Wars during the Victorian era. Victorian England

This is how the British called the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901). During this period there was no major wars, the economy, especially industry, has stabilized. It is no coincidence that this time was dubbed the “railroad age” and the “age of coal and iron.” In 1836-1837 The construction of railways began in England, and within ten years the whole country was covered with them.

Comfortable landaulets, two-wheeled and four-wheeled cabs, as well as omnibuses (a kind of horse-drawn bus) drove around the city streets. In rural areas they traveled in convertibles, charabancs and pony-drawn carriages.

At the same time, the electric telegraph appeared. This was followed by the replacement of the sailing fleet with ships made of iron and steel, which were propelled by steam. The demand for metal increased sharply, but by the middle of the century Britain was producing about half of the total amount of pig iron smelted in the world.

Significantly replenished the English treasury with income from foreign trade. The discovery of gold mines in the colonies of Australia and North America strengthened England's position in world trade. In 1870, the volume of foreign trade of Great Britain exceeded that of France, Germany and Italy combined, and was 3-4 times higher than the volume of trade of the United States of America.

In agricultural work, various machines began to be used more often, and Agriculture moved along the path of progress. After the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, food prices stabilized. The wealth accumulated by the mid-Victorian era greatly eased social tensions in the country, as working people's incomes increased significantly. However, this did not mean the disappearance of social inequality. One researcher wrote this about England at the end of Queen Victoria's reign: “Nowhere are the contrasts of wealth and poverty so sharp as in England, and none of the European capitals has anything like the “poverty quarters” of London. The English are not divided into two races - into the red-cheeked race and the sallow-faced race."

If in the western part of London, the West End, there were many magnificent mansions, then in the eastern part, across the Thames and on the outskirts, the poor lived in slums. Terrible cramped conditions and dampness reigned in these dwellings. Many had no roof over their heads at all.

From constant malnutrition and poor nutritional food, the poor quickly lost strength and efficiency and already looked like 60 years old after only 30 years. It was not until 1878 that a law was passed limiting the working day to 14 hours. However, in some places the owners forced their workers to work 17-18 hours a day.

The lot of women and children employed in industrial production has eased somewhat. They stopped taking children under 12-14 years old into factories. They were not accepted into foundries for “harmful” production (using lead, arsenic, phosphorus), and they were required to have a health certificate upon entering the factory. However, such government measures could hardly save poor families from poverty. Charles Dickens wrote a lot about England of the Victorian era, about its social contrasts, about the life of little ragamuffins in the London slums. The national wealth of England in the Victorian era was created through truly hard work.

Life presented a completely different picture.” powerful of the world this." Lords, government dignitaries, high church officials, and ambassadors of great powers lived in the aristocratic area of ​​the western part of the city, built up with magnificent mansions. One Russian traveler described the scene of a tea party in such a house: “The table is covered with a snow-white tablecloth, laden with expensive dishes and silver. Luxury dishes and abundance in everything - characteristic feature middle- and upper-class English households. In front of the mistress of the house's chair is a tray with cups and a teapot; A huge vessel of water is boiling over burning coals. The whole family: the older children, father, mother come out in full dress to the tea table... As soon as the family has sat down, the door opens and a maid in a white apron and a white cap brings in the food.”

The British in the Victorian era devoted a lot of time to sports and various physical exercise. They were engaged in hunting, horse racing, horse riding, swimming, fishing, playing ball, and boxing. In the evening they attended theaters, balls, and various entertainment venues. However, these entertainments were affordable only for the richest. Small traders and officials, highly paid workers and employees rested one day a week - on Sunday. As a rule, they spent this day off in nature, in the park, on the lawn. Here's how Dickens described these walks: “Gentlemen in waistcoats of stunning colors with watch chains running through them walk along the grass in a row, striking everyone with their importance (“peacock-like” - in the words of one joker); ladies, fanning themselves with new scarves the size of a small tablecloth, frolic on the lawn... grooms, not afraid of expense, order bottles of ginger lemonade for their beloved, and their beloved wash it down with countless oysters and shrimp; young men in tall top hats jauntily tilted to one side smoke cigars and pretend to enjoy it; Gentlemen in pink shirts and blue vests swing canes, occasionally knocking themselves and other walkers over with them. The toilets here often make you smile, but in general these people have a neat, contented appearance, they are in a good-natured mood and willingly communicate with each other.”

For almost a century, the country did not wage major wars and was not exposed to any serious national danger. This allowed the British to devote all their attention to internal affairs: invent new and improve old machines and mechanisms, erect beautiful buildings, take care of the upbringing and education of the younger generation. That is why they remember the Victorian era with extraordinary warmth as the “golden age” in the history of England.

But to end of the 19th century A. England lost its industrial primacy, losing it to the USA and Germany in steel smelting and coal mining. England's monopoly position on the world market also came to an end. The war with the Boers began. The Victorian era is over.

