Which implies a functional division of labor. The concept of organization structure; functional division of labor, vertical division of labor
Any organization of labor in an enterprise must begin with its division, which represents the isolation of the types of activities of each employee and much more. The division of activities is a long-established process that includes the separation, consolidation and modification of individual types of activity (labor). The basis of any division are the main types of labor:
- physical;
- mental.
Physical activity
In this case, a person acts as a tool of labor, since he performs energy functions in the system. Types of manual labor: dynamic and static. During dynamic work, a person must move his body in space. Static - the impact of load on the arms, muscles, joints.
Manual activity is characterized by a higher muscular load, which falls on the musculoskeletal system and body systems. At the same time, the muscular system develops, stimulating metabolic processes.
Brainwork
This is the reception and processing of information. Such work requires intense attention, activation of thought processes, and memory. Work is associated with a fairly high emotional load. But prolonged mental stress negatively affects mental activity person. There is a deterioration in attention, memory, and environmental perception functions.
Elements of organization
The organization of labor in an enterprise is the establishment and change of the order according to which workers interact with the means of production. There should also be interaction between employees to achieve business goals. Labor is organized if it:
- cooperative;
- divided;
- workplace organized;
- workplace maintenance is organized;
- labor methods and techniques have been established;
- norms and measures of labor costs have been established;
- favorable conditions have been created;
- personnel are selected, trained and can improve their skills;
- labor is paid and financially incentivized;
- work activities are planned, recorded and analyzed;
- there is labor discipline.
Interrelated types of work
In a general sense, there are three interrelated types of division of labor activity:
- General (dividing the activities of workers between large industries, for example, transport, industry, construction).
- Private (within a particular industry).
- Single (labor is divided among workers of a separate enterprise).
Depending on the type and type of work, there are such types of division of labor as functional, qualification, professional and technological. It is also divided on a territorial basis (large and small units) and within units.
Functional form of division of labor
With this form, it is assumed that personnel are divided into homogeneous groups that differ from each other in their roles in the production process or activities performed. The most numerous functional group of personnel are workers: auxiliary and primary. If the first are engaged in and perform the basic functions of production, then the second group ensures the implementation of these functions (repair, adjustment, control).
Other categories are distinguished based on the functions performed by employees. These include specialists, managers, employees, technical performers, junior service personnel, students, etc.
If there is a functional division of labor at the enterprise, we can say that all categories of personnel are effectively used.
With this type of division of activities, it is assumed that efficiency will increase due to the specialization of workers, engineering and technical workers and those who work, taking as a basis a clear separation of the functions of marketing, management, design, personnel management, production of goods, etc.
Technological distribution of labor
The technological distribution of labor provides for the arrangement of workers by phases and stages, types of work, etc., as well as by production operations. This depends on the production technology and the specifics of the work. This distribution of labor affects the level of content of labor. And if narrow specialization is prone to monotony, then broad specialization has a high probability that the work will be performed poorly. Therefore, the organizer faces a responsible task: to find the optimal level of division of labor activity according to technological criteria. This form has three varieties: subject, stage-by-stage and operational division of labor. 
Qualification and professional division of labor
Such types of division as professional and qualification are similar, since they depend on the employee himself.
The above division of labor implies division into professions and specialties. According to this form of division, the required number is established different categories workers.
Qualification division - distribution of work depending on complexity and in accordance with the knowledge and experience of workers. Distribute responsibilities between employees of different groups with the same qualifications. Qualification categories establish the corresponding skill levels of workers. The higher the rank, the correspondingly higher the level of qualification.
The listed types and forms of labor, as well as forms of cooperation activities corresponding to them, should characterize the features of interaction between workers in production. These types of division of labor create wide opportunities for the organization to use labor.
Forms of organization of labor activity
The methods for establishing planned targets, as well as the way work already completed is taken into account, allow us to distinguish the following types of work organization:
- Individual form. It is used to ensure that each employee has their own task. Accordingly, records of work performed are kept individually, which means that everyone has a separately generated income.
- Collective form. In this case, the entire team receives the task. Manufactured products are accounted for based on the final results of the work. The entire team receives a certain income.
