obligations under any other international agreement, the obligations under this Charter shall prevail.” A significant number of bilateral or multilateral treaties were adopted on the basis of the Charter or contain direct references to it. The principles and purposes of the Charter have found their further development in international treaties concluded within the UN framework, such as the Human Rights Covenants, disarmament agreements, etc.

The United Nations Millennium Declaration, approved by UN General Assembly resolution 55/2 of 8 September 2000, reaffirmed the commitment of UN Member States to the purposes and principles of the UN Charter, “which have proven to be timeless and universal. Their relevance and ability to serve as a source of inspiration increase as countries and peoples become increasingly interconnected and interdependent.”

The Charter provides for the possibility of amending it. The amendments must be adopted by 2/3 of all members of the UN General Assembly and ratified in accordance with their constitutional procedure by 2/3 of the members of the Organization, including the five permanent members of the Security Council.

In UN practice, amendments were adopted by the UN General Assembly to Art. 23, 27, 61 and 109 in 1963, 1965 and 1971 (came into force in 1965, 1968 and 1973, respectively). The amendments concerned increasing the number of members of the Security Council from 11 to 15 and ECOSOC - from 18 to 27, and then to 54, and clarifying the voting procedure in the Council (instead of seven votes - nine).

The Charter provides that its revision requires the convening of a General Conference of UN members at a time and place to be determined by 2/3 of the members of the General Assembly and by the votes of any nine members of the Security Council.

During its existence, the UN (its 60th anniversary was celebrated in 2005) has achieved tangible results in maintaining peace, resolving conflict situations, disarmament, economic and social cooperation, especially in ensuring human rights, in the codification of international law, etc. As a positive fact It is also necessary to note the fact that the majority of UN member states did not find support for the attempts made at various periods to revise the fundamental provisions of the Charter. In the process of UN activities, such provisions were developed and specified, and they were adapted to changing international relations.

With the beginning of the third millennium, the activities of the UN need to take stock and identify ways to improve its effectiveness. Such work is carried out within the framework of the Special Committee on the UN Charter and strengthening the role of the Organization established in 1974, as well as in the organizations created in the 90s. last century, open-ended working groups of the UN General Assembly - on Security Council reform, on an agenda for peace, on an agenda for development, on the financial situation of the UN and on strengthening the UN system.

The UN Millennium Declaration listed the key goals facing the international community in the third millennium: peace, security, disarmament; development and poverty eradication; environmental protection; human rights, democracy; meeting the special needs of Africa. Solving these priority tasks requires strengthening the UN and turning it into a more effective instrument. To do this, the Declaration says, it is necessary to reaffirm the central place of the UN GA as the main deliberative, decision-making and representative body of the UN and to enable it to effectively play this role: to intensify efforts to carry out comprehensive reform of the Security Council in all its aspects; continue to strengthen the Economic and Social Council to help fulfill the role assigned to it in the Charter; strengthen the International Court of Justice to ensure justice and the rule of law in international affairs; encourage regular consultation and coordination between the principal organs of the UN in the performance of their functions.

The report of the High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change, “More safe world: Our Shared Responsibility” (A/59/565) and the report of the UN Secretary-General “In Larger Freedom” (March 2005), based on it, notes the need to increase the effectiveness of the UN in a number of areas, including: strengthening collective security mechanisms ; strengthening the operational capacity of the UN for peacekeeping and peacebuilding purposes; further progress on democratization, development and human rights. Based on the recommendations of the Group, the report included a number of proposals for consideration by UN member states: to expand the Security Council from 15 to 24 members; simplify the UNGA agenda; develop new rules under which the UN can authorize the use of armed force; replace the Human Rights Commission with the Human Rights Council, etc. Two models for reforming the UN Security Council have been proposed: model A - add six new permanent members without the right of veto and three non-permanent members for a two-year term; Model B - retain the five existing permanent members, add eight non-permanent members for a four-year term with immediate re-election, and one non-permanent member for a two-year term with immediate re-election. The UN General Assembly, by resolution 60/251 of March 15, 2006, established the Human Rights Council to replace the Commission on Human Rights. Consultations on other proposals, as well as possible other options for changing the composition of the Security Council, continue. However, given the complexity of these issues, which require changes to the UN Charter, finding solutions acceptable to all UN member states is extremely difficult.

The UN system includes: the UN itself and its subsidiary bodies (funds, programs, etc.) with significant administrative and financial autonomy, such as UNEP, UNDP, UNICEF, etc.; specialized agencies whose relations with the UN are governed by agreements concluded on the basis of Art. 57 and 63 of the UN Charter; as well as UN-related organizations and institutions that are not specialized agencies, but which have established contractual cooperation relations with the UN. At the same time, a number of such agreements contain provisions that are in many ways similar to the provisions of agreements concluded by the UN with specialized agencies (International Atomic Energy Agency, Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Prohibition Treaty nuclear tests, International body on the Seabed, International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea).

The concept of the UN system of organizations, as defined above, should be distinguished from the UN common system of working conditions, which is a unified system in the field of regulating the conditions and remuneration of employees of the secretariats of organizations included in this system. This common system was originally created to avoid competition in the recruitment of personnel by the UN and specialized agencies, as well as to allow rotation of personnel between them. However, the specialized agencies of the Bretton Woods Group refused to participate in this system and created their own, which to a certain extent is more beneficial for the staff of these organizations than the general UN system. At the same time, a number of members of the UN system that are not specialized agencies, such as the IAEA, the International Seabed Authority, the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, etc., decided to participate in this system and entered into relevant agreements for this purpose.

The regulation and coordination of working conditions for personnel of UN common system organizations is currently carried out by the International Civil Service Commission, which was created by the UN GA and whose competence is recognized by all organizations participating in the UN common system of working conditions. The Commission is an expert body consisting of 15 members appointed by the UN GA for a four-year term and serving in their personal capacity as independent experts.

The issue of creating specialized institutions was first raised at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference. Integrate technical cooperation in economic, social and humanitarian fields It seemed difficult to carry out activities to ensure international security within the framework of one organization, so a decision was made to create a branched mechanism consisting of a number of international organizations of special competence, called UN specialized agencies. Many specialized agencies were created almost simultaneously with the UN, and others that already existed were established official relations and the corresponding agreements were signed.

The characteristics of a UN specialized agency are listed in Art. 57 of the UN Charter, which names four main features inherent in specialized agencies: 1)

intergovernmental nature of constituent acts; 2)

broad international responsibility within their competence; 3)

carrying out activities in special areas provided for by the provisions of the UN Charter; 4)

connection with the UN.

The first three signs indicate that a UN specialized agency can only be an organization certain type. First of all, the organization must be international and intergovernmental. The provision on “broad international responsibility” indirectly indicates that the organization must be universal in nature, i.e. be open to the participation of all states. The activities of the organization must be limited to the area of ​​special competence47.

From any other international intergovernmental universal organization of special competence, special

These institutions are distinguished by their connection with the UN. The foundations of relationships with specialized agencies are laid down in the UN Charter. Organizations can acquire the status of a UN specialized agency if they meet the requirements listed in Art. 57 and 63 of the UN Charter.

The organization becomes a specialized institution by concluding in accordance with paragraph 1 of Art. 63 of the UN Charter is a special agreement that defines the conditions under which the relationship between the UN and this organization as a specialized agency is established. Agreements are concluded by ECOSOC on behalf of the UN and are subject to approval by the UN General Assembly. In an organization acquiring the status of a specialized institution, this agreement is subject to approval in accordance with the procedures determined by its statutory documents. The initiative to conclude such an agreement belongs to an organization that wants to acquire the status of a specialized institution. There is no single standard agreement, but the provisions developed when concluding the first agreements with varying degrees modifications were used in subsequent ones. Most agreements contain provisions dealing with the following issues: for all specialized agencies: -

mutual representation in the main bodies for more complete coordination of activities, as well as participation for these purposes in the work of the Administrative Committee on Coordination, created in 1946 and transformed in 2001 into the Coordination Council of Senior Management of the UN System; -

adoption and participation in the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the UN Specialized Agencies, approved by the UN General Assembly on November 21, 1947, which, among other things, allows employees of these organizations to use the UN official pass (The United Nations Laissez-passer48); -

possibility with the permission of the UN General Assembly on the basis of paragraph 2 of Art. 96 of the UN Charter to request an advisory opinion from the International Court of Justice on matters within the scope of their activities; -

duration of validity (agreements are of an indefinite nature); -

for specialized institutions, not including the Bretton Woods Group: -

exchange of information and documents, reports, as well as inclusion of issues on the agenda; -

participation in the Staff Agreement, aimed at unifying the working conditions of employees of UN system organizations, which, among other things, allows employees of these organizations to use a UN service pass; -

relationships on budgetary and financial issues in order to improve the efficiency and economy of activities; -

using a single scale of budget contributions based on the scale approved by the UN General Assembly for the UN regular budget.