Victorian Britain is the period of Queen Victoria's reign on the English throne, which lasted from 1837 to 1901. This period is also called the “Victorian era” or “Victorian age”.
The ideal partner for parliamentary rule is Queen Victoria. She was the force that ensured stability in Great Britain.
Victoria is the last queen of the Hanoverian dynasty (the Hanoverian dynasty ruled in Great Britain for 123 years). Under Victoria's rule, Great Britain became one of the leading countries in the world, where the industrial revolution was one of the first to end. Queen Victoria strictly adhered to all laws regulating the activities of Parliament. During the reign of Queen Victoria, a two-party parliamentary system was legally established.
Great Britain - “workshop of the world”
50-60s pp. XIX century - the beginning of the “golden era” of economic and political development Great Britain. At this time she did not have a single serious opponent in the world. Great Britain has become the “workshop of the world”, the “world banker”, the “world carrier”. Capitalist Great Britain was an all-powerful master of the world market for industrial goods, which were distinguished high quality and relatively low prices. They were better and cheaper than products from other countries.
Great Britain has turned into. a large worldwide workshop that processed not only its own raw materials, but also raw materials that were exported from other countries. It had no serious rivals either in industry or trade.
Hence the explanation of the concept: Great Britain is the “workshop of the world.”
Preconditions for turning Great Britain into a “workshop of the world”
Completion of the industrial revolution.
Industrial monopoly.
The system of protectionism that operated in England.
Colonial expansion.
A series of wars that were fought for the sake of English trading capital.
1. Heavy industry developed rapidly, which was the basis for the re-equipment of the entire industry based on the latest achievements of science and technology.
2. The population of Great Britain in the 50-60s of the 19th century. accounted for less than 3% of the world's population, but it provided half of the world's volumes of pig iron, coal, cotton fabrics and many other goods.
3. Iron smelting and coal production in Great Britain were constantly growing.

In 1865, the tonnage of steam ships exceeded the tonnage of sailing ships.
9. The steam merchant fleet ensured the transportation of English goods, and also transported goods from other countries, which allowed shipowners to make huge profits.
Great Britain in the middle of the 19th century, as well as Holland in the 17th century. called the “world carrier.”
10. In the middle of the 19th century. The world's largest ship, the Big Eastern, was built. She could sail to India and back on her coal, carrying 4,400 passengers.
11. British products were exported to different countries the world, which, in turn, supplied Great Britain with raw materials and food products.
Reasons for Britain's predominance in industry and trade
1. In Great Britain, the industrial revolution occurred earlier than in other countries of the world.
2. It was equipped with the best machinery and equipment in the world:
mechanical machines for metal processing;
mechanical spindles;
steam engines.
3. Many goods were produced only in Great Britain, which no other country in the world had:
improved headers;
sewing machines;
refrigerators.
4. In Great Britain, thanks to the use of machines, labor productivity at that time was the highest in the world.
5. Great Britain had no serious competitors in the world market.
6. Machinery and equipment at that time were exported only from Great Britain.
7. Possession of a colonial empire is one of the conditions for industrial and commercial advantage in the world.
8. Stability of the monetary unit - the British pound sterling.
conclusions
The position of Great Britain as the “workshop of the world” provided the English bourgeoisie with huge profits.
Great Britain has become the richest and most powerful state in the world.
English entrepreneurs were the first in the world to begin exporting not only goods, but also capital, abroad, building enterprises, railways, and founding banks.
Affirmation of liberalism
50-60s of the XIX century. The period of establishment of the principles of liberalism in Great Britain.
Liberalism is a socio-political movement that unites supporters of the parliamentary system, political rights and freedoms, democratization of society, and private entrepreneurship.
In the 50-60s of the 19th century. Great Britain was the most democratic country in Europe, in which the principles of liberalism were established. No country had such personal freedoms, freedom of free trade and entrepreneurship, freedom of assembly and the press. Great Britain served as a refuge for political emigrants.
Liberalism developed in two parallel directions.
1. Political liberalism, which defended:
rule of law;
individual freedoms and rights, which should be limited only when they infringe on the rights of other people;
small police force;
small bureaucratic administrative apparatus;
religious tolerance;
universal suffrage;
providing political protection to emigrants from other countries;
reform course of development;
local self-government rather than centralization of power.
2. Economic liberalism, which was based on:
inviolability of private property;
free trade concepts;
policy of non-interference by the state in economic life countries;
eliminating all restrictions on trade and industrial activities;
development of free competition;
eliminating economic barriers within the country and between countries.
The ideologists of British liberalism were G. Cobden and D. Bright, who developed theories of the country's liberal development. They believed that:
“freedom of trade and entrepreneurship” ensures unhindered control over all trade transactions;
“freedom of competition” helps to encourage new branches of industry, the unhindered search for new markets for their goods;
victory over competitors due to industrial and economic advantages;
the personality must be freed from all obstacles;
the state should not interfere in the activities of a private entrepreneur.
Formation of the liberal and conservative parties
In the 50-60s of the 19th century. the country was dominated by landowners and the monetary bourgeoisie, who ruled the country without the industrial bourgeoisie, headed by both main political parties - the Tories (conservatives) and the Whigs (liberals). Subsequently, the industrial bourgeoisie began to play an increasingly important role.
In the middle of the 19th century. The two-party system was finally established. This period became the “golden age” of English parliamentarism, because parliament played the role of the center of state life. There were no significant differences between the Conservative and Liberal parties, but there was a constant struggle for power.
The Liberal Party sought reforms.
The Conservative Party tried not to change anything, to adhere to old traditions. Both parties defended the existing system and the foundations of democracy, and sought to prevent the possibility of a repetition of a political movement of workers similar to Chartism.
The most prominent politician in the ranks of the Conservative Party was Benjamin Disraeli, and the Liberal Party - Henry Palmerston and Gladstone.
For 20 years (1850-1870 pp.), the Tories (conservatives) formed government cabinets for only three years. For the remaining 17 years, power was in the hands of the Whigs (liberals). The Liberal Party was led for 36 years by outstanding statesmen G. Palmerston and J. Russell, who, showing flexibility, made timely concessions to broad sections of the population. However, the Whigs stubbornly resisted the further expansion of voting rights after the reform of 1832 and did not want to carry out new democratic changes.
The main content of the foreign policy actions of all British governments was to ensure the interests and protection of British capital.
British political system
In the XIX century. Great Britain was a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament, in which the lower house (House of Commons) played the main role. The government headed by the Prime Minister, who was appointed only from the representative of the party that won the elections, had broad powers in governing the country.
Features of the English political system
1. At that time, Great Britain was the most democratic state in Europe, in which the principles of liberalism were established.
2. No country had such personal freedoms, freedom of free trade and entrepreneurship, freedom of assembly and the press. Great Britain served as a refuge for political emigrants.
3. No one represented workers, farmers, or farm laborers in parliament.
4. In political life, Great Britain was distinguished by the fact that it did not have a large bureaucratic apparatus.
5. The role of the state was reduced to maintaining law and order, legality, providing defense, conducting foreign policy, collecting taxes and facilitating trade.

