Types of word meaning transfer. Transfer of the name according to the similarity of external features in the metaphors of Mayakovsky

Depending on which sign the meaning is transferred from one object to another, the following types of figurative meanings of the word are distinguished.

1) Transferring values ​​for some similarity between objects and events. Such transfers are called metaphorical. Metaphor(from the Greek Metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name from one object, action, property, phenomenon to other actions, properties, phenomena based on the similarity of their features (for example, shape, color, function, location and etc.). Examples of metaphorical meanings:
a) onion head, eyeball - transfer based on the similarity of the shape of objects;
b) the bow of the boat, the tail of the train, the head of the nail - transfer based on the similarity of the arrangement of objects;
c) janitor (in the meaning of "a cleaning device on the glass of a car"), electrical position, watchman (in the meaning of "a device on a dish to hold boiling milk") - transfer based on the similarity of the functions of objects.

For many metaphorical figurative meanings of the word, it is characteristic anthropomorphism, that is, the likening of the properties of the surrounding physical world the properties of a person. Compare such examples: an evil wind, indifferent nature, the breath of spring, “The River Plays” (the title of the story by V.G. Korolenko), the stream runs, the volcano woke up, etc.

On the other hand, some properties and phenomena of inanimate matter are transferred to the human world, for example: a cold look, an iron will, a heart of stone, a golden character, a shock of hair, a ball of thoughts, etc. There are metaphors general language when one or another metaphorical meaning of a word is used widely, as a result of which it is known to all speakers of given language(nail head, river arm, black envy, iron will), and individual, created by a writer or poet, characterizing his stylistic manner and not becoming common. Compare, for example, metaphors:
S.A. Yesenin: red mountain ash bonfire, birch tongue of the grove, chintz of the sky, grains of eyes, etc.;
B.L. Pasternak: the labyrinth of the lyre, the bloody tears of September, the rolls of lanterns and the donuts of the roofs, etc.

2) Transferring the name from one subject to another based on adjacency these items. This transfer of values ​​is called metonymy(from Greek Metonymia - renaming). Metonymic transfers of meaning are often formed according to certain regular types:
a) material - a product from this material. For example, the words gold, crystal can denote products made from these materials (she has gold in her ears; there is solid crystal on the shelves);
b) a vessel - the contents of the vessel (I ate two plates, drank a cup);
c) the author - the works of this author (I read Pushkin, I know Nerkasov by heart);
d) action - the object of action (actions aimed at publishing a book, illustrated edition of a book as an object);
e) action - the result of an action (construction of a monument - a monumental structure);
f) action - a means or instrument of action (putty of cracks - fresh putty, gear attachment - ski mount, motion transmission - bicycle gear);
g) action - place of action (exit from the house - stand at the exit, traffic stop - bus stop);
h) animal - animal fur or meat (the hunter caught a fox - what kind of fur, arctic fox or fox?).

One of the peculiar types of metonymy is synecdoche. Synecdoche(from the Greek. Sinekdoche - ratio) - the ability of a word to name both a part of something and a whole. For example, the words face, mouth, head, hand denote the corresponding parts human body. But each of them can be used to name a person: unauthorized persons are not allowed to enter; in family five mouths; Kolya- light head.

The name transfer mechanism is very simple - if necessary, to designate any denotation, you can use an existing word for this. When the weight-lifting device was created, its external resemblance to the famous bird allowed the use of the name of the bird to refer to the technical device: crane, eng. crane and German Kran (from where the Russian crane comes from). As a result of the name transfer, the old word has a new (derived) meaning (i.e., when the name is transferred, the referents do not have common essential features, the meanings of the words do not match).

There are two main types of name hyphenation − transfer by similarity and transfer by adjacency.

Metaphor- this is the transfer of the name to objects of a different kind or type according to the similarity of secondary features (color, shape, size, internal qualities, etc.).

The meanings of the following words developed by metaphorical transfer of the name:

Vulture vulture eagle - predatory man

Feeler insect antennae, tentacle - a careful question

Snail snail - slow person

branch tree branch - industry

bulb plant bulb - light bulb

star heavenly body – famous actor, actress, singers, athletes

Eye eye - a hole in a needle for threading (and in Russian - an eye.

The side part of the building, according to the similarity of the position, m. called a wing. The names of body parts are transferred to different objects, and the parts of the body themselves can take on the names of objects. Many languages, for example, are characterized by such a metaphor - the head is called pot. In slang, you can often hear such transfers - carrot, ginger = red-haired boy, rat = who is spying and sneaking, nut, onion = head, saucers = eyes, hoofs = feet.