Despite the fact that it was initially assumed that relations between the UN and specialized agencies would be built on the same basis, in fact, two types of specialized agencies emerged, differing in the nature of their relationships with the UN.

Most specialized agencies in their relations with the UN are guided by the general principles of relations on all issues described above. These organizations constitute the “inner circle” of specialized institutions.

There is another type of organization, which includes the Bretton Woods Group organizations. When signing the agreements, these organizations took a more distant position in their relations with the UN compared to the others, taking on limited obligations to implement the recommendations of the UN GA and completely refusing to join the UN general system of working conditions. The provisions of these organizations' agreements with the UN stipulate that they cannot make formal recommendations to each other without prior consultation.

During the activities of the UN, its main bodies created a number of subsidiary bodies that have significant independence and have a structure reminiscent of international intergovernmental organizations. However, these bodies are not created by international agreements, but by decision of the main UN bodies (usually the UN GA) and therefore are not independent, but have a significant degree of autonomy. The list of such auxiliary bodies is quite extensive49.

The distinctive features of these bodies are: -

financial independence - their activities are financed by voluntary contributions; -

the presence of an intergovernmental body directing the work; -

the presence of an executive head, although appointed by the Secretary General, but, as a rule, in agreement with the relevant intergovernmental body of the fund or program; -

the presence of its own secretariat, which is appointed by the executive head of this body and, although theoretically considered as part of the general UN Secretariat, but in relation to which the executive head can promulgate separate personnel rules.

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) became the successor to the International Meteorological Organization created in 1873. The decision to create WMO was made in 1947 at a conference of directors of meteorological services in Washington. In 1951, WMO became a specialized agency of the UN.

The goal of WMO is to ensure the effective exchange of meteorological and hydrological information, including in weather forecasting, climatology and water resource use. WMO is the global forum for the free and unrestricted exchange of meteorological data. WMO also plays a central role in studying the impact of human activities on climate and global warming. Under the auspices of WMO, the World Weather Watch was created, designed to improve weather forecasts through the cooperation of various meteorological services.

The highest body of WMO is the World Meteorological Congress, composed of the heads of meteorological services of member states and convened every four years. Congress determines the general policy of WMO and approves its programs and budget. The implementation of the program of the organization and the resolutions of the Congress is entrusted to the Executive Council, consisting of 37 members, including the president, three vice-presidents, six presidents of regional associations and 27 members elected by the Congress for four years. WMO operates through six regional associations. WMO also has eight technical commissions covering aeronautical, marine and agricultural meteorology, atmospheric research, climatology, hydrology, and instruments and methods of observation. The administrative and technical body of WMO is the Secretariat, which is headed by the Secretary General, appointed by Congress for a four-year term.

Currently, the organization includes 182 states and six territories. The headquarters is located in Geneva (Switzerland).

The predecessor of the World Health Organization (WHO) was the Health Organization of the League of Nations, created in 1923. The virtual demise of the League of Nations led to the fact that in 1945 the United Nations Conference on International Organizations in San Francisco unanimously supported the proposal of Brazil and China to create a new autonomous international health organization. The functions of the League of Nations Health Organization, the United Nations Relief and Reconstruction Administration (UNRRA), and the International Bureau of Public Hygiene (IOPH) were transferred to WHO. Emphasizing the need to harmonize international health cooperation under the auspices of one organization, the preparatory committee also recommended that IADG be included within WHO. The decision on this was formalized in the form of a Protocol regarding the International Bureau of Public Hygiene. In the summer of 1946 in New York, the participants of the International Health Conference adopted the WHO Charter, and a year later this organization took an active part in the fight against the cholera epidemic in Egypt. The WHO Constitution came into force on April 7, 1948.

The preamble to the Charter noted that by accepting it, states established WHO as a specialized agency of the UN. The agreement between the UN and WHO came into force in 1948.

The WHO's goal is “the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible standard of health.” To achieve this goal, WHO coordinates the efforts of states in the field of international health, develops and promotes the adoption of norms and standards, stimulates scientific research in the most promising areas, monitors the international health situation, and provides technical assistance to states in improving national health care systems.

The highest body of WHO is the World Health Assembly, at which member states are usually represented by their ministers of health, accompanied by a delegation. The Assembly carries out general management of the organization, adopts the program and budget, etc. The Executive Committee consists of 34 members who are highly qualified in the field of health and are elected by the Assembly for a three-year term. The committee's responsibilities include implementing the policies and decisions of the Assembly. The administrative and technical body is the Secretariat, which is headed by the Director General, elected by the Assembly for a five-year term.

193 states are members of WHO. The WHO headquarters are located in Geneva (Switzerland).

According to the provisions of the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property of 1883 and the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works of 1886, International Unions with permanent Bureaux were created. In 1893, these Bureaus were united. On July 14, 1967, at a conference in Stockholm, the Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization, 1967, was adopted, which, in particular, was entrusted with the tasks of ensuring the administrative coordination of the two mentioned unions. In 1970, when the Convention came into force, the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) replaced both Bureaus. Since 1974, WIPO has been a specialized agency of the UN.

WIPO's main goal is to promote the protection of intellectual property throughout the world. Intellectual property is divided into two main institutions: industrial property (inventions, utility models, industrial designs, as well as means of individualizing goods, services and their manufacturers) and copyright and related rights. To achieve its goal, WIPO carries out administrative cooperation between unions, of which there are currently over 20, as well as monitoring the implementation of the provisions of over 20 conventions relating to intellectual property. Together with UNESCO and the ILO, WIPO is also involved in administering the Convention for the Protection of the Rights of Producers of Phonograms (Geneva, 1971

d) and the Convention on the Distribution of Program Signals Transmitted by Satellites (Brussels, 1974).

Membership in WIPO is open to member states of one of the unions, members of the UN or its specialized agencies, the IAEA, countries that have signed the Statute of the International Court of Justice, or states that wish to accede to the 1967 Stockholm Convention.

WIPO is the only practically self-sustaining specialized agency of the UN. 90% of the organization's budget is covered by financial receipts from WIPO's services for registering intellectual property rights. The remaining 10% is formed from profits from the sale of printed publications, payment for arbitration and mediation services and membership fees from states. The largest membership fee does not exceed 0.5% of the organization's total budget.

The structure of WIPO also has its own peculiarities: the organization has three governing bodies. The conference, consisting of WIPO member states, provides general guidance to the activities of the organization, discusses issues related to intellectual property, etc. The General Assembly consists of representatives of WIPO member states that are also parties to the Paris and/or Berne Treaties. The General Assembly adopts the program, budget and financial regulations of the organization. Sessions of the Conference and the General Assembly are held simultaneously every two years. The activities of the Paris and Berne Unions are coordinated by the WIPO Coordination Committee, consisting of 82 members. The Coordination Committee includes members of the executive committees of the Paris and Berne Unions, elected by the members of these unions. Committee sessions are held annually. The administrative and technical body is the International Bureau for the Protection of Intellectual Property, headed by the Director General. 184 states are members of WIPO. WIPO's headquarters are located in Geneva, Switzerland.

The Universal Postal Union (UPU) was established by the Universal Postal Convention, adopted in 1874 at the First Universal Postal Congress in Bern. The UPU has been a specialized institution since 1948. The activities of the UPU are currently regulated by the Constitution of this organization, adopted in 1964 in Vienna. The purpose of the Union is to promote international cooperation in the field of ensuring the organization and improvement of postal services. According to the UPU Constitution, states created a single postal territory for the free exchange of written correspondence on the basis of uniform principles. The highest body of the UPU is the Universal Postal Congress, consisting of representatives of all member states and meeting in regular sessions every four years. The competence of Congress includes consideration of all issues, with the exception of the revision of the Constitution. During the period between sessions, the work of the UPU is led by the Governing Council. The Council consists of 41 members, 40 of whom are elected based on equitable geographical representation, and one of whom is a representative of the state in which the Congress is held. The Council is responsible for maintaining contacts with the postal authorities of the Member States, reviewing organizational issues, providing technical assistance, studying administrative and legislative problems. Standardization and unification of the basics of postal services is the responsibility of the Postal Operations Council, which consists of 40 members elected by Congress. The functions of the secretariat are performed by the International Bureau. The UPU unites 190 member states. Headquarters The Union is located in Bern (Switzerland).