When eight-year-old boys from aristocratic families went to live in schools, what did their sisters do at this time?

They learned to count and write first with nannies, and then with governesses. They spent several hours a day, yawning and bored, looking longingly out the window, in the room reserved for classes, thinking about how wonderful the weather was for riding. The room contained a table or desk for the student and governess, a bookcase with books, and sometimes a blackboard. The entrance to the study room was often directly from the nursery.

“My governess, her name was Miss Blackburn, was very pretty, but terribly strict! Extremely strict! I was afraid of her like fire! In the summer my lessons started at six in the morning, and in the winter at seven, and if I arrived late, I paid a penny for every five minutes I was late. Breakfast was at eight in the morning, always the same, a bowl of milk and bread and nothing else until I became a teenager. I still can’t stand either one or the other. We only didn’t study for half a day on Sunday and the whole day on the name day. The classroom had a closet where books for classes were kept. Miss Blackburn placed a piece of bread for her lunch on the same plate. Every time I couldn’t remember something, or didn’t listen, or objected to something, she locked me in this closet, where I sat in the dark and trembled with fear. I was especially afraid that a mouse would come running in there to eat Miss Blackburn's bread. I remained in my captivity until, suppressing my sobs, I could calmly say that now I was good. Miss Blackburn made me memorize pages of history or long poems, and if I missed a word, she made me learn twice as much!”

If nannies were always adored, poor governesses were loved quite rarely. Maybe because the nannies chose their fate voluntarily and remained with the family until the end of their days, and they always became governesses by the will of circumstances. Most often, educated girls from the middle class, the daughters of penniless professors and clerks, were forced into this profession in order to help a bankrupt family and earn their dowry. Sometimes the daughters of aristocrats who had lost their fortune were forced to become governesses. For such girls, the humiliation of their position was an obstacle to their being able to receive at least some pleasure from their work. They were very lonely, and the servants tried their best to express their contempt for them. The more noble the poor governess's family, the worse they treated her.

The servants believed that if a woman was forced to work, then she was equal in position to them, and did not want to look after her, diligently demonstrating their disdain. If the poor girl was placed in a family that did not have aristocratic roots, then the owners, suspecting that she looked down on them and despised them for her lack of proper manners, disliked her and tolerated her only so that their daughters would learn to behave in society.

Apart from teaching their daughters languages, playing the piano and watercolor painting, parents cared little about deep knowledge. The girls read a lot, but they chose not moralizing books, but romance novels, which they slowly stole from their home library. They went down to the common dining room only for lunch, where they sat at a separate table with their governess. At five o'clock tea and baked goods were taken upstairs to the study room. After this, the children did not receive any food until the next morning.

“We were allowed to spread butter or jam on our bread, but never both, and eat only one portion of cheesecakes or muffins, which we washed down big amount fresh milk. When we turned fifteen or sixteen, we no longer had enough food and constantly went to bed hungry. After we heard that the governess had gone into her room, carrying a tray with a large portion of dinner, we slowly walked barefoot down the back stairs to the kitchen, knowing that there was no one there at that time, since loud conversation and laughter were heard from the room, where the servants ate. Stealthily we collected what we could and returned to our bedrooms satisfied.”