The metaphor is also based on an internal property (character traits, for example). A cunning person is called a fox, a clumsy person is called a bear. Such transfers sometimes turn proper names into common nouns: Herod " evil person"(by the name of Herod, who ordered to exterminate all the babies of the country), king" by the name of Caesar", don Juan, king (by the name of Charlemagne)

And vice versa, common nouns in proper names - a Pencil (pencil- the monument to J. Washington, shaped like a pencil).

The names of specific properties can be transferred to abstract ones, so there are figurative meanings of adjectives that we observe in such combinations - sweet life, bitter life, high thoughts (noble), low deed, dry presentation (compare: bitter weather, sweet sound = pleasant, gentle).

Metonymy- this is the transfer of the name to objects of a different kind due to the real connection between the objects (transfer by adjacency). With the development of meaning through metonymy, the same word can name a part and a whole, an object and its content, an object and its location or production, an action and its result, an instrument and the result of its application, the creator and the thing created by him, etc.

English budget originally meant "money bag", then it began to mean "money spent by the government, budget."

cane reeds, reeds - a cane made of such material

coin wedge for minting coins - coin

Sable sable - sable fur, mink mink - mink fur

Silver metal - silverware, silver medal (a silver)

China(geograf name) country - porcelain from China

Tweed river - material originally from England

A Matisse– a painting by Matisse (originated from proper name)

Pereos, based on the generality of function, also belongs to metaphors.

Hand of a clock – the hand of a clock points to the figures on the face of the clock, and one of the functions of human hand is that of pointing to things.

Volt Italian physicist - unit of electrical voltage

Bobby founder modern system english police - english policeman

Winchester city ​​in North America- rifle

A common type of metonymy in English is the naming of the result by action - washing 1) washing 2) linen (washed or prepared for washing, building 1) construction 2) building, growth 1) growth 2) tumor.

The same value can be the source for several derivatives. For example, from the meaning of the adjective tough hard, dense tough steak) derived values ​​are formed persistent, hardy ( tough man), intractable (tough problem), stubborn (tough customer). Hard- in the sense of hard, hard hard hair was the starting point for the values ​​difficult, demanding tension - hard work, harsh - be hard on smb.

Thus, the meanings of a word can be original and derived. Derived meanings are divided into generalizing and clarifying and figurative (metaphorically figurative and metonymically figurative).

Many objects "similar" to each other, have similar properties and characteristics. It happens that one of them already has a name, while the other has not yet acquired it. We know that a name is given to a thing by one of its attributes. Therefore, the second object can receive the name of the first, to which it “looks like” in its shape, color, size, position in space, the nature of the movement, the emotional impression it makes.

For example, in Russian there has long been a word bagelring-shaped flour product. When it became necessary to give a name to the steering wheel of a car, tractor, combine, it was also named bagel. This turned out to be possible because the detail about which in question, has the same ring-shaped shape as a donut bun. There was a transfer of the name from one thing to another based on their similarity in form. As a result, the word bagel acquired a new figurative meaning - wheel.

Based on the similarity in shape with the shell of a mollusk, it got its name

and the outer part of the human ear: Over small

shellsgray hair shone silvery in the ears,- we read in Gorky. Naming a small piece of land piglet, Russian people noted its resemblance to a five-kopek coin in size; compare: And you don't refuse me piglet copper when I knock under your window(A. Ostrovsky). - On the narrow piglet thousands of people crowded by the strait(Kazakevich). The evil prison is called hairpin on the grounds that it is just as capable of "pricking" a person as a wire holding a hairstyle. Thin sharp heels began to be called hairpins because of their resemblance to a hairpin in another way - a sign of shape.

Word chameleon literally serves as the name of a lizard that changes its color depending on the color of the environment. In a figurative sense, this word has become a nickname for a person who unprincipledly changes his views, quickly “repaints” in relation to the situation or to please someone. So chameleon the police warden Ochumelov appears in the story of the same name by A.P. Chekhov.

With a figurative meaning that arose on the basis of the similarity of objects, words are used in such turns that are familiar to us, such as leg table, nose ship, language bells, sole the mountains, neck bottles, ear needles, goatee key, hat nail, geographic belt, electric power socket, plug fork, spine books, fields notebooks, hats, clasp "lightning", cool forehead, temper, spicy mind, acute word, golden autumn, rain drumming through the window, clock go, growing population, overcome fear, dive in a dream, in thought And T.d.

Various mechanisms, their parts, technical devices, adaptations are often called the names of animals with which they have similarities. The pole at the well is crane. Serrated metal plates attached to shoes for climbing poles, masts and T.P., - cats. A wide metal chain on a tractor, tank - Caterpillar. Bridge abutments - bulls. Gymnastic apparatus on four legs - goat.. A car, a tank moving on land and on water - amphibian. Lifting and moving machine

cargo - winch. It is noteworthy that another name for such a machine is tap is a borrowing from the Dutch language, where the word kraan literally serves as the name of the crane. Just the same word hose -rubber tube for fluid supply goes back to a German noun Schlange with original value snake.