The history of international cooperation in the field of tourism began with the organization of the International Congress of Official Tourism Associations in 1925 in The Hague. In 1934 the congress was renamed the International Union official organizations for the promotion of tourism, and after the Second World War, the headquarters of the organization was moved to Geneva, and it itself was once again renamed the International Union of Official Tourism Organizations. According to its legal status, the Union was a non-governmental organization. With the development of tourism, the international community clearly felt the need to create an effective intergovernmental mechanism capable of controlling tourism and helping to improve its safety.

In 1970, the UNWTO Charter was signed in Mexico, which came into force in 1974, and the Union was transformed into the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). Since 2003, UNWTO has been a specialized agency of the United Nations.

Taking into account the specifics of the tourism industry, the UNWTO provides for three types of membership: full, associated and affiliated. Only sovereign states are full members of the UNWTO. Seven territories that do not have competence in the field of external relations participate in the activities of the organization as associate members with the consent of the governments of the states representing them in external relations. The specifics of the work of the UNWTO contributed to the addition of a third type of participation in the organization to this list - in the status of an affiliated member. An affiliated member may be an international intergovernmental and non-governmental organization, as well as a commercial organization or association operating in the field of tourism, travel and related industries and has received consent to join UNWTO from the country where its headquarters is located. Thus, about 300 private sector enterprises take part in the work of UNWTO.

The General Assembly represents the highest body of the UNWTO and consists of voting delegates of full and associate members. Representatives of affiliated members and other invited organizations are also allowed to attend meetings of the Assembly as observers. The Assembly is convened every two years to make decisions on the most important issues. The subsidiary bodies of the General Assembly are six Regional Commissions, which meet at least once a year. The Executive Council is the second most functional body of the UNWTO, responsible for the implementation of the adopted program and budget. The Executive Board currently has 30 members. The members of the Council are elected at the rate of one member for every five members of the UNWTO plus a representative from Spain, which has permanent membership of the Executive Council as the host country of the UNWTO. One associate member and one affiliated member, elected by the members of these groups, also participate in the work of the Council. The secretariat of the organization is headed by the Secretary General. The Secretariat provides day-to-day technical and administrative support for the organization's activities. The organization's members include 150 states. The UNWTO headquarters is located in Madrid (Spain).

Under the League of Nations there was a Commission of Communications and Transit, which dealt, among other things, with issues of navigation and international maritime law. However, the activities of the commission did not satisfy the needs international community. During the Second World War, some participants in the anti-Hitler coalition created the United Maritime Directorate, designed to coordinate maritime trade transport and supervise shipping. Later, the department was transformed into the Joint Maritime Advisory Council (UMAC), whose main task was to promote the development of maritime trade in Peaceful time. The day before its dissolution on October 30, 1946, the OMKS submitted recommendations to ECOSOC on convening international conference for the establishment of the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO). The recommendations also contained a draft Charter for the future organization, which was supposed to be given the status of a specialized agency of the UN. On March 6, 1948, at the UN conference in Geneva, the Convention establishing the IMCO was adopted, which came into force only in 1958. The ten-year gap is explained by disagreements that arose between states regarding the transfer of rights to regulate trade aspects of maritime navigation to a new organization. IMCO became a specialized agency of the UN in 1959.

The increase in the number of members, as well as the active participation of the organization in the international rule-making process, led to the fact that in 1975 it was decided to rename IMCO the International Maritime Organization (IMO). The goals of the IMO are: ensuring cooperation between countries on issues of international maritime trade transport, ensuring the safety of navigation, and preventing pollution from ships.

The highest body of the IMO, where all member states are represented, is the Assembly. The Assembly meets for regular sessions every two years. The functions of the Assembly are to resolve general issues of the organization, adopt programs and budgets, elect members of the executive body, etc. The Council is elected for two years and consists of 40 members. The Council includes representatives from 10 states - the largest maritime carriers, 10

states most actively involved in maritime trade, and 20 states that do not fall into the previous categories, but are involved in maritime navigation and ensure equal representation of all regions of the world. The Council coordinates the activities of IMO bodies and directs the work of the organization in the period between sessions of the Assembly. The administrative and technical body is the Secretariat, headed by the Secretary General. The organization's budget is formed from contributions determined on the basis of the total tonnage of the merchant fleet of the member states.

Four committees play an important role in the activities of the organization, each of which consists of representatives of all member states. The work of the Maritime Safety Committee is aimed at regulating technical issues related to the safety of maritime transport. The Legal Committee is concerned, as its name suggests, with the consideration of all legal issues in the field of activity of the organization. The Marine Environment Protection Committee carries out activities, including in the field of rule-making, in the field of pollution control from ships. The Technical Cooperation Committee reviews projects for which IMO is the executing agency.

The IMO has 167 members and three associate members. The headquarters is located in London (UK).

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) was established by the Chicago Convention of 1944 at a conference in Chicago in 1947. Since that time, ICAO has been a specialized agency of the UN. The main goals of ICAO are: to promote the development of safe civil aviation in the world, to encourage improvements in technical means of flight and ground services related to air navigation, to prevent economic losses caused by unreasonable competition, etc. The economic regulation of civil air transport became a subject of controversy at the conclusion of the convention establishing ICAO. The compromise reached was to give the organization an advisory function in economic sphere. ICAO's activities are aimed at developing standards and recommendations, as well as preparing draft conventions relating to international civil aviation.

The main body of ICAO is the Assembly, consisting of representatives of all member states and meeting every three years in session. The executive body of ICAO is the Council, elected by the Assembly for a three-year term and consisting of 36 members. The Council represents states: 1) playing a leading role in civil aviation; 2)

not included in the first group, but making the greatest contribution to the development of material means of air navigation services; 3)

not included in the first two groups, but ensuring the implementation of the principle of equal geographical representation. In addition to resolving organizational issues, the Council adopts standards and practical recommendations that are incorporated into the Convention as annexes. The administrative and technical body of ICAO is the Secretariat. An important role in the activities of ICAO is played by its five committees, the members of four of which are appointed by the Council, and membership in the fifth, legal, is open to all ICAO members. 190 states are members of ICAO. The headquarters is located in Montreal (Canada).

The creation of an autonomous international labor organization under the League of Nations was provided for in Art. 13 of the Treaty of Versailles, which constituted its Constitutive Act. When developing the ILO Charter, the experience of its predecessor, the International Labor Law Association, founded in Basel in 1901, was taken into account. The ILO Charter was adopted in 1919. In 1944, the Charter was supplemented by the provisions of the Declaration of Philadelphia, which formulated the general goals and principles of the organization. Subsequently, the Charter was revised several times. In 1946, a cooperation agreement was signed between the UN and the International Labor Organization (ILO) and the ILO became the first international organization to receive the status of a specialized agency of the UN. The text of the agreement formed the basis for most subsequent agreements.

The purpose of the ILO is to promote standards and basic principles of labor, promote employment, improve social protection and intensification of social dialogue. A special feature of the ILO is tripartite representation based on the idea social partnership- along with governments, trade union and business organizations of the participating countries participate in its activities.

The main organ of the ILO is the International Labor Conference (ILC) (General Conference). The conference meets in annual sessions. Each country's delegation to the Conference may include two representatives from the government and one from the trade union and business associations of each member state. The main governing body of the ILO is the Governing Body, consisting of 56 members: 28 from governments and 14 representatives of workers and employers. The competence of the council includes making decisions on measures for the practical implementation of ILO policies, preparing draft programs of activities and budgets, and electing the ILO Director General. The secretariat of the ILO is the International Labor Office (ILO). The Bureau is headed by CEO. The Office carries out the functions assigned to it by the ILC and the Governing Body, including preparing documentation, disseminating information, conducting research, organizing meetings, etc. There are 181 countries that are members of the ILO. The headquarters of the ILO is located in Geneva (Switzerland).

The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) was created in 1865 in Paris and received its current name in All peace conference telecommunications, held in Madrid in 1932. The Union was created by the merger of the International Telegraph Union (1865) and the International Radiotelegraph Union (1906). In 1947, ITU received the status of a specialized agency. The purpose of ITU is to improve and rationally use all types of telecommunications, including satellite radiocommunications, provide technical assistance to developing countries in the field of telecommunications and radiocommunications, coordinate the activities of states to eliminate harmful interference, etc. ITU activities are carried out in three main areas: telecommunication standardization, radiocommunications and telecommunications development.