Often to teach daughters French and German languages French and German women were invited as governesses. “One day, Mademoiselle and I were walking down the street and met my mother’s friends. That same day they wrote her a letter saying that my prospects for marriage were being jeopardized because the ignorant governess was wearing brown shoes instead of black ones. “Darling,” they wrote, “the cocottes wear brown shoes. What can they think of dear Betty if such a mentor is looking after her!”

Lady Gartwrich (Betty) was the younger sister of Lady Twendolen, who married Jack Churchill. When she came of age, she was invited to hunt quite far from home. To get there, she had to use the railroad. She was escorted to the station early in the morning by a groom, who was obliged to meet her here that same evening. Then, with luggage, which was all the equipment for hunting, she rode in a stall car along with the horse. It was considered quite normal and acceptable for a young girl to travel sitting on straw with her horse, as it was believed that it would act as her protection and would kick anyone who entered the stall car. However, if she were unaccompanied in a passenger carriage with the entire public, among whom there could be men, society would condemn such a girl.

In carriages drawn by small ponies, the girls could travel alone outside the estate, visiting their girlfriends. Sometimes the path lay through forests and fields. The absolute freedom that the young ladies enjoyed on the estates disappeared instantly as soon as they entered the city. Conventions awaited them here at every turn. “I was allowed to ride alone in the dark through forests and fields, but if in the morning I wanted to walk through a park in the center of London, full of walking people, to meet my friend, they would immediately assign a maid to me.”

For three months, while the parents and older daughters moved in society, the younger ones, on their top floor, together with the governess, repeated their lessons.

One of the famous and very expensive governesses, Miss Woolf, opened classes for girls in 1900, which operated until the Second World War. “I attended them myself when I was 16, so I know from personal experience what the best education for girls was like at that time. Miss Woolf had previously taught the best aristocratic families and, in the end, inherited enough money to buy big house on South Adley Street Mather. In one part of it she set up classes for selected girls. She taught the best ladies of our high society, and I can safely say that I myself gained a lot from this beautifully organized mess in her educational process. At three o'clock in the morning we girls and girls different ages, met at a long table in our cozy study room, the former living room in this elegant 18th-century mansion. Miss Wolf, a small, frail woman with huge glasses that made her look like a dragonfly, explained to us the subject we were to study that day, then went to the bookcases and took out books for each of us. At the end of classes there was a discussion, sometimes we wrote essays on topics in history, literature, and geography. One of our girls wanted to study Spanish, and Miss Wolf immediately began teaching her grammar. It seemed that there was no subject that she did not know! But her most important talent was that she knew how to kindle in young heads the fire of thirst for knowledge and curiosity about the subjects being studied. She taught us to find interesting sides in everything. She had many male acquaintances who sometimes came to our school, and we received a point of view on the subject of the opposite sex.”

In addition to the listed lessons, the girls also learned dancing, music, handicrafts and the ability to behave in society. In many schools, as a test before admission, they were given the task of sewing on a button or sewing a buttonhole. However, a similar picture was observed only in England. Russian and German girls were much more educated (according to Lady Gartwrich) and knew three or four languages ​​perfectly, and in France the girls were more refined in their behavior.

How difficult it is now for our free-thinking generation, practically not subject to public opinion, to understand that just a little over a hundred years ago it was this opinion that determined the fate of a person, especially girls. It is also impossible for a generation that grew up outside the boundaries of estate and class to imagine a world in which insurmountable restrictions and obstacles arose at every step. Girls from good families they were never allowed to be alone with a man, even for a few minutes in the living room of their own home. Society was convinced that as soon as a man was alone with a girl, he would immediately harass her. These were the conventions of the time. Men were in search of victims and prey, and girls were protected from those who wanted to pluck the flower of innocence.

All Victorian mothers were very concerned about the latter circumstance, and in order to prevent rumors about their daughters, which were often spread in order to eliminate a happier rival, they did not let them go and controlled their every step. Girls and young women were also under constant surveillance by the servants. The maids woke them up, dressed them, served them at the table, the young ladies made morning visits accompanied by a footman and groom, at balls or at the theater they were with mothers and matchmakers, and in the evening, when they returned home, sleepy maids undressed them. The poor things were hardly left alone at all. If a miss (an unmarried lady) slipped away from her maid, matchmaker, sister and acquaintances for only an hour, then dirty assumptions were already made that something might have happened. From that moment on, the contenders for their hand and heart seemed to evaporate.

Beatrix Potter, the beloved English children's writer, recalled in her memoirs how she once went to the theater with her family. She was 18 years old at the time and had lived in London all her life. However, she had never been near Buckingham Palace, the Houses of Parliament, the Strand and the Monument - famous places in the city center that you couldn’t help but drive past. “It’s amazing to say that this was the first time in my life! - she wrote in her memoirs. “After all, if I could, I would gladly walk here alone, without waiting for anyone to accompany me!”