Many lexical units in the old days denoted completely different objects and only later, based on the similarity of signs, acquired their own modern meanings. Yes, in a word sleigh, plural sled formerly called a snake. Then it became the name of a winter wagon on skids. The basis for the transfer was the similarity of those indicated by the nature of the movement: both the snake and the sleigh move in contact with the soil. The similarity on the same basis led to the transfer of the name of a non-venomous snake snake on the detail of the sled.

Do you know that the word spouse our ancestors called a pair of oxen in one harness (spouse And team- words of the same root)? IN"Ostromir Gospel", a written monument of the 11th century, it is written: spouse oxen koupih five, i.e bought five teams of oxen.IN figuratively spouses they began to call partners, allies - those who go "in the same team", one way, and - on the same basis - married persons, husband and wife. IN modern Russian retains only the last meaning of the word.

With figurative meanings formed on the basis of the similarity of objects on some basis, they entered various languages, including in Russian, many Greek and Latin words.

The fruit of the fruit tree, filled with juicy dark red grains, the ancient Romans called granatum malum-grainy apple(granatus- literally grainy). Hence the modern name of the fruit - pomegranate. On the basis of color similarity, it was transferred to gem(A.I. Kuprin’s story immediately comes to mind “ Garnet bracelet"). The same Latin word, only in the plural form. granata was used to denote a small explosive projectile (manual grenade, anti-tank

grenade): the round shape and the fact that it was initially filled with grains of gunpowder brought the projectile closer to the grenade.

Greek word iris-Rainbow became the name of a plant with large flowers that resemble the transitions of shades of a rainbow: From the dark grass ... tulips stretched and irises (Chekhov).

Name of the spherical arch dome traces its lineage to the Latin word cupula, denoting a small barrel, and then a glass: dome- architectural structure, similar in shape to an inverted glass.

The content side of the Greek noun developed in a similar way. crater: originally it was the name of a large bowl used to mix wine with water, then it came to mean a cup-like depression on the top of a volcano, for example: Vesuvius crater.

The similarity of objects in form served as the basis for the semantic development of the word delta. At first, this was the name of the fourth letter of the ancient Greek alphabet, denoting the sound d. The letter looked like a triangle. Therefore, the Greeks began to call delta the mouth of the Nile: the river branches here into two branches and forms a figure resembling a triangle. Later, the word expanded its meaning and began to denote the mouth of any river with an alluvial plain cut through by a network of branches: delta Volga, Ganga, Amazon.

Dactylem in literary criticism, a three-syllable poetic foot with an emphasis on the first syllable is called. This size says

for example, M.Yu. Lermontov's poem "Clouds":

Heavenly clouds, eternal wanderers!

Steppe azure, pearl chain

You rush, as if like me, exiles,

From the sweet north to the south...

Literary term dactyl came to us from the Greek language. However, the terminological content of the word was not primary: it developed on the basis of its earlier meaning: daktilos- finger. But what do the finger and poetic meter have in common? It turns out that similarities are also found here: the finger consists

from three joints - phalanges, dactyl in poetry - from three syllables. The same circumstance that a foot with an accent on the first syllable was called a dactyl (after all, there are other three-syllable sizes - amphibrach with stress on the second syllable and anapaest with emphasis on the third), finds an explanation from similar positions: the first, lower, phalanx of the fingers is longer than the second and third and serves as their basis.

The transfer of the name, based on the similarity of objects on some basis, is the most productive and common way for the formation of figurative meanings in words. This transfer is called metaphor*.

The above words with a figurative, metaphorical meaning are used by native speakers as constant, generally accepted, habitual names of the corresponding objects and phenomena. This metaphor is called language.

But a figurative meaning can arise in a word as temporary, transient, due to the influence of the surrounding words (context) and disappearing outside this environment. For example, the noun round dance dictionaries capture the meaning: an ancient mass folk dance among the Slavs, accompanied by songs and dramatic action. Let us turn to the novel by A.S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin":

She loved on the balcony

Warn dawn dawn

When in the pale sky

The stars are fading round dance...

We see that the word round dance in this case, a different, nasal meaning is characteristic, based on the similarity of a moving mass of stars to the coordinated movements of a group of people. This meaning is created by the context of Pushkin's novel and is lost outside of it. This metaphorical transfer is called speech. Speech metaphor is distinguished by vivid imagery and is widely used in fiction, for example: The ruddy face of fire, smiling fervently,

* Greek, metafora-transfer.

illuminated the dark figures around him(M. Gorky); Paris. The sun is raging. Whole harness Rays chestnuts obliquely pierces (Simonov); On the frozen platform there is not a soul(Christmas); I'll go away from the noise into rustles and rustle, I'll snuggle up birch to the weak shoulder (Yevtushenko).