In addition to the main two forms, there are the following types of labor or forms of organization:
- division according to the formation of funds for carrying out activities (small enterprise, cooperative, rent, contract, individual labor activity);
- by the method of interaction with higher authorities (contract, lease agreement, contract and direct subordination);
- according to the management of collectives (full, partial and self-government);
- by the size of the team and its place in the management hierarchy (group, workshop, district, unit, brigade, etc.);
- according to the division and cooperation of labor in complex units (full division of labor, partial interchangeability and complete interchangeability);
- division according to the method of planning and cost accounting (self-supporting, with elements of self-supporting and without self-supporting);
- in accordance with the method of payment and material incentives (individual remuneration, collective payment - based on a tariff system, possibly using coefficients; tariff-free remuneration system).
The above forms can be combined.
Working conditions
Working conditions are understood as a combination of factors in the working environment and the labor process where human activity is carried out. Types of working conditions are divided into four classes, based on hygienic criteria:
- Optimal conditions. Under such conditions, the employee’s health is preserved and maintained high level performance.
- Acceptable conditions. In this case, the factors of the production environment do not exceed the permissible levels of hygiene standards for workers. If any changes occur, then during regulated rest the employee’s body recovers.
- Harmful conditions. The combined factors of the labor process have a harmful or severe impact on health, as well as on a person’s performance during the work process.
- Hazardous conditions. Production factors are at such a level that, when affecting workers, they pose a threat to life or injury or injury. This traditionally includes industrial organizations involved, for example, in nuclear energy. Of course, working in such conditions is prohibited. But in the event of an accident, emergency measures should be taken in such places.
Work safety
All types of work need to ensure safety, that is, the worker should not be exposed to hazardous production factors. The main sources of law on operational safety are the following documents:
- International Act on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1996).
- ILO Convention.
- Constitution Russian Federation(Article 7 - occupational safety and health). It is installed in it minimum size payment. Article 37 states the right to work in conditions of safety and hygiene. In addition, forced labor is prohibited.
- The Labor Code in Article 219 defines the rights of each employee to his own workplace, to receive reliable information about working conditions, social insurance. A person may also refuse to work if there is a danger to health or life. Each employee must be provided with personal and collective protective equipment, etc.
Other types of work
The result of work is also the criterion by which labor is divided into two types:
- Past and alive. In the first case, this is embodiment in objects and means of labor. In the second case, it is the labor of the worker, which is expended at a given moment in time.
- Unproductive and productive. The second leads to natural and material benefits, and the first leads to social and spiritual benefits, but they have no less utility and value for society.
It is also worth mentioning reproductive and creative labor. Reproductive leads in advance known results, since it is distinguished by the standardization of all reproducible functions. Not every person can engage in creative activities. Everything is determined by the level of education, qualifications, and ability to innovate.
Each person begins to learn all types of work at school. Certainly, most of time is spent on mental activity. But things like Physical Culture or labor, introduce physical activity.
The concept and types of labor are multifaceted. They can be viewed from different angles, each time discovering new sides. However, the basic, generally accepted divisions of work activity should be known in order to understand the difference between them. This can be useful, for example, when applying for a job.
Division of labor - an economic phenomenon in which professional specialization occurs, narrowing and sometimes deepening the functions of an individual specialist. The overall production process is broken down to the utmost simple operations, each of which is performed by a separate either. (5) The determining condition for the division of labor is the growth of the productive forces of society. “The level of development of a nation’s productive forces is revealed most clearly in the degree to which its division of labor is developed” (K. Marx and F. Engels, ibid., vol. 3, p. 20). At the same time, the development and differentiation of instruments of production play a decisive role in deepening the division of labor. In turn, the division of labor contributes to the development of productive forces and the growth of labor productivity. The accumulation of production experience and work skills among people is directly dependent on the degree of division of labor, on the specialization of workers in certain types of labor. Technical progress is inextricably linked with the development of the social division of labor. (6) Division of labor, qualitative differentiation of labor activity in the process of social development, leading to the isolation and coexistence of its various types. Division of labor exists in different forms, corresponding to the level of development of the productive forces and the nature of production relations. A manifestation of the division of labor is the exchange of activities.
The concept of the division of labor is described quite fully in the first three chapters of his five-volume treatise, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations.
Highlight social division of labor- distribution in society between people - and the division of labor led to modern world to the presence of a huge variety of different professions and industries. Previously (in ancient times), people were forced to almost completely provide themselves with everything they needed; this was extremely inefficient, which led to a primitive life and comfort. Almost all achievements of evolution and scientific and technological progress can be explained by the continuous introduction of the division of labor. Thanks to the exchange of the results of labor, that is, trade, the division of labor becomes possible in society.