At the same time, Bella Wilfer, from Dickens's book Our Mutual Friend, traveled alone across the city from Oxford Street to Hollowen Prison (more than three miles), according to the author, “as if a crow were flying,” and no one I didn't think it was strange. One evening she went to look for her father downtown and was only noticed because there were only a few women on the street in the financial district at the time. It’s strange, two girls of the same age, and so differently treated one question: can they go out alone? Of course, Bella Wilfer - fictional character, and Beatrix Potter actually lived, but the thing is that there were different rules for different classes. The poor girls were much freer in their movements due to the fact that there was no one to watch them and accompany them wherever they went. And if they worked as servants or in a factory, then they traveled there and back alone and no one thought it was indecent. The higher the status of a woman, the more rules and decency she was entangled with.

An unmarried American woman, who came accompanied by her aunt to England to visit relatives, had to return home on inheritance matters. The aunt, who was afraid of another long voyage, did not go with her. When six months later the girl reappeared in British society, she was received very coldly by all the important ladies on whom public opinion depended. After the girl had traveled such a long distance on her own, they did not consider her virtuous enough for their circle, suggesting that, being unattended, she could do something illegal. The young American woman's marriage was in jeopardy. Fortunately, having a flexible mind, she did not reproach the ladies for the outdatedness of their views and prove them wrong, but instead demonstrated exemplary behavior for several months and, having established herself in society on the right side, also possessing pleasant appearance, got married very successfully.

Having become a countess, she quickly silenced all the gossips who still had the desire to discuss her “dark past.”

The wife had to obey and submit to her husband in everything, just like the children. A man must be strong, decisive, businesslike and fair, since he was responsible for the entire family. Here's an example ideal woman: “There was something inexplicably tender in her image. I will never allow myself to raise my voice or just talk to her loudly and quickly for fear of scaring her and hurting her! Such a delicate flower should feed only on love!”

Tenderness, silence, ignorance of life were typical features of the ideal bride. If a girl reads a lot and, God forbid, does not read etiquette manuals, is not religious or classic literature, not biographies of famous artists and musicians or other decent publications, if in her hands they saw Darwin's book “On the Origin of Species” or similar scientific works, then it looked as bad in the eyes of society as if she had been seen reading a French novel . After all, an intelligent wife, having read such “nasty”, would begin to express ideas to her husband, and he would not only feel stupider than her, but would also not be able to keep her in check. This is how Molly Hages, an unmarried girl from a poor family who had to earn her own living, writes about it. Being a milliner and having lost her business, she went to Cornwall to visit her cousin, who was afraid of her, considering her modern. “After a while, my cousin complimented me: “They told us that you were smart. But you are not at all!”

In the language of the 19th century, this meant that it turns out that you are a worthy girl with whom I would be happy to make friends. Moreover, it was expressed by a girl from the outback to a girl who came from the capital - a hotbed of vice. These words from her cousin gave Molly an idea of ​​how she should have behaved: “I must hide the fact that I received an education and worked myself, and even more hide my interest in books, paintings and politics. Soon, with all my soul, I gave myself over to gossip about romance novels and “to what extent some girls can go” is a favorite topic of local society. At the same time, I found it quite comfortable to appear somewhat strange. This was not considered a vice or shortcoming. Knowledge is what I had to hide from everyone!”

The already mentioned girl from America, Sarah Duncan, remarked bitterly: “In England, an unmarried girl of my age should not talk much... It was quite difficult for me to accept this, but later I understood why. You need to keep your opinions to yourself. I began to speak rarely, little, and found that best theme, which suits everyone, is a zoo. No one will judge me if I talk about animals."

Opera is also a great topic of conversation. The opera Gilbert and Sullivan was considered very popular at this time. In Gissing’s work entitled “Women in Disarray,” the hero visited the friend of an emancipated woman:

“Is this new opera by Schilberg and Sillivan really that good? - he asked her.

- Very! Have you really not seen it yet?

- No! I’m really ashamed to admit this!

- Go this evening. If, of course, you get free space. Which part of the theater do you prefer?

- I am a poor man, as you know. I must be content with a cheap place.”

A few more questions and answers - a typical mixture of banality and tense insolence, and the hero, peering into the face of his interlocutor, could not help but smile. “Isn’t it true, our conversation would be approved over traditional tea at five o’clock. I heard exactly the same dialogue yesterday in the living room!”

Such communication with conversations about nothing led some to despair, but the majority were quite happy.

Until the age of 17-18, girls were considered invisible. They attended parties, but did not have the right to say a word until someone addressed them. And even then their answers should be very brief. They seemed to have an understanding that the girl was noticed only out of politeness. Parents continued to dress their daughters in similar simple dresses so that they would not attract the attention of suitors intended for their older sisters. No one dared to jump their turn, as happened to Eliza Bennet's younger sister in Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice. When their time finally came, all attention was immediately turned to the blossoming flower, the parents dressed the girl in her best so that she could take her rightful place among the first brides of the country and be able to attract the attention of profitable suitors.