Metaphor as a type of figurative meaning

Metaphor- this is the transfer of a name from one object to another on the basis of similarity.

The similarity can be external and internal.

Type of metaphor:

similarity of shape (draw a circle - a lifebuoy);

resemblance appearance(black horse - gymnastic horse);

the similarity of the impression made (sweet grapes - sweet dream);

similarity of location (leather sole - the sole of the mountain, whitewash the ceiling - three in Russian - its ceiling);

similarity in the structure of assessments (light portfolio - light text, the son outgrew his father, became very high - outgrow your mentor);

similarity in the way of presenting actions (covering a tree trunk with your hands - she was overcome with joy, piles support the bridge - support Ivanov's candidacy);

similarity of functions (mercury barometer - barometer of public opinion).

Ways of forming a metaphor

Metaphorical transfer may be based on some real similarity between objects, another kind of similarity is based on historically or nationally established ideas (for example, a crow is a muddler).

The metaphor usually has a national character. This is one of its features.

Words of the same type in their direct meaning do not necessarily give the same figurative meanings in different languages ​​(a cow - in Russian it is a fat woman, in German - a tastelessly dressed woman; a fox in Russian is a cunning person, in German - a first-year student).

In some cases, a metaphor arises due to the exclusion of individual semes from the meaning of words, i.e. simplification of meaning. For example, fly - move through the air quickly. I flew to this meeting (removed the component "sphere of movement").

Types of metaphors

I. According to the peculiarities of use, functions.

1. Nominative, ugly(stress on the second syllable)

This metaphor is dry, has lost imagery. Dictionaries, as a rule, do not mark this meaning as figurative, metaphorical.

For example, a door handle, a teapot spout, the white of an eye, a peephole.

There is imagery in the word, it lies in the very fact of transferring the name from one subject to another.

2. Figurative metaphor

Contains a hidden comparison, has a characterizing property.

For example, a star (celebrity), a sharp mind.

A figurative metaphor arises as a result of a person's understanding of the objects of the real world.

3. Cognitive metaphor

A mental reflection of the real or attributed commonality of properties between compared concepts.

Forms the abstract meaning of the word.

For example, a handful of people (a small number), spin around (always be in your thoughts).

II. By role in language and speech.

1. General language (usual).

It reflects the social image, has a systemic character in use. It is reproducible and anonymous, fixed in dictionaries.

2. Individual (artistic).

For example:

In the midst of midday languor

Turquoise covered with cotton wool.

Giving birth to the sun, the lake languished.

Metaphor. Types of metaphor (nominative, cognitive, figurative). Functions of metaphor in speech. Use of metaphor in means mass media

one of the essential functions of figuratively used words is the naming function, otherwise nominative (lat. nominatio - "naming, denomination"). This task is performed by dry metaphors: chanterelles (a type of mushroom), a beard (part of a key), an umbrella (a type of inflorescence), a trunk (part of a tool), a caterpillar (a chain worn on wheels), a zipper (a type of fastener or a type of telegram), a comb ( an outgrowth on the head of birds or a device, tool), front (in the phrase "front side of matter"); Metaphor (from the Greek metaphora - "transfer") is the transfer of a name by similarity, as well as the figurative meaning itself, which is based on similarity. A description of the process of discovering the similarity between objects and then the appearance of a metaphor due to similarity can be found in different authors. So, in V. Soloukhin's story "Vladimirskie country roads" we read: "And here is also a bell, but very strange. It is completely round and looks more like a ready-made berry. And it also looks like a tiny, porcelain lampshade, but so delicate and fragile, that it is hardly possible to make it with human hands. It will be something to feast on for both children and black grouse. After all, in place of the lampshade, a juicy, black blueberry with a blue coating on the skin will ripen." The writer first pointed out the similarity of a blueberry flower with a lampshade in shape (calling it a bell and specifying that it is completely round; in addition, it has small frequent denticles along the edges, similar to the fringe of a lampshade; this last feature is not named, but the reader assumes it) , and now, after our imagination has been directed along the path desired by the author, an idea of ​​the nature of the similarity has been directly or indirectly given, the writer has already used the metaphor lampshade (in the last phrase of the quoted passage).