From the point of view, the division of labor is functional. It is often possible to isolate a part into a separate type, which can then be entrusted to a machine. Thus, the division of labor continues to occur today and has a close connection, for example, with processes. In the field of intellectual work, its division is also possible and very useful. (5) The purpose of my test work is to prove that the division of labor is interconnected with other processes and is an integral part of every organization. And show that thanks to the existence of management levels, each organization achieves the desired success.
1. Division of labor
1.1 Division of labor in organizations
Under division of labor in production, we understand the differentiation of people’s activities in the process of joint labor. Division of labor presupposes the specialization of individual performers in performing a certain part of joint work, which cannot be accomplished without clear coordination of the actions of individual workers or their groups.
The division of labor is characterized by qualitative and quantitative characteristics. Division of labor according to quality This feature involves separating types of work according to their complexity. Performing such work requires special knowledge and practical skills. Division of labor according to quantitative the attribute ensures the establishment of a certain proportionality between qualitatively different types of labor. The combination of these characteristics largely determines the organization of work as a whole.
Ensuring a rational division of labor at an industrial enterprise within a particular work team (team, section, workshop, enterprise) is one of the important areas for improving labor organization. The choice of forms of division and cooperation of labor largely determines the layout and equipment of workplaces, their maintenance, methods and techniques of labor, its rationing, payment and provision of favorable production conditions. The division of labor in an enterprise, in a workshop, determines the quantitative and qualitative proportions between individual types of labor, the selection and placement of workers in the production process, their training and advanced training.
Correctly chosen forms of division of labor and its cooperation make it possible to ensure rational workload of workers, clear coordination and synchronicity in their work, and reduce time loss and equipment downtime. Ultimately, the amount of labor costs per unit of production and, consequently, the level of labor productivity depend on the forms of division and cooperation of labor. This is the economic essence of rational division. (1) The concept of personnel of an enterprise is characterized by the number and composition of employees employed there. In order to effective management In the process of forming and using personnel at enterprises, the classification of workers into categories is used. There are three categories of workers among the personnel of enterprises:
a) management personnel;
b) operational personnel;
c) support staff.
The division of enterprise personnel into categories of workers represents the most general shape functional division of their labor. The main goal of managing the number and composition of personnel is to optimize the cost of human labor to perform the main types of work related to the activities of the enterprise, and to ensure that the necessary jobs are filled with workers of the relevant professions, specialties and skill levels.
The design of labor processes at enterprises involves determining the total volume of work and its distribution in the context of individual groups of performers. The total volume of work performed must be distributed between separate groups of performers. This distribution is based on the division of labor, i.e. in relative isolation various types activities of the enterprise. (3)
1.2 Types of division of labor
At enterprises, the following types of division of labor are distinguished: technological, functional, professional and qualification.
Technological division of labor involves the separation of groups of workers on the basis of their performance of technologically homogeneous work in individual phases, types of work and operations (at engineering and metalworking enterprises - foundry, forging, machining, assembly and other work; at mining enterprises - mining preparation and cleaning work; at enterprises of worsted production of the textile industry - scattering, opening, carding, tape, roving, spinning, twisting, winding, sizing, weaving and other works). Within the framework of the technological division of labor in relation to certain types of work, for example assembly work, depending on the degree of fragmentation of labor processes, operational, detail and subject division of labor is distinguished.
The technological division of labor largely determines the functional, professional and qualification division of labor in an enterprise. It allows you to determine the need for workers by profession and specialty, and the level of specialization of their labor.
Functional The division of labor differs in the role of individual groups of workers in the production process. On this basis, first of all, two large groups of workers are distinguished - main and service (auxiliary). Each of these groups is divided into functional subgroups (for example, a group of service workers into subgroups engaged in repair, adjustment, instrumental, loading and unloading work, etc.).
Ensuring at enterprises the correct ratio of the number of main and auxiliary workers on the basis of a rational functional division of their labor, significant improvement in the organization of labor of service workers are important reserves for increasing labor productivity in industry.
Professional The division of labor is carried out depending on the professional specialization of workers and involves performing work in a particular profession (specialty) at the workplace. Based on the volume of each type of work, it is possible to determine the need for workers by profession for a site, workshop, production, enterprise and association as a whole.
Qualification The division of labor is determined by varying complexity, requiring a certain level of knowledge and experience of workers. For each profession, the composition of operations or work is established varying degrees difficulties that are grouped according to assigned working tariff categories. On this basis, the number of workers in each profession is determined according to their qualification categories. (2)
The names of professions and specialties of workers are regulated by the Classifier, which is valid state standard, and the content is determined by the Unified Tariff and Qualification Directory of Work and Profession of Workers /ETKS/.