Every girl, entering the world, experienced terrible excitement! After all, from that moment on, she became noticeable. She was no longer a child who, with a pat on the head, was sent out of the hall where the adults were. Theoretically, she was prepared for this, but in practice she did not have the slightest experience of how to behave in such a situation. After all, at that time the idea of ​​evenings for young people did not exist at all, as well as entertainment for children. Balls and receptions were given for the nobility, for royalty, for guests of parents, and the young were only allowed to attend these events.

Many girls sought to get married only because they considered the worst of evils to be their own mother, who said that it was ugly to sit with your legs crossed. They really had no concept of life, and this was considered their great advantage. Experience was seen as bad manners and almost equated with a bad reputation. No man would want to marry a girl with what was thought to be a bold, daring outlook on life. Innocence and modesty were traits that were highly valued in young maidens by the Victorians. Even the colors of their dresses when they went to the ball were surprisingly monotonous - different shades of white (a symbol of innocence). Before marriage, they did not wear jewelry and could not wear bright dresses.

What a contrast with the spectacular ladies who dressed in the best outfits, traveled in the best carriages, and cheerfully and relaxedly received guests in richly furnished houses. When mothers went out into the street with their daughters, in order to avoid explanations of who these beautiful ladies were, they forced the girls to turn away. The young lady was not supposed to know anything about this “secret” side of life. It was all the more a blow for her when, after marriage, she discovered that she was uninteresting to her husband and he preferred to spend time in the company of such cocottes. Here's how a Daily Telegraph journalist describes them:

“I gazed at the sylphs as they flew or sailed in their delightful riding costumes and intoxicatingly beautiful hats, some in beaver hunting hats with flowing veils, others in coquettish cavalry hats with green feathers. And while this magnificent cavalcade passed by, the mischievous wind slightly lifted their skirts, revealing small, tight-fitting boots with military heels, or tight riding trousers.”

How much excitement there is at the sight of dressed legs, much more than now at the sight of undressed ones!

Not only was the entire structure of life structured in such a way as to preserve morality, but clothing was also an inevitable barrier to vice, because the girl was wearing up to fifteen layers of undershirts, skirts, bodices and corsets, which she could not get rid of without the help of a maid. Even if we assume that her date was experienced in lingerie and could help her, most of the date would have been spent getting rid of the clothes and then putting them back on. In this case, the experienced eye of the maid would instantly see problems in petticoats and chemises, and the secret would still be revealed.

Months, or even years, passed in Victorian times between the emergence of sympathy for each other, beginning with the fluttering of eyelashes, timid glances lingering a little longer on the object of interest, sighs, a slight blush, rapid heartbeat, excitement in the chest, and the decisive explanation. From that moment on, everything depended on whether the girl’s parents liked the candidate for her hand and heart. If not, then they tried to find another candidate who met the main criteria of that time: title, respectability (or public opinion) and money. Having become interested in their daughter’s future chosen one, who could be several times older than her and cause disgust, the parents reassured her that he would endure it and fall in love. In such a situation, the opportunity to quickly become a widow was attractive, especially if the husband left a will in her favor.

If a girl did not marry and lived with her parents, then most often she was a captive in her own home, where she continued to be treated as a minor who did not have her own opinions and desires. After the death of her father and mother, the inheritance was most often left to the older brother, and she, having no means of subsistence, moved to live with his family, where she was always put in last place. The servants carried her around at the table, her brother’s wife commanded her, and again she found herself completely dependent. If there were no brothers, then the girl, after her parents left this world, moved to her sister’s family, because it was believed that an unmarried girl, even if she was an adult, was not able to take care of herself. It was even worse there, since in this case her fate was decided by her brother-in-law, that is, a stranger. When a woman got married, she ceased to be the owner of her own money, which was given as a dowry for her. The husband could drink them away, skip them, lose them, or give them to his mistress, and the wife could not even reproach him, since this would be condemned in society. Of course, she could be lucky, and her beloved husband could be successful in business and take into account her opinion, then life really passed in happiness and peace. But if he turned out to be a tyrant and a tyrant, then one could only wait for his death and be afraid at the same time of being left without money and a roof over his head.

To get the right groom, no expense was spared. Here is a scene from a popular play that Lord Ernest himself wrote and often performed in his home theater:

“A rich house on an estate where Hilda, sitting in her own bedroom in front of the mirror, combs her hair after an event that occurred during a game of hide and seek. Her mother Lady Dragon enters.

Lady Dragoy. Well, you've done a lot, my dear!

Hilda. What's up, mom?

Lady Dragon (mockingly). What's going on! Sitting in a closet with a man all night and not getting him to propose!

Hilda, Not all night at all, but just a short time before dinner.

Lady Dragon. It is the same!

Hilda. Well, what could I do, mom?

Lady Dragon. Don't play dumb! There are a thousand things you could do! Did he kiss you?

Hilda. Yes mom!

Lady Dragon. And you just sat there like an idiot and allowed yourself to be kissed for an hour?