The similarity between objects (phenomena), on the basis of which it becomes possible to name another by the "name" of one object, is very diverse. Objects can be similar a) in shape (how a blueberry flower looks like a lampshade); b) location; c) color; d) size (number, volume, length, etc.); e) degree of density, permeability; f) the degree of mobility, speed of reaction; g) sound; h) degree of value; i) function, role; j) the nature of the impression made on our senses, etc. The following are metaphors that reflect these types of similarities:

a) (forms) a sausage ring, arches of eyebrows, a bird's comb (mountains), a ribbon of a road, onions of churches, a gap funnel, a gun barrel, a head of cheese, a pot-bellied teapot, sharp cheekbones, humpbacked roofs;

b) (locations) the head (tail) of a comet, trains, the sole (crown) of the mountain, the shoulders of the lever, the newspaper basement, the chain of lakes, the wing of the building;

c) (colors) copper hair, coral lips, wheat mustache, chocolate tan, collect chanterelles, bottle (emerald) eyes, sandy shirt, pale sky, golden foliage;

d) (size, quantity) a stream (ocean) of tears, not a drop of talent, a mountain of things, a sea of ​​​​heads, a cloud of mosquitoes, dwarf trees, a tower (o excessively tall man), baby (about a small child);

e) (degrees of density) cast-iron palms, iron muscles, road jelly, rain wall, fog muslin, marshmallows (a kind of candy);

f) (degrees of mobility) a block, a deck (about a clumsy, slow person), a spinning top, a dragonfly (about a moving child, about a fidget), quick mind, clouds run (rush), the train crawls barely;

g) (character of sound) the rain drums, the screech of a saw, the wind howled, the howl of the wind, cackled (neighed) with pleasure, a creaky voice, the masts groan (sing), the whisper of leaves;

h) (degrees of value) golden words, the color of society, the salt of conversation, the highlight of the program, the pearl of creations, the pearl of poetry, zero, booger (about an insignificant, insignificant person);

i) (functions) chains of bondage, marriage fetters, web of lies, to bind someone's actions, to put a bridle on someone, to extinguish a quarrel, a torch of knowledge, artificial satellite, key problem;

j) (impressions produced by an abstract object or properties of an object, person) an icy gaze, a warm meeting, ardent love, black betrayal, a sour expression, sweet speeches, ice (armor) of indifference, a rat (a contemptuous characterization of a person), to break through a wall of misunderstanding.

Metaphors differ not only in the nature of similarity (as mentioned above), but also in the degree of prevalence and imagery (the latter property, imagery, is closely related to the degree of prevalence and use of the metaphor). From this point of view, the following groups of metaphors can be distinguished:

general language (common) dry;

commonly used figurative;

general poetic figurative;

general newspaper figurative (as a rule);

General language dry metaphors are metaphors-names, the figurativeness of which is not felt at all: "the front side of matter", "the train left (came)," "clock hands", "airplane (mill) wing", "geographical belt", "needle eye" ", "mushroom hat (nail)", "car apron", "fog settles", "tractor caterpillars", "collect chanterelles", "report with lightning", "sew in lightning", "the sun rises (set)", "clean brushed bottles, etc.*

In explanatory dictionaries, these ugly metaphors are listed under the numbers 2, 3, 4, etc. without litter nepen. (figurative), which indicates that these metaphors are not felt as figurative, as pictorial designations.

Common (or general language) figurative metaphors are not direct, but allegorical, pictorial designations of objects, phenomena, signs, actions, these are characteristic words that are widely used in both written and everyday speech. For example, if the direct, generally accepted, "official", so to speak, names of a large number of something are the words "many", "many", then its pictorial, figurative designations are figurative metaphors sea, stream, stream ("sea of ​​​​fires", " stream, streams of tears"), forest ("forest of hands"), cloud ("cloud of mosquitoes"), mountain ("mountain of things"), ocean ("ocean of sounds"), etc. More examples of commonly used figurative metaphors: velvet ("velvet cheeks"), coo (meaning "tender conversation together"), pearl ("pearl of poetry"), star ("screen stars", "hockey stars"), beast (about cruel person), healthy (“healthy idea”), stone (“stone heart”), digest (“I have not yet digested this book”), saw (meaning “scold”) *, etc.

Such commonly used figurative metaphors are given in explanatory dictionaries under the numbers 2, 3, 4, etc. or with the sign // to some value, accompanied by a tag ver., the presence of which indicates a perceived portability given value about the figurativeness of metaphor.

General poetic figurative metaphors differ from those just given in that they are more characteristic of artistic speech(poetic and prose). For example: spring (meaning "youth"): "Where, where have you gone, my golden days of spring?" (P.); "And I, like the spring of mankind, born in labor and in battle, sing my fatherland, my republic!" (Lighthouse.); doze off (in the meanings of "to be motionless" or "not to appear, to remain inactive"): "A sensitive reed is dozing" (I.Nik.);

General newspaper metaphors are metaphors that are actively used in the language of the press (as well as in the language of radio and television programs) and are unusual, as a rule, neither in ordinary everyday speech nor in the language of fiction. These include:

start, start ("new equipment starts", "at the start of the year"), finish, finish ("finished the song festival", "at the finish of the year"),

Finally, individual metaphors are unusual figurative uses of the words of one or another author (which is why they are also called authorial ones), which have not become public or general literary (or general newspaper) property.