The main body of ITU, which determines the directions of the organization’s activities and approves the budget and work program, is the Plenipotentiary Conference. The conference is convened every four years. The conference works in three sectors: radio communications, telecommunications, development of telecommunications. The executive body of ITU is the Council. The Council ensures that the organization’s policies comply with the modern dynamics of industry development, is responsible for ensuring the daily activities of the union, coordinates the implementation of programs, and monitors spending financial resources. The Council consists of 46 members elected by the Conference on an equal basis. geographical distribution places The General Secretariat is the administrative and technical body of the organization. The International Frequency Registration Committee, the Telecommunications Development Bureau and the Radio and Telegraph and Telephony Committees operate under the ITU. According to the ITU Charter, international and regional telecommunication organizations, private companies, research centers, equipment manufacturers, etc. can also take part in the work of the organization as Sector participants. The ITU budget is made up of contributions from Member States and Sector Members, with the Member State at its discretion choosing the class (amount) of contributions. ITU has 191 Member States, over 600 Sector Members, and over 130 Association Members. ITU headquarters are located in Geneva (Switzerland).

The decision to create the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) was made at the UN World Food Conference held in Rome in 1974. The agreement establishing the Fund was adopted in 1976 and came into force on 11

December 1977, when the total amount of initial contributions reached $1 billion. IFAD became a specialized agency of the UN in 1977. The purpose of the Fund is to attract financial resources to provide developing countries with preferential loans for the development of the agricultural sector. Many projects are financed by IFAD jointly with other international financial organizations. Before the amendments to the Agreement establishing IFAD came into force in 1997, three categories of membership in the Fund influenced the number of votes for decision-making: 1)

donor states that are members of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development; 2)

donor states that are members of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries; 3)

developing countries - recipients of aid.

The adopted amendments to the Agreement establishing IFAD establish the following voting principle: all members of the Fund have an initial vote plus additional votes based on the size of the contribution to the Fund. The operations of the Fund are managed by a Board of Governors, which includes representatives from all member countries. The Council meets in annual sessions. The practical implementation of the council's decisions is entrusted to the Executive Council, consisting of 18 members. The President of the Foundation is the chairman of the Executive Council, heads the IFAD employees and acts as the legal representative of the organization. IFAD has 164 members. The foundation is located in Rome (Italy).

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) was created at the London Conference in 1945, its Charter came into force on November 4, 1946. In December of the same year, an agreement was signed with the UN, according to which UNESCO received the status of a specialized agency . The main goals of the organization are the development of international cooperation in the field of education, science and culture; promoting respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, justice and the rule of law; development of education in the world and dissemination of science and culture. With the adoption in 1972 of the Convention concerning the Protection of the Natural and Cultural Heritage, the creation of a regional system for the protection of monuments included in the list of world cultural heritage was added to the goals of UNESCO. To achieve its goals, the organization carries out activities to promote, transfer and exchange knowledge, mutual acquaintance and establish understanding between peoples, taking into account national characteristics, eradicating illiteracy, popularizing science, developing communications, enhancing information exchange, etc. To perform these functions

UNESCO initiates research in promising areas in the field of natural sciences, promotes the training of teaching and administrative staff involved in the field of education, maintains a list of cultural heritage monuments, promotes the development of communications infrastructure, participates in the international standard-setting process, provides expert services at the request of states, collects and systematizes statistical information, as well as takes other actions to achieve statutory goals. Cooperation with states is carried out through interaction with UNESCO National Commissions, consisting of representatives of workers in education, science and culture.

The highest body of UNESCO is the General Conference, consisting of representatives of Member States. The conference meets for regular sessions every two years. The competence of the Conference includes determining the general policy and medium-term (six years) strategy of the organization, approving programs and budgets, electing members of the Executive Board, appointing a director general, adopting draft international conventions and other issues requiring resolution participating countries. Between sessions of the Conference, the work of the organization is governed by an Executive Council, which consists of 58 members elected for a four-year term, taking into account equitable geographical representation. The Council is responsible for the implementation of programs adopted at the sessions of the Conference. The administrative and technical body of UNESCO is the Secretariat, headed by the Director General. The Director General is elected by the Conference for a four-year term. UNESCO includes 193 states. The organization's headquarters is located in Paris (France).

The United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) was created in 1966 by UNGA resolution 2152 (XXI) as an autonomous subsidiary body of the UN responsible for coordinating industrial development within the UN. In 1979, the process began to transform UNIDO into an independent organization. This process was completed in 1985 when UNIDO became a specialized agency of the United Nations.

The goals of the organization are to promote sustainable and equitable industrial development, accelerate industrialization, disseminate advanced technologies and establish a new economic order.

UNIDO's activities are aimed at providing technical assistance mainly to developing countries in the industrialization of industry, providing assistance in the investment area, establishing business cooperation with sponsors "I industrial development.

!’j The highest organ of UNIDO is the General Conference,

II uniting representatives of all member states. The conference meets every two years. The Conference addresses issues related to the policy and strategy of the organization, | budget and programs. The conference also monitors the effective use of financial resources. The Industrial Development Board is the executive body of UNIDO. The Council consists of 53 members elected by the General Conference for three years. The Council is responsible for the implementation of approved programs and submits an annual report on the activities of UNIDO to the UN General Assembly. The administrative and technical body is the Secretariat, headed by the Director General. 172 countries are members of UNIDO. The headquarters is located in Geneva (Switzerland).

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) was created at the end of the Second World War, which left the food supply critical in many countries. At an international conference convened in May 1943 in Hot Springs (USA) to discuss food and agricultural problems, it was decided to create an international organization to improve the distribution of food resources and combat hunger. The draft Charter developed by the Temporary Commission was submitted for consideration to the participants of the 1943 conference and, after its adoption by 44 states in 1945, came into force. FAO received the status of a specialized agency of the UN in 1946. In the same year, the functions of the International Agricultural Institute, created in 1905, were transferred to FAO.

FAO's goals are to improve the world's living standards by ensuring adequate nutrition, increasing production efficiency and adequate distribution of food and agricultural products, improving conditions

life of the rural population, attracting investment in the agricultural sector. The main activities of FAO are aimed at collecting and analyzing statistical information on nutrition and agriculture, conducting the necessary scientific research, and providing technical assistance to countries, including through direct food supplies in crisis situations. When forming work programs, the organization pays due attention to their economic efficiency, environmental friendliness, rationality and effectiveness. To carry out many tasks, FAO works closely with specialized UN agencies (ILO, WHO) and other international organizations.

The main body of FAO is the Conference, which brings together representatives of all member states. The Conference is in charge of all the most important and general issues FAO's work. The executive body is the Council, consisting of 49 members elected by the Conference according to equitable geographical representation. The administrative and technical body of FAO, the Secretariat, is located in Rome (Italy) and is headed by the Director General of FAO. FAO has 190 members, including the EU.

The consequences of the industrial revolution of the early 20th century, the post-war economic situation in the world and the desire to establish a global monetary and financial mechanism that would prevent a repetition of the Great Depression became the main prerequisites for the creation of financial and economic organizations of the UN system.

The United Nations Conference on Monetary and Financial Affairs was convened in Bretton Woods (New Hampshire, USA), in which 44 states took part. The conference was held from July 1 to July 22, 1944, under the chairmanship of the US Secretary of the Treasury. This meeting is also called a “conference of one and a half parties,” meaning the lobbying position of the United States and Great Britain. Geographical location theater of war led to the strengthening of the economic power of the United States, while at the same time the financial stability of the island state of the United Kingdom was maintained in Europe. Projects for future organizations presented by the United States and Great Britain formed the basis of discussions. The US project envisaged the creation of the “United Nations Stabilization Fund”, and the English project, developed by the famous economist D. M. Keynes, envisaged the “International Clearing Union”. The main contradiction between these projects was the unit of account - the dollar and the pound sterling.

The result of the conference was the creation of the Bretton Woods Group organizations - the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, which were based on the US project. The creation of two organizations was caused by the reluctance of the states participating in the conference to vest a single organization with the rights to regulate both currency and investment flows.

The World Bank (WB) is usually referred to as the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the International Development Association. The WB provides long-term assistance to countries to promote their development.