Hilda (sobbing). Well, you yourself said that I should not resist Lord Paty. And if he wants to kiss me, then I have to let him.

Lady Dragon. You really are a real fool! Why didn’t you scream when the prince found you two in his wardrobe?

Hilda. Why did I have to scream?

Lady Dragon. You have no brains at all! Don't you know that as soon as you heard the sound of footsteps, you should have shouted: "Help! Help! Get your hands off me, sir!" Or something similar. Then he would be forced to marry you!

Hilda. Mom, but you never told me about this!

Lady Dragon. God! Well, it's so natural! You should have figured it out yourself! How will I explain to my father now... Well, okay. It's no use talking to a brainless chicken!

A maid enters with a note on a tray.

Housemaid. My lady, a letter for Miss Hilda!

Hilda (after reading the note). Mother! It's Lord Paty! He asks me to marry him!

Lady Dragoy (kissing her daughter). My dear, dear girl! You can't imagine how happy I am! I always said that you are smart!”

The above passage shows another contradiction of its time. Lady Dragon did not see anything reprehensible in the fact that her daughter, contrary to all Standards of Behavior, was alone with a man for an entire hour! And even in the closet! And all this because they were playing a very common home game of “hide and seek”, where the rules not only allowed, but also ordered them to run away in pairs, since the girls could be scared of dark rooms lit only by oil lamps and candles. In this case, it was allowed to hide anywhere, even in the owner’s closet, as was the case in the above case.

With the beginning of the season, there was a revival in the world, and if a girl had not found a husband last year, her worried mother could change the matchmaker and start hunting for suitors all over again. In this case, the age of the matchmaker did not matter. Sometimes she was even younger and more playful than the treasure she offered and at the same time carefully guarded. It was allowed to retire to the winter garden only for the purpose of proposing marriage.

If a girl disappeared for 10 minutes during a dance, then in the eyes of society she had already noticeably lost her value, so the matchmaker during the ball constantly turned her head in all directions so that her ward remained in sight. During the dances, the girls sat on a well-lit sofa or in a row of chairs, and young people approached them to sign up in a ballroom book for a specific dance number.

Two dances in a row with the same gentleman attracted everyone's attention, and the matchmakers began to whisper about the engagement. Only Prince Albert and Queen Victoria were allowed three in a row.

And it was certainly completely inappropriate for ladies to visit a gentleman, except on very important matters. Every now and then in the English literature of that time examples are given: “She knocked nervously and immediately regretted it and looked around, afraid to see suspicion or ridicule among the respectable matrons passing by. She had doubts, because a lonely girl should not visit a lonely man. She pulled herself together, straightened up and knocked again more confidently. The gentleman was her manager, and she really needed to talk to him urgently.”

However, all conventions ended where poverty reigned. What kind of supervision could there be over girls forced to earn a piece of bread? Did anyone think that they walked alone through the dark streets, looking for their drunken father, and at work, no one cared that the maid was left alone in the room with the owner. Moral standards for the lower class they were completely different, although here the main thing was that the girl should take care of herself and not cross the last line.

Those born in poor families worked until exhaustion and could not resist when, for example, the owner of the store where they worked persuaded them to cohabitate. They could not refuse, even knowing what fate befell many others who had previously worked in the same place. The addiction was terrible. Having refused, the girl lost her place and was doomed to spend long weeks, or even months, looking for a new one. And if the last money was paid for housing, it means that she had nothing to eat, she could faint from hunger at any moment, but she was in a hurry to find a job, otherwise she could lose the roof over her head.

Imagine if at the same time she had to feed her elderly parents and little sisters! She had no choice but to sacrifice herself for them! For many poor girls, this could have been a way out of poverty, if not for the children born out of wedlock, which changed everything in their situation. At the slightest hint of pregnancy, the lover left them, sometimes without any means of subsistence. Even if he helped for a while, the money still ran out very quickly, and the parents, who had previously encouraged their daughter to feed the whole family with the money she earned in this way, now, not receiving any more money, disgraced her daily and showered her with curses. All the gifts she had previously received from her rich lover were eaten away. Shame and humiliation awaited her at every turn. It was impossible for a pregnant woman to get a job - this meant that she was putting an extra strain on the neck of an already poor family, and after the birth of the child there were constant worries about who would look after him while she was at work.

And all the same, even knowing all the circumstances, before the temptation to hide at least for a while from oppressive poverty, to open the curtain to a completely different joyful, elegant world, to walk down the street in stunningly beautiful and expensive outfits and look down on the people from whom so much For years, work, and therefore life, depended, it was almost impossible to resist! To some extent, this was their chance, which they would regret in any case, accepting it or rejecting it.

The statistics were inexorable. For every former saleswoman from a store who proudly walked in expensive outfits into the apartment that her lover rented for her, there were hundreds whose lives were ruined for the same reason. A man could lie about his status, or intimidate, or bribe, or take by force, you never know the ways in which resistance can be broken. But, having achieved his goal, he most often remained indifferent to what would happen to the poor girl, who would definitely tire of him. Will the poor thing be able to arrange her life? How will she recover from the shame that has befallen her? Will she die of grief and humiliation or will she be able to survive? What will happen to their common child? The former lover, the culprit of her shame, now shunned the unfortunate woman and, as if afraid of getting dirty, turned away to the side, making it clear that there could be nothing in common between him and this dirty girl. She might also be a thief! Cab driver, go!”