11. Metonymy. Types of metonymy. The use of metonymy in speech and in the media. Metonymy (from the Greek metonymia - "renaming") is the transfer of a name by adjacency, as well as the figurative meaning itself, which arose due to such a transfer. Unlike the transfer of the metaphorical, which necessarily implies the similarity of objects, actions, properties, metonymy is based on the juxtaposition, contiguity of objects, concepts, actions that are not similar to each other. For example, such different "objects" as an industrial enterprise and the workers of this enterprise can be called the same word plant (cf.: "a new plant is being built" and "the plant has fulfilled the plan"); in one word we call the country, the state and the government of the country, the state (cf .: "the people of France" and "France has concluded a treaty"), etc.

Depending on what kind of contiguity objects (concepts), actions are connected with, they distinguish between spatial, temporal and logical metonymy *.

Spatial metonymy is based on the spatial, physical arrangement of objects and phenomena. The most common case of spatial metonymy is the transfer of the name of a room (part of a room), institution, etc. on people living, working, etc. in this room, in this enterprise. Compare, for example, "multi-storey building", "spacious hut", "huge workshop", "cramped editorial office", "student dormitory", etc., where the words house, hut, workshop, editorial office, hostel are used in their direct meaning for naming premises, enterprises, and "the whole house went out for a subbotnik", "huts slept", "the workshop joined the competition", "

With temporal metonymy, objects, phenomena are adjacent, "touch" in the time of their existence, "appearance".

Such metonymy is the transfer of the name of the action (expressed by the noun) to the result - to what occurs in the process of action. For example: "publishing a book" (action) - "luxury, gift edition" (result of action); "it was difficult for the artist to depict details" (action) - "images of animals are carved on the rock" (i.e. drawings, which means the result of the action); similar metonymic figurative meanings, which appeared on the basis of temporal adjacency, have the words embroidery ("dress with embroidery"),

Logical metonymy is also very common. Logical metonymy includes:

a) transfer of the name of the vessel, capacity to the volume of what is contained in the vessel, capacity. Wed “break a cup, plate, glass, jug”, “lose a spoon”, “smoke a pot”, “tie a bag”, etc., where the words cup, plate, glass, jug, spoon, pan, bag are used in the direct meaning as the names of the container, and "try a spoonful of jam", b) transferring the name of the substance, material to the product from it: "porcelain exhibition", "won gold, bronze" (i.e. gold, bronze medals), "collect ceramics", "hand over the necessary papers" (i.e. documents), "break glass", "paint watercolors", "Levitan's canvas" ("Surikov's canvas"), "walk in capron, in furs", etc.;

d) transferring the name of the action to the substance (object) or to the people with the help of which this action is carried out. For example: putty, impregnation (a substance used to putty, impregnation of something), suspension, clamp (device for hanging, clamping something), protection,

e) transferring the name of the action to the place where it occurs. For example: entrance, exit, detour, stop, transition, turn, passage, crossing (place of entry, exit, detour, stop, transition, turn, passage, crossing, i.e. the place where these actions are performed);

f) transferring the name of a property, quality to something or what or who discovers that it has this property, quality. Compare: "tactlessness, rudeness of words", "stupidity of a person", "mediocrity of the project", "tactlessness of behavior", "caustic remarks

g) transferring the name of a geographical point, area to what is produced in them, cf. tsinandali, saperavi, havana, gzhel, etc.

The metonymic transfer of the name is also characteristic of verbs. It can be based on the adjacency of items (as in the previous two cases). Compare: "knock out the carpet" (the carpet absorbs the dust, which is knocked out), "pour out the statue" (they pour out the metal from which the statue is made); other examples: "boil laundry", "forge a sword (nails)", "string a necklace" (from beads, shells, etc.), "cover a snowdrift", etc. Metonymic meaning can also arise due to the adjacency of actions. For example: "the store opens (=trade begins) at 8 o'clock" (the opening of the doors serves as a signal for the start of the store).

Like metaphors, metonymies vary in their degree of prevalence and expressiveness. From this point of view, among metonymies, general language inexpressive, general poetic (general literary) expressive, general newspaper expressive (as a rule) and individual (author's) expressive ones can be distinguished.

Common language metonymies are casting, silver, porcelain, crystal (in the meaning of "products"), work (what is done), putty, impregnation (substance), protection, attack, plant, factory, change (when people are called these words), entrance, exit, crossing, crossing, turning, etc. (in the meaning of the place of action), fox, mink, hare, squirrel, etc. (as a feature, products) and much more*. Like general language metaphors, metonyms are in themselves absolutely inexpressive, sometimes they are not perceived as figurative meanings.

Such metonyms are given in explanatory dictionaries under the numbers 2, 3, etc. or are given behind the sign // in some meaning of the word without a tag of translation.