In the World Bank Group, in addition to those mentioned International-. Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the International Development Association include:

I - International Finance Corporation; -

Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency; -

International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes.

Of the above, the last two are not UN specialized agencies.

The headquarters of all World Bank Group institutions are located in Washington (USA), j The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) was; was created in 1944, and its full formation occurred in the period from 1944 to 1947. At the time of its creation, the purpose of the IBRD was to promote the reconstruction and development of the economies of member countries after the Second World War. Today, its purpose is to provide loans for production projects or financial reforms aimed at developing the economy.

IBRD member states are shareholders of the Bank. The subscribed capital of the states holding shares of the IBRD is 190.81 billion US dollars, of which 11.48 billion are paid to the Bank by member states and are at its disposal, and 178.2 billion the Bank can at any time demand from member states, holders shares The Bank receives the bulk of its funds by borrowing on international financial markets, using essentially the unpaid portion of the subscribed capital as guarantee resources for loans. The Bank's capital is also formed through payments to repay loans provided to it.

The management of the bank's activities is carried out by the Board of Governors, formed of one manager and his deputy from each member state. The Board of Governors is the main body of the Bank. It meets once a year. Between its meetings, the Bank's activities are managed by the Board of Directors, which is a permanent body of the IBRD. It consists of 24 executive directors, five of whom are appointed by the main shareholders (UK, Germany, USA, France and Japan) and the rest are elected governors for two years and represent the remaining member states. Meetings of the Board of Directors are chaired by the President of the World Bank, usually twice a week. The President of the World Bank is traditionally a citizen of the United States, appointed by the government of his country and elected by the Board of Governors for a five-year term. The IBRD includes 185 countries. Only a member of the IMF can be a member of the IBRD.

International Development Association (IDA). At the end of the 1950s. It became clear that the poorest developing countries could not take out loans on IBRD terms. In this regard, in 1960, at the initiative of the United States, the IBRD member states created the IDA. IDA is managed by the IBRD authorities. IDA, unlike the IBRD, provides loans to the poorest countries, and the poverty level is regularly reviewed. IDA can also provide loans to small states whose creditworthiness is insufficient to obtain a loan from the IBRD. Loans are subject to an interest rate of 0.75% per annum to cover administrative costs and are issued for 20-, 35- and 40-year periods.

The bank's resources are formed by subscription from the funds of member states in proportion to their participation in the IBRD. However, IDA members are divided into two lists, the first of which includes economically more prosperous countries, and in the second - less economically developed states. IDA members of the first list pay the subscription fee in freely convertible currency, and countries from the second list pay 10% in freely convertible currency.

currency, and the rest - in national currency, which cannot be used without the prior consent of the state. While the IBRD obtains most of its funds by borrowing from international financial markets, IDA funds come from subscribed capital, funds received from the IBRD, loan repayments, and voluntary contributions. There are 166 countries that are members of the IDA.

International Finance Corporation (IFC). The idea of ​​creating an international organization promoting the development of private enterprises was voiced at the Bretton Woods conference, but did not receive adequate support. In the 50s last century, the initiative was renewed with the participation of N. Rockefeller. The main argument in favor of creating the IFC was the positive impact that private enterprises could have on the development of the world economy.

The agreement establishing the IFC came into force on July 20, 1956, and in 1957 the IFC became a specialized agency of the UN. MFC; assists in the financing of private manufacturing enterprises through the provision of investments without guarantee of repayment by the government of the respective state. The IFC is an independent institution, its resources come from the share capital of its member states (USD 2.4 billion), from funds borrowed from the IBRD and from the financial capital market.

The governing bodies of the IFC are the bodies of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, but the corporation has its own staff. There are 179 participating countries as members of the IFC.

Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA). The Convention establishing the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency was adopted in 1985 and came into force in 1988. The purpose of the agency is to promote foreign direct investment for the purpose of developing production in developing member countries and protecting investments from political risks. Political risks include restrictions on foreign exchange transfers, expropriation, war and civil unrest, and violation of contracts. MAGI has the status of an international intergovernmental organization, but at the same time, taking into account the specifics of its activities, it has the properties of a commercial organization, since it provides services for a fee. Vospol-

Individuals and legal entities of a MIGA member state making investments in the industry of another country, as well as individuals and legal entities investing in the territory of national jurisdiction, can be called an Agency guarantee, but subject to the attraction of funds originating from another state, and taking into account the fact that that the application for guarantees is submitted jointly with the state in whose industry it is intended to invest. MAGI provides guarantees for a period of 3 to 20 years.

MAGA's share capital is currently US$1.88 billion. For the original states, the number of shares was determined by the 1988 Convention. For states wishing to join MIGA, the number of shares is determined by the Board of Governors of the IBRD. MAGI, similar to IDA, is managed by the IBRD. 171 states are members of MAGA.

The International Center for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) was created in 1965 by decision of the Board of Governors of the IBRD, which approved the Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals of Other Countries. The Convention came into force in 1966. Essentially an international commercial arbitration, ICSID provides conciliation and arbitration services between governments and private foreign investors and makes recommendations on foreign investment law. Request for ICSID conciliation and arbitration services is voluntary. However, the decision made on the dispute is final, is not subject to appeal and is binding on the parties. The 1978 Additional Protocol to the Convention allows the ICSID to consider cases in which one or both parties are not parties to the 1965 Convention.

The work of the center is managed by the Administrative Council, consisting of representatives of all member states that have ratified the Convention and are members of the IBRD. Usually the members of the Council are the governors of the countries in the IBRD. The Chairman of the Council is the President of the World Bank. Council meetings are held annually. The Administrative Council appoints the Secretary General, who heads the ICSID Secretariat. The Secretariat forms lists of mediators and arbitrators, in which each member state has the right to include four representatives. The costs of ICSID are paid from the IBRD budget, with the exception of the costs of individual proceedings, which are borne by the parties to the dispute. The ICSUS has 143 members.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) was created in 1944. constituent documents IMF (IMF Articles) changes were made three times: in 1969,1978 and 1992.

The statutory goals of the IMF are: promoting the development and stability of international trade, stability of currencies, streamlining currency relations, avoiding competitive depreciation of currencies, eliminating currency restrictions, promoting the balance of payments of states. To achieve these goals, the IMF performs the following functions: monitors compliance with the code of conduct regarding exchange rates and current account payments, provides short-term loans to countries to correct balance of payments imbalances, and provides a forum for cooperation among countries on financial issues.

The Fund's financial reserves are formed mainly by subscription (from quotas) of its member states, determined based on the relative share of the countries' gross national product. The fund's members are 185 states. (For more on the International Monetary Fund, see 27.5.)

There is a fairly large and constantly growing group of international organizations that are associated with the UN and are part of the UN system of organizations, but are not specialized agencies. These organizations have established cooperative relationships with the UN through agreements or other forms of understanding. Some of these organizations are too small and have rather limited areas of competence to qualify for specialized agency status. These are international organizations for various commodities, created with the participation of UNCTAD, for example the International Tropical Timber Organization. Other regional development banks (African Development Bank, Inter-American Development Bank, Asian Development Bank, Caribbean Development Bank) are regional organizations and therefore cannot become specialized agencies of the UN, since they do not meet the criterion of “universality” established by the UN Charter for specialized agencies.

A number of organizations, such as the World Trade Organization (WTO), which when negotiations began in the late 1940s. it was intended to create a specialized agency, as well as an International Seabed Authority, meeting the criteria of Art. 57 and 63 of the UN Charter, chose not to become specialized agencies and established cooperative relations with the UN on a different basis. At the same time, the International Seabed Authority participates in the general system of working conditions of the UN, but the WTO does not participate.

There are also a number of organizations, such as the IAEA, the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), which cannot become specialized institutions, since their scope of competence does not relate to the issues dealt with by ECOSOC, i.e. Art. 57 and 63 of the UN Charter are not applicable to them. In this regard, they concluded agreements with the UN through the UNGA that are in many ways similar to agreements with specialized agencies. However, under these agreements, the main UN bodies with which they cooperate and to which they send information about their activities are the UN GA and the UN Security Council, since the latter deal with issues falling within the competence of these organizations.