Even worse was the situation of the poor illegitimate child. Even if his father provided financial assistance until he came of age, even then, every minute of his life he felt that they did not want him to be born and that he was not like others. Not yet understanding the word illegitimate, he already knew that it had a shameful meaning, and all his life he could not wash himself of the dirt.

Mr. William Whiteley persuaded all his saleswomen to cohabitate and abandoned them when they became pregnant. When one of his illegitimate sons grew up, he, feeling a burning hatred for his father, one day came to the store and shot him. In 1886, Lord Creslingford wrote in his journal, after walking down one of the main streets of Mayfair after dinner: “It is strange to walk through rows of women silently offering their bodies to the passing men.” This was the result of almost all poor girls who, to use nineteenth-century terminology, “threw themselves into the abyss of depravity.” Cruel times did not forgive those who disdained public opinion. The Victorian world was divided into only two colors: white and black! Either she is virtuous to the point of absurdity, or she is depraved! Moreover, one could be classified in the last category, as we saw above, simply because of the wrong color of shoes, because of flirting in front of everyone with a gentleman during a dance, but you never know because of which young girls were awarded a stigma from the old ones maidens who, compressing their lips into a thin thread, watched the youth at the balls.

Text by Tatiana Dittrich (from the book "Daily Life of Victorian England".

Reproductions of paintings by James Tissot.

source
http://gorod.tomsk.ru/

Victorian era, 1837–1901

These years, like the Elizabethan era, are often depicted as a golden age in English history. Trade flourished, industrial production gained unprecedented strength, vibrant cities grew everywhere, and the possessions of the British Empire extended throughout the world.

Among the many changes that took place in those years, I would like to note one, the most significant, - the outflow of the population from rural areas to cities. If in 1801, according to the census, urban population accounted for only 30% of the total number of Englishmen, then by the middle of the century this figure had increased to 50%, and in 1901 80% of the population lived in cities and their suburbs. This trend, undoubtedly, was very convenient for developing industry, since it created an inexhaustible reserve of labor, but it also generated serious problems. Due to the great overcrowding, terrible dirt and poverty reigned in the cities. At first, the government tried to turn a blind eye to the plight of poor citizens, but then individual employers appeared who tried to take care of their employees. Gradually they realized that this could only be done properly if there were appropriate government laws. Such laws began to appear under pressure from industrialists, and each new law controlling the living and working conditions of workers meant more and more interference in the lives of British citizens. The army of civil servants grew steadily: in 1832 there were about 21 thousand of them, by 1880 there were already over 50 thousand, and in 1914 over 280 thousand hired workers worked at state enterprises.

Victoria: Queen and Wife

For many years, Queen Victoria was a symbol of reliability and stability for the entire nation. This woman, even in her youth, showed extraordinary strength of character, as evidenced by her refusal to sign documents while ill with typhoid fever in 1835. However, she achieved true greatness when she ascended the English throne. Already in the first year of her reign, one of the journalists noted: “She never leaves her post for a minute - the most hardworking and obliging queen in the world.” Although there were those who considered Victoria a limited and stubborn person.

A year after her coronation, in 1838, the queen fell in love with her brilliant cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and the wedding soon took place. Since then, Victoria relied on her husband in everything, recognizing his intellectual superiority. Those around him immediately felt Prince Albert's influence. If before that Victoria had the habit of sleeping late, then the very next day after her marriage, her subjects saw their queen walking hand in hand with her husband in the predawn fog. As one of the courtiers sarcastically remarked: “Not the best way to give the country a Prince of Wales.”

It was an extremely successful marriage, although, naturally, there were some disagreements: the parents did not always see eye to eye on raising children. And they had a lot of children - nine. The first, in 1840, was born Victoria, who later became the wife of the German emperor. She was followed in 1841 by Edward, Prince of Wales, the future King Edward VII. Besides them there were three more boys and four girls. Prince Albert attached great importance to family life, taking particular care of his children's education. Their married couple served as role models throughout England for many years.

Queen Victoria

If in previous centuries members of the royal family were often distinguished by their penchant for gambling, drinking and love affairs, then the current monarchs expressed ardent disapproval of all these vices. Part of this condemnation fell on their eldest son, who indulged too zealously in the joys of life. Victoria inherited three estates - Buckingham Palace, Windsor Castle and the Royal Pavilion in Brighton. Either these buildings were not spacious enough for royal family, or seemed insufficiently private, but the family purchased two more houses - Osborne House on the Isle of Wight and Balmoral Castle in Scotland. In these places they finally found the peace and solitude they had so dreamed of. Queen Victoria later wrote: “Here we can stroll peacefully without fear of running into a crowd of curious people.”