General poetic (general literary) expressive metonymy is azure (about a cloudless blue sky): "The last cloud of a scattered storm! You alone rush through clear azure" (P.);

Common newspaper metonyms include words such as white (cf. "white suffering", "white Olympics"), fast ("fast track", " fast water", "quick seconds", etc.), green ("green patrol", "green harvest"), gold (cf. "golden jump", "golden flight", "golden blade", where gold is "one that rated with a gold medal", or "one with the help of which a gold medal was won"), etc.

12. Synecdoche. The use of synecdoche in speech and in the media. Synecdoche (Greek synekdoche) is the transfer of the name of a part of an object to the whole object or, conversely, the transfer of the name of the whole to a part of this whole, as well as the meaning itself that arose on the basis of such a transfer. For a long time we have been using such synecdoches as a face, a mouth, a hand, referring to a person (cf. "there are five mouths in the family", "the main character", "he has a hand there" (calling the name of the whole - a person), dining room , front, room, apartment, etc., when we mean by the dining room, front, room, apartment the "floor" (or walls) of the dining room (rooms, apartments), etc., i.e. we denote by the name of the whole its part (cf .: "the dining room is finished with oak panels", "the apartment is covered with wallpaper", "the room is repainted", etc.) More examples of synecdoche of both types: head (about a man of great intelligence): "Brian is the head" ( I. and P.), a penny (in the meaning of "money"): "...behave better so that you are treated, and most of all, take care and save a penny, this thing is most reliable in the world" (Gog.); number ("an object indicated by some number"): "We don't have to go number fourteen!" he says. and, forgetting the degree, I sit talking rushing with the luminary gradually "(Mayak.), etc. *

Uses such as “Love a book”, “Seller and buyer, be mutually polite”, “Tiger belongs to the cat family”, “Revolutionary poster exhibition”, etc. should not be attributed to lexical synecdoche. In lexical synecdoche (say, a mouth in the meaning of "man"), one class of objects ("man") is denoted by the "name" of a completely different class of objects ("mouth"). And the book, seller, buyer, tiger, poster in the examples above are singular forms used in the meaning of plural forms to name the same objects. This, if we use the term "synecdoche", grammatical synecdoche, is a fundamentally different phenomenon in comparison with lexical synecdoche.

Like metaphor and metonymy, synecdoche can be common (dry and expressive) and individual. The words mouth, face, hand, forehead, when they serve to designate a person, are common language, commonly used synecdoches, while forehead and mouth are synecdoches that have retained expressiveness. The synecdoche beard is common (meaning "bearded man"; mainly in circulation). But the mustache is an individual synecdoche. She is found, for example, in the novel by V. Kaverin "Two Captains" (Usami was called in this novel by the students of the geography teacher). General poetic is the synecdoche sound in the meaning of "word", cf.: "Neither the sound of a Russian, nor a Russian face" (Mushroom); "Moscow... how much in this sound / Merged for the Russian heart!" (P.). A skirt (cf. "run after every skirt") is a common synecdoche. And the names of many other types of clothing used to refer to a person (in such clothing) are perceived as individual synecdoches. Wed, for example: "Ah! - the wolf coat spoke reproachfully" (Turg.); "So, so ... - duckweed mutters [from" cassock "], moving his hand over his eyes" (Ch.); "What an important, fatal role the receding straw hat plays in her life" (Ch.); "I'll tell you frankly," Panama answered. "Don't put your finger in Snowden's mouth" (I. and P.); "Suspicious trousers were already far away" (I. and P.). Contextual, non-linguistic uses are many synecdoches that occur in colloquial speech. For example: "Don't you see, I'm talking to a person (i.e. "with the right person")." Such contextual synecdoches, typical of ordinary colloquial speech, are reflected in the literature. For example: "[Klavdia Vasilievna:] Meet me, Oleg. [Oleg:] With a scythe - Vera, with eyes - Fira" (Roz.). (In the play Rozova Vera is a girl with a thick braid, Fira is with big beautiful eyes).

Depending on the basis and on what grounds the name of one object is assigned to another, three types of polysemy are distinguished: metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche.

Metaphora (gr. metaphor- transfer) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on some similarity of their features.

The similarity of objects that receive the same name can manifest itself in different ways: they can be similar in shape ( ring 1 on hand - ring 2 smoke); by color ( golden 1 medallion - golden 2 curls); by function ( fireplace 1- "room oven" and fireplace 2- "Electric device for space heating"). The similarity in the location of two objects in relation to something ( tail 1 animal - tail 2 comet), in their estimate ( clear 1 day - clear 2 style), in the impression they make ( black 1 cover - black 2 thoughts) also often serves as the basis for naming different phenomena with one word. There are other similarities as well: green 1 strawberry - green 2 youth(the unifying feature is "immaturity"); fast 1 run - fast 2 mind (common feature- "intensity"); 1 mountains stretch - 2 days stretch(associative connection - "length in time and space").