There are also international entities whose legal status has not yet been clearly defined; they have also entered into cooperation agreements with the UN and borrow many provisions from UN agreements with specialized agencies. We are talking about the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, created by the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention, and the International Criminal Court, whose activities are regulated by the Rome Statute of 1998. Both of these entities are international judicial institutions and, strictly speaking, cannot be considered as international organizations. In Art. 4 of the Rome Statute states that the Court has international legal personality and has such legal capacity as is necessary for the exercise of its functions and the accomplishment of its purposes. According to Art. 2 of the Statute, the Court must conclude a cooperation agreement with the UN, which must be approved by the Assembly of States Parties to the Statute. Such an agreement, after the entry into force of the Statute, was concluded between the UN and the International Criminal Court.

The UN agreement with the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea was concluded earlier, and the tribunal decided that it would participate in the general UN system of working conditions on issues relating to the working conditions of office staff.

The proposal to create an international organization through which fissile materials would be transferred from one country to another for their peaceful use was put forward at the 8th session of the UN GA in 1953. Development of the draft Charter of the future organization began in 1954. The text of the IAEA Charter was adopted in 1956 at an international conference at UN headquarters in New York. In 1957, a relationship agreement was signed between the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the UN. The IAEA does not have the status of a specialized agency. In accordance with the provisions of its Charter, the IAEA submits annual reports to the UN GA and, if necessary, to the Security Council. The Agency is also required to notify the Security Council of all matters within its competence.

According to the Statute, the IAEA carries out its activities to achieve two main goals: 1)

faster and more widespread use of nuclear energy to maintain world peace, health and prosperity; 2)

ensuring that assistance provided by the Agency is not used for military purposes.

The IAEA's activities are aimed at the development of nuclear energy, the peaceful use of radioisotopes in various industries, the dissemination of scientific and technical information, and ensuring the safe use of nuclear energy.

The IAEA system of control measures (safeguards) is based on the principle of monitoring nuclear facilities and fissile materials. To achieve this, the IAEA signs safeguards agreements with states. Non-nuclear-weapon states are required under such agreements to place all activities that use nuclear technology under IAEA safeguards.

The Agency also monitors the implementation of international treaties on the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons.

The General Conference, at which all member states are represented, has the authority to consider all issues of the organization’s activities, admit new members, approve the program and budget, etc. The Board of Governors consists of 35 members, 22 of whom are elected by the conference based on equal geographical representation, and the remaining 13 are appointed by the Council from among the most advanced countries in the field of nuclear technology and fissile material production. The administrative and technical body is the Secretariat, headed by the Director General. 144 countries are members of the IAEA. The headquarters is located in Vienna (Austria).

In 1947, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was initially adopted by 23 countries. Work within the framework of GATT 1947, adopted as a temporary agreement, took place in the form of rounds in which agreements were adopted on important issues of international trade. As a result of the work of the last such round, which took place from 1986 to 1994 and is known as the “Uruguayan” round, the World Trade Organization (WTO) was created. The agreement establishing the WTO came into force on January 1, 1995. The WTO is not a specialized agency of the UN, and no agreement has been formally concluded between them. The relationship between these organizations is built on the basis of an exchange of letters between the heads of the secretariats of the UN and the WTO, which took place in October 1995. The letters expressed confidence in the need for close cooperation between the organizations and confirmed the desire to continue developing the text of the agreement on the basis of the relationship that existed between the UN and GATT .

The goals of the WTO are: promoting the reduction of customs tariffs and duties on industrial products to liberalize international trade, combating dumping and non-tariff barriers. To achieve its goals, the WTO performs a number of functions: monitors the implementation of trade agreements, participates in the settlement of trade disputes, facilitates negotiations on trade issues, assists developing countries in developing trade policies, etc.

WTO decisions are usually taken by consensus. The main body of the WTO is the Ministerial Conference, which meets every two years. Between sessions, its functions are performed by the General Council. The General Council receives reports from the Goods Council, the Services Council and the Intellectual Property Council. The WTO has created a large number of committees and working groups. Technical support The work of all bodies is carried out by the Secretariat.

151 states are members of the WTO. Russia has applied to participate in the WTO, but has not yet joined the organization. The WTO headquarters is located in Geneva (Switzerland).

The Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty was adopted by the UN General Assembly and opened for signature on September 24, 1996 in New York. It is the cornerstone document for the international regime of nuclear non-proliferation and disarmament. The Treaty comes into force 180 days after its ratification by 44 States parties to the Conference possessing nuclear launch vehicles and facilities and listed in the Annex to the Treaty. Of the 195 states invited to participate in the Treaty, 178 countries signed the document, and 144 ratified it, including Russia.

Since it became clear that a number of Annex states were not prepared to become parties to the Treaty and therefore it was unlikely to enter into force in the near future, in 1996 it was decided to create a Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty and entrust it fulfills the task of monitoring the tests provided for in the Treaty. A cooperation agreement was signed between the Preparatory Commission and the UN. The commission is financed from contributions from member states.

The bodies of the commission are: the plenary body, in which all member states are represented (the Preparatory Commission), and the Provisional Technical Secretariat. The interim secretariat is located in Vienna (Austria).

The Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) was created by virtue of the provisions of the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction, which entered into force in 1997. The main purpose of the OPCW is to ensure compliance with the provisions of the Convention.

The main body of the organization is the Conference of States Parties, consisting of representatives of all countries that have acceded to the Convention. The executive body of 03X0 is the Council, consisting of representatives of 41 states elected by the Conference on the basis of the principle of equitable geographical representation. The Technical Secretariat, headed by the Director General, in addition to performing the usual functions of an administrative and technical body, carries out inspections as decided by the Executive Council. For this purpose, the Secretariat includes inspectors and the necessary scientific and technical personnel. The headquarters of the OPCW is located in The Hague (Netherlands).

The first practical step towards the creation of the UN was the Declaration of four powers - the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and China - adopted at a conference in Moscow in 1943 on issues of common security. It noted the need to create a world international organization as soon as possible to maintain international peace and security. These provisions were confirmed at the Tehran Conference in 1943

In turn, at the conferences in Dumbarton Oaks 1944 and Yalta 1945, the main features of the future international organization were determined. On June 26, 1945, the participants of the conference in San Francisco signed the UN Charter, and on October 24 of the same year, after its ratification by the majority of states, the UN Charter came into force.

Together with delegations from other countries, the delegation of the Ukrainian SSR also took an active part in these events.

In Art. 1 of the UN Charter defines that the main goals of the UN are:

Maintaining peace and security through collective measures to prevent and eliminate threats to the peace and suppress acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace;

Development of friendly relations between nations;

Implementation of international cooperation in solving international problems of economic, social, cultural and humanitarian nature;

To be a center for coordinating the actions of nations in achieving these goals.

In accordance with its goals and objectives, the UN is a universal organization open to all peace-loving states that are able and willing to fulfill these obligations. Admission of a state to membership is carried out by resolution of the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council. The Charter does not specify how many votes are required to make such a decision.

Members of the UN are sovereign states. According to the membership registration procedure in Articles 3-4 of the Charter, a distinction is made between first members and later accepted members. Among the post-Soviet republics, only Ukraine, Russia and Belarus are among the very first members of the UN (having taken part in the conference in San Francisco, they signed and ratified the UN Charter). Other states - former republics of the USSR - formalized their membership in the UN on the basis of Art. 4 of the Charter by submitting applications for admission.

The General Assembly has the right, on the recommendation of the Security Council, to suspend the exercise of the rights and privileges of one of the members of the Organization. The basis for this is the use of preventive or coercive actions against such member. The restoration of lost rights and privileges can also be carried out by the Security Council. And as a last resort, on the recommendation of the Security Council, any member of the Organization that systematically violates the principles of the UN Charter may be expelled from the Organization by decision of the General Assembly (Article 6).

United Nations bodies

The UN Charter (Article 7) provides for the main and subsidiary organs of the UN. The latter, if necessary, can be based in accordance with the UN Charter. The main organs of the United Nations are the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice, and the Secretariat. Although in the text of the Charter the main bodies are given in a single list, according to their legal status and real value they are far from clear-cut. The central place in the UN system of bodies is occupied, of course, by the Security Council and the General Assembly.

The UN General Assembly is a deliberative representative body in which all UN member states are represented. its structure is:

1) head:

2) deputy chairmen;

3) main committees: on political and security issues; on economic and financial issues; on social, humanitarian and cultural issues; trusteeship and non-self-governing territories; on legal issues;

4) committees: on administrative and budgetary issues; by deposits; on decolonization; on questions about the policy of apartheid; on nuclear energy; on the use of outer space; on disarmament, etc.;

5) sessional bodies: General Committee and Credentials Committee;

6) commissions: audit; international law; on human rights, etc. The General Assembly holds annual regular sessions, and

also special (convened on any issue if demands come from the Security Council) and emergency, which are convened within 24 hours from the moment the Secretary-General receives a demand from the Security Council and supported by the votes of any members of the Council in the following cases:

If there is a threat to peace;

There was a breach of peace or an act of aggression and the members of the Security Council did not come to a solution to the issue.

In accordance with the UN Charter, the General Assembly plays a significant role in the activities of the UN. She makes a significant contribution to the development and preparation of a number of important international documents, codification of the principles and norms of international law.

The General Assembly is a democratic body. Each member, regardless of the size of the territory, population, economic and military power, has 1 vote. Decisions on important issues are made by a majority of the Assembly, 2/3 of those present and members voting. Non-member states of the UN, those with permanent observers at the UN (Vatican City, Switzerland) and those without, can take part in the work of the General Assembly.

The General Assembly is headed by the Secretary General. UN Security Council. As noted in the UN Charter (Article 24), in order to ensure prompt and effective action by the Organization, the Security Council is entrusted with primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security. In its functions and powers, the Security Council submits annual reports and, if necessary, special reports to the General Assembly.

The Security Council consists of 15 members, of which 5 are permanent members (Great Britain, China, Russia, USA, France); 10 are non-permanent, elected by the General Assembly for two years. The seats of non-permanent members are distributed as follows: 5 - from the states of Asia and Africa; 1 - from Eastern European countries; 2 - from Latin American states; 2 - from Western European countries and other countries.

The Security Council has a number of exceptional powers. It is the only body competent to make decisions related to UN actions to maintain or restore international peace and security. Only the Security Council has the authority to decide on enforcement action using military force. The Security Council can make decisions that are binding on all members of the Organization. Appeal or review by any other authority is not permitted. In addition to the main functions and powers, the Security Council also performs a number of others: in particular, together with the General Assembly, it participates in the admission of states to membership of the UN (Article 2-4), the appointment of the UN Secretary General (Article 97), the election of judges of the International Court of Justice (Article 97). 4 of the Charter of the International Court) and others.

According to Art. On July 2 of the UN Charter, decisions of the Security Council on issues of procedure are considered adopted if nine members of the Council vote for them. All other decisions are considered adopted when nine members of the Council, including all permanent members of this body, have voted for them. Therefore, if at least one of the five permanent members votes against one or another proposal on non-procedural issues, the proposal cannot be adopted (the principle of unanimity of the permanent members of the Security Council).

The Economic and Social Council consists of 54 members elected by the General Assembly for three years with the renewal of a third of the Council every year. By tradition, permanent members

The Security Council is elected to the Economic and Social Council for each regular term. Elections to this body are held on the principle of fair geographical representation from Africa - 14, from Asia - 11, from Latin America - 10, from Western Europe - 13, from Eastern Europe - 6 states.

The functions and powers of the Economic and Social Council are set out in Articles 62-66 of the UN Charter. Its main powers boil down to;

conducting research and writing reports on international issues in the economic and social fields; culture, education, healthcare;

preparation of draft conventions on issues within its competence for submission to the General Assembly;

convening international conferences on issues within its competence;

harmonization of the activities of specialized agencies through consultation with them and recommendations to such agencies and through recommendations of the General Assembly;

concluding cooperation agreements with specialized institutions.

The Economic and Social Council carries out its functions through permanent commissions, standing committees, and sessional committees. As a rule, the Economic and Social Council holds two sessions annually (one in New York, the other in Geneva). Its resolutions are adopted by a simple majority of votes.

The Trusteeship Council was created as a body that should exercise control over the management of trust territories (in the post-war period there were 11 such territories). The Council now consists of permanent members of the Security Council. According to experts, in modern conditions of existence the Council is losing its practical significance. In November 1994, the Security Council decided to terminate the UN Trusteeship Agreement for the last of the initial 11 trust territories, the US-administered Pacific Islands Territory (Palau). Therefore, at present the Council meets only when necessary.

The International Court of Justice is the main judicial organ of the UN. Its Charter, adopted in 1945, is an integral part of the UN Charter. The International Court of Justice consists of 15 judges elected for 9-year terms. The composition of the Court is renewed every three years by a third. Every three years, the Court elects a chairman and vice-chairman and appoints a secretary for a term of seven years.

In 1967-1970 The Court included the representative of Ukraine V. M. Koretsky, who served as Vice-Chairman of the Court.

The principal directions of activity of the International Court of Justice are defined in Articles 92-96 of the UN Charter; the competence of the Court is also regulated by Articles 34-38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice. Parties to cases considered by the Court can only be states, while the jurisdiction of the Court is voluntary, that is, it can consider cases only by agreement of the parties. At the same time, states may accept the jurisdiction of the court as mandatory in all legal disputes relating to:

Interpretation of the contract;

Any issue of international law;

The existence of a fact which, if established, would constitute a breach of an international obligation;

The nature and extent of compensation for violation of an international obligation.

In addition to judicial jurisdiction, the International Court of Justice also exercises advisory jurisdiction. Thus, he can give advisory opinions on any legal issue at the request of the General Assembly and the Security Council, as well as other UN bodies and specialized agencies.

The location of the Court is The Hague (Netherlands), but this does not prevent the Court from sitting and performing its functions in other places. Since the establishment of the International Court of Justice in 1946, states have submitted more than 60 disputes to it, and more than 20 advisory opinions have been submitted by organizations.

Secretariat- a permanent administrative body of the UN, consisting of the Secretary General and the necessary personnel. The Secretary General is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a period of 5 years and may be appointed for a new term in the same manner.

Article 98 of the UN Charter authorizes the Secretary-General to submit annual reports on the work of the Organization to the General Assembly. His powers also include the right to bring to the attention of the Security Council any issues that, in his opinion, may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security (Article 99 of the UN Charter).

The Secretariat is generally entrusted with the responsibility to provide the necessary conditions for the work of other UN bodies: streamlining protocols, providing oral and written translations of speeches and documents, published resolutions and other materials. It is called upon to carry out practical work to implement programs and resolutions adopted by other UN bodies. In particular, the activities of the Secretariat include: carrying out peacekeeping operations on behalf of the Security Council; organizing and holding international conferences on problems that have global significance(Conference on the Law of the Sea) establishing world economic and social trends and problems; preparation of research on issues of disarmament, development, human rights. Its functions also include registration and publication of international treaties.

The Secretary General appoints the staff of the Secretariat and directs its work. In the performance of their duties, the Secretary-General and staff shall not seek or receive instructions from any government. The staff of the Secretariat are appointed by the Secretary General according to rules established by the General Assembly. Recruitment to the Secretariat and the determination of its conditions are carried out on a contractual basis, taking into account the need to ensure a high level of efficiency, competence and integrity. The Secretariat's staff of more than 25,000 people (citizens of more than 150 countries) are international public servants.

All personnel are divided into two categories: specialists (experts) and technical employees. The headquarters of the UN and its Secretariat are located in New York, and there are also branches of the Secretariat in Geneva, Vienna, Nairobi, Bangkok and other points.

UN specialized agencies

The concept of a UN specialized agency entered into international law along with the UN Charter. In accordance with Articles 57 and 63 of the Charter, specialized agencies of the UN are international organizations created by international agreements and endowed with broad international responsibilities determined by constituent acts in the field of economic, social, as well as culture, education, health, etc. and maintain contact with the UN.

According to their field of activity, they can be divided into three main groups.

The first group is specialized institutions of an economic nature. It includes 12 organizations, namely: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the International Finance Corporation (IFC), the International Development Association (IDA), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the Organization of International Civil Aviation (ICAO), International Maritime Organization (IMO), Universal Postal Union (UPU), International Telecommunication Union (ITU), World Meteorological Organization (WMO), International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) .

D ° The second group includes specialized institutions of a social nature: the International Labor Organization (ILO), the World Health Organization (WHO).

The third group consists of institutions of a cultural and humanitarian nature: the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).

Specialized institutions are permanent international organizations, the legal nature of which is similar to other international organizations.

The connection of specialized agencies with the UN in accordance with the UN Charter (Articles 56,63) is maintained, as a rule, through the UN Economic and Social Council on the basis of special agreements between the relevant specialized agency and the UN.

Despite the diversity of goals and significant differences in the nature of the activities of specialized institutions, they, in general, have a similar structure and a number of similar provisions in their charters. For example, membership in the UN is not a prerequisite for membership in specialized agencies.