Metaphorization of meanings often occurs as a result of the transfer of qualities, properties, actions inanimate objects for animate: iron nerves, golden hands, an empty head, and vice versa: gentle rays, the roar of a waterfall, the voice of a stream.

It often happens that the main thing original value words are metaphorically rethought on the basis of the convergence of objects according to various criteria: gray-haired 1 old man - gray-haired 2 antiquity - gray-haired 3 fog; black 1 coverlet - black 2 thoughts - black 3 ingratitude - black 4 sabbath - black 5 box(by plane).

Metaphors that expand the polysemanticism of words are fundamentally different from poetic, individual author's metaphors. The former are linguistic in nature, they are frequent, reproducible, anonymous. The linguistic metaphors that served as the source of the new meaning of the word are mostly non-figurative, therefore they are called "dry", "dead": pipe elbow, boat bow, train tail. But there may be such transfers of meaning, in which imagery is partially preserved: blooming girl, steel will. However, the expressiveness of such metaphors is much inferior to the expression of individual poetic images; cf. language metaphors: a spark of feeling, a storm of passions and poetic images of S. Yesenin: sensual blizzard; a riot of eyes and a flood of feelings; fire blue.

Dry metaphors that generate new meanings of words are used in any style of speech (scientific: eyeball, word root; official business: shop, alarm); language figurative metaphors gravitate toward expressive speech, their use in an official business style is excluded; individual author's metaphors are the property of artistic speech, they are created by masters of the word.

Met o n i m i i (gr. metonymia- renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their adjacency.

Thus, the transfer of the name of the material to the product from which it is made is metonymic ( gold, silver - Athletes brought gold and silver from the Olympics); the names of the place (premises) to the groups of people who are there ( class, audience - The class is preparing for control work; The audience listens attentively to the lecturer); names of dishes for their contents ( porcelain dish - tasty dish ); the name of the action on its result ( doing embroidery - beautiful embroidery); the name of the action to the scene of the action or those who perform it ( crossing the mountains - underpass; dissertation defense - play defense); the name of the item to its owner ( tenor - young tenor); the name of the author on his works ( Shakespeare - staged Shakespeare) etc.

Like metaphor, metonymy can be not only linguistic, but also individual authorial. The latter are common. in artistic speech, for example, in A. S. Pushkin: Porcelain and bronze on the table, and, pampered feelings of joy, perfume in cut crystal; The hiss of frothy goblets and punch blue flames.

S i n e c d o x a (gr. Synekdoche- connotation) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part, and vice versa. For example, pear 1 - "fruit tree" And pear 2- "the fruit of this tree"; head 1- "part of the body" and head 2- "a smart, capable person"; cherry ripe- in the meaning of "cherries"; we are simple people- so the speaker speaks of himself.

Synecdoche is based on transfers of meaning in such expressions, for example: sense of comradeship, faithful hand, lend a helping hand, kind word, flight of thought and under.

In the process of development of figurative names, the word can be enriched with new meanings as a result of narrowing or expanding the main meaning. For example, the word the dress means "clothes worn over linen": ready-made dress shop; ...Take something out of my dress for him. He is dressed too lightly. Give him my bunny coat(P.). However, as a result of the narrowing of the concept, the same word can be used in a different meaning - " women's clothing special cut": She was wearing a white dress with a pink belt.(L. T.). Word the foundation at first it had a narrow meaning: "longitudinal threads running parallel along the fabric", but over time, the scope of the meaning of this word expanded and it began to mean - "the main thing on which something is built, the essence of something." However, the narrowing of this new meaning gives the word a terminological character: the foundation- "part of the word before the end."

The emergence of new meanings leads to an expansion of the semantic scope of words, and, consequently, to an increase in their expressive possibilities, contributes to the development of the lexical-semantic system of the language as a whole. However, the Russian language is also characterized by a narrowing of the semantic structure of the word. Some meanings of words are archaic, falling out of use. For example, the word nature has the following meanings: 1. "Nature" [ Nature calls me into her arms(Karamz.)]. 2. "Human character, temperament" ( ardent nature). 3. "What exists in reality, the real, natural environment, conditions, etc., in contrast to the one depicted" ( draw from nature).
4. "The one who poses in front of the artist" - special. ( draw nature). 5. "Goods, products as means of payment in exchange for money" ( pay in kind). The first meaning with which the word nature was borrowed from French in late XVIII century, in modern Russian it is outdated (in dictionaries it is given a note: old). Other meanings have developed on this basis and are actively functioning today. Thus, the expansion of the semantic volume of the word determines the development of polysemy and prevails over the process of the loss of the word of its individual meanings.

Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. Modern Russian language.
M.: Iris-Press, 2002