According to the charters of specialized institutions, their supreme bodies consist of representatives of all member states of this organization. The competence of these bodies includes consideration of all issues related to the development and adoption of draft international agreements and conventions, determination of policies, programs and main directions of activity of the relevant organization.

The operational management of the organization's activities is carried out by the executive bodies. In addition, within the structure of specialized institutions there are numerous committees and commissions.

The main forms of activity of specialized institutions are:

Development of draft international conventions and regulations on special issues;

Coordination of the activities of states in the development of cooperation in special areas;

Providing technical assistance;

Information exchange.

For example, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) was created in 1946 Ukraine became a member in 1954 The mission of UNESCO is to develop international cooperation in the field of education, science and culture in order to promote the achievement of lasting peace and improve the well-being of peoples. To accomplish these tasks, international conferences, meetings, symposia are held within UNESCO, assistance is provided to countries in creating educational and research institutions, information, statistical and publishing activities are carried out, and cooperation is carried out with more than 400 international organizations.

The main bodies of UNESCO are the General Conference - the highest body, which meets at its sessions every two years, determines the directions and general line of the organization's activities; The Executive Committee, which includes 45 member states. The Secretariat is headed by the Director General. Where UNESCO comes from - the city of Paris.

International Monetary Fund (IMF) founded in 1944, but began operating in 1946. About 180 countries are members of the IMF, incl. Ukraine. The IMF's tasks include: coordinating the monetary policy of member states, providing them with loans to settle balances and maintain exchange rates; preferential lending least developed countries. The highest body of the Fund is the Board of Governors, which includes two representatives from each member of the IMF. The day-to-day activities of the IMF are managed by the Executive Directorate, consisting of 21 directors. The Chairman of the Directorate is the Managing Director. The headquarters of the IMF is located in Washington (USA).

International Maritime Organization (IMO) created and operating since 1959 (Until 1982 - Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization - IMCO). The IMO includes more than 190 states, incl. Ukraine (since 1994). The tasks of the IMO include a range of issues related to ensuring cooperation on issues of navigation and maritime safety, developing recommendations and draft conventions on the law of the sea. The highest body of the IMO is the Assembly, consisting of all its members and convened once every 2 years. During the period between meetings of the Assembly, the work of the IMO is led by the Council, elected by the Assembly in the number of 18 members. The Assembly elects a Maritime Safety Committee of 16 members, whose main task is to develop recommendations on safety rules for maritime navigation. The IMO Secretariat is headed by the Secretary General. its location is London (UK).

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Founded in accordance with the Chicago Convention on Civil Aviation of 1944, it is a specialized UN agency engaged in organizing and coordinating international cooperation between states in all aspects of civil aviation. Almost 190 states are members of ICAO, incl. based on succession and Ukraine.

ICAO studies the problems of organizing international civil aviation, air routes, the creation of airports and air navigation facilities, develops international standards for the design and operation of aircraft, rules for the use of equipment, communications and flight control; promotes the unification of customs, immigration and sanitary rules, etc. Within the framework of ICAO, draft international conventions are being developed. The highest body of the Fang, consisting of representatives of member states, is the Assembly, which is convened at least once every 3 years. The executive body of ICAO is the Council, consisting of representatives of 30 states elected by the Assembly from among the countries with the most developed air transport. The Council is headed by its elected president.

The work of ICAO is ensured by the Secretariat, headed by the Secretary General of ICAO. its location is Montreal (Canada).

International Labor Organization (ILO) is one of the oldest IMUO, because it was created back in 1919 by decision of the Paris Peace Conference as an autonomous organization of the League of Nations. Thirty-one thousand nine hundred and forty-six. The ILO is the first specialized organization of the UN (Ukraine is a member of the ILO). Along with more than 170 states, trade unions and entrepreneurs are represented in the ILO. The goals and objectives of the ILO are:

Promoting social justice; improving working conditions and raising the living standards of workers;

The structure of the ILO is made up of: the General Labor Conference, the Administrative Council, the International Labor Office, Tripartite Committees, Regional and Special Conferences. The General Labor Conference consists of delegations from participating countries (two representatives from the government, one each from employers and workers), is supreme body ILO. The activities of the International Labor Office (ILO Secretariat), committees and commissions of the ILO are managed by the Governing Body, consisting of 56 members (including 28 government representatives, 14 workers' representatives and 14 business representatives). 10 seats in the Council's government group are occupied by representatives of the 10 most industrially developed countries (Brazil, Great Britain, Germany, India, Italy, China, Russia, USA, France, Japan). The International Labor Office is managed by a Director General and has three functional bodies: an administrative body, a research and documentation center and a coordinating body. Tripartite committees in the most important sectors of the economy (construction, inland transport, chemistry, ferrous metallurgy, oil industry, etc.) and expert councils on issues vocational education, advanced training of management personnel, labor protection, on the problems of working women and youth provide an opportunity for government agents, entrepreneurs and workers to express their points of view within the framework of this organization. Regional and special conferences devoted to issues of regional or national interest.

The chief administrative officer of the ILO is the Director-General. The headquarters of the ILO is located in Geneva (Switzerland). There are regional and sectoral offices of the International Labor Office in the capitals of more than 40 member states.

World Health Organization (WHO)- an intergovernmental organization created in 1946. The WHO Constitution, adopted in 1946, came into force on April 7, 1948, when it was ratified by 26 states. This date is celebrated annually as World Health Day.

The goals of WHO are:

Strengthening national health services;

Promoting the training of healthcare professionals;

Fight against dangerous diseases; maternal and child health;

Improvement of the environment.

The highest body of WHO is the World Health Assembly, convened annually, in which all members of the organization are represented. The Executive Committee consists of 30 members and convenes at least twice a year. The Secretariat is the administrative body and consists of the Director General and staff. WHO has 6 regional organizations (European - in Copenhagen (Denmark), American - in Washington (CELA), Southeast Asia - in Delhi (India), Eastern Mediterranean - in Alexandria (Egypt), Western Pacific - in Manila (Philippines), African - in Brazzaville (Congo). Periodically, WHO publishes a series of technical reports, statistical collections, etc. The address of the WHO Secretariat is Geneva (Switzerland). Ukraine is a member state of WHO.

World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) based on the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property of 1883 and the Berne Convention for the Protection of Works of Literature and the Arts of 1886. The Convention establishing WIPO was signed in 1967 p. and came into force in 1970. WIPO became a specialized agency of the UN on December 17, 1974, on the recommendation of the General Assembly. Ukraine participates in WIPO activities along with more than 150 states of the world.

WIPO's tasks include: promoting the protection of intellectual property throughout the world, providing administrative cooperation to 18 IMUs (unions) involved in various aspects of providing assistance in the protection of intellectual property and copyright.

The governing bodies of WIPO are:

A conference composed of all WIPO member states;

The General Assembly, composed of those member states, are also members of the Paris (100 states) or Berne (83 states) Unions.

WIPO's governing bodies and the unions governed by WIPO (9 of which have their own intergovernmental bodies) usually meet in joint session to adopt their programs and budgets. The Assembly elects the International Bureau (executive body). The chief administrative officer is the Director General of WIPO. The seat of WIPO is Geneva (Switzerland).

An international organization such as the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) also has a certain connection with the UN. This organization in the field of atomic energy was created by a decision of the UN at an international conference in New York. The Agency's Charter was adopted in 1956. The headquarters are located in Vienna.

According to the agreement of the IAEA with the UN General Assembly one thousand nine hundred fifty-seven p., the IAEA Charter must submit annual reports on its activities to the General Assembly, and, if necessary, to the Security Council and ECOSOC.

The main activities of the IAEA are the organization and coordination of research and development in the field of nuclear energy, radiation safety issues, providing technical assistance to the Agency's member states in the field of peaceful uses of atomic energy, monitoring (guarantees) for peaceful research of atomic energy, regulating activities on issues associated with atomic danger.

One of the Agency's main functions is to maintain a control system to ensure that nuclear materials and equipment intended for peaceful uses are not used for military purposes. Non-nuclear-weapon states parties to the 1968 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons must enter into agreements with the IAEA to control the peaceful nuclear activities of states. Control is carried out by IAEA inspectors.

There are a number of other international organizations that are part of the UN system, but are not specialized agencies. In particular, these are the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP).

The UN specialized bodies for human rights are the UN High Commissioner for Refugees, the Commission on Human Rights, etc.