ETKS is intended for tariffication of work, assignment of qualification categories to workers, as well as for drawing up programs for training and advanced training of workers.
Tariffication of work is carried out on the basis of tariff and qualification characteristics. In this case, the billable work is compared with the corresponding work described in the tariff and qualification characteristics, and with typical examples of work included in the directory or in additional lists of work examples. If the work is performed by a team (link), the work is charged differentially for each operation or the amount of operations included in this work, according to its average category. Assignment of a qualification category to a worker or its increase is carried out taking into account the complexity of the work performed.
Tariffication of work and assignment of qualification categories to workers in newly emerged professions is carried out, as a rule, in relation to the names and characteristics of similar professions and works contained in the ETKS. (4)
1.3 Main directions for improving the division of labor
The main direction for improving the division of labor is choosing the best option for each specific production site, taking into account economic, technical, technological, psychophysiological and social requirements.
Main economic The requirement for the optimal division of labor is to ensure the production of products in specified volumes and high quality at the lowest labor, material and financial costs.
Technical and technological the requirements provide for the execution of each element of work by the appropriate performer on this equipment within the established time frame work time. These requirements decisively determine the technological, functional, professional and qualification division of labor.
Psychophysiological requirements are aimed at preventing overwork of workers due to large physical activity, nervous tension, impoverished work content, monotony or physical inactivity (insufficient physical activity), which often leads to premature fatigue and decreased productivity.
Social the requirements presuppose the presence of creative elements in the composition of the work, increasing the content and attractiveness of the work.
As a rule, these requirements are not met by a single organizational solution, so there is a need to choose one option for the division of labor. The complexity of this task lies in its versatility, in the choice of criteria for determining boundaries, and the variety of methods for dividing and cooperating labor in various types of production. Moreover, the choice of option is carried out in conditions of counteraction various factors, characteristic of the production process. For example, increasing the workload of performers increases labor productivity, but up to a certain limit, after which a decrease in productivity occurs due to premature overwork.
It is known that as a result of the division of labor, specialization of workers occurs, which, on the one hand, ensures a reduction in labor costs, and on the other, can impoverish its content, lead to an increase in monotony (after a certain limit) and a decrease in productivity. Increasing the workload of performers does not always mean an increase in the productive operating time of the equipment; the inverse relationship is also possible.
With the establishment of more intense time standards, the required number of performers decreases, but the likelihood of a decrease in the quality of products increases. Providing creative elements (calculations, setting up machines, etc.) as part of the operations performed is often associated with additional time spent per unit of production, but it increases the content and attractiveness of the work, reduces staff turnover, etc.
The choice of the most optimal solution should balance the effects of various factors and ensure the most effective achievement of the production goal. To do this, it is sometimes necessary to conduct special experiments and research using mathematical methods and computer technology (to select the best option). However, the economic and social effect of these works should significantly cover the costs of their implementation.
Designing the division of labor at industrial enterprises by making optimal organizational decisions is very effective and is one of the most promising areas for improving labor organization.
Division is the most important factors of production, largely determining the forms of labor organization.
The development of measures to improve the division of labor is usually preceded by a quantitative assessment of the division of labor. To do this, the division of labor coefficient is calculated ( Kr. T), recommended by the Labor Research Institute. It characterizes the degree of specialization of workers and is calculated taking into account the time they spent performing functions corresponding to their qualifications and provided for by production tasks, according to the formula
Kr. t =1 - / tcm*np -
where is the time spent on performing functions not provided for in the tariff and qualification reference book for workers in a given profession, min;
time spent on performing functions not provided for in the technological documentation, min;
tcm - shift duration, min;
np- total (on payroll) number of workers at the enterprise (in the workshop, on the site), people;
total loss of working time for an enterprise (workshop, site) associated with downtime for technical and organizational reasons, as well as violations labor discipline, min(information on all indicators should be in OOTiZ or in the NOT department of the enterprise).
From the above formula it is clear that the less time is spent on performing an operation (work) not provided for in the tariff and qualification reference book, normative or technological documentation, the greater the numerical value of the coefficient and, therefore, the more rational the division of labor in the accepted cooperation.
In the conditions of any enterprise there are opportunities to choose the most rational forms of division and cooperation of labor. In each case, the choice should be made on the basis of a comprehensive analysis of the specifics of production, the nature of the work performed, requirements for their quality, the degree of workload of workers and a number of other factors.
The task is to correctly break down the entire set of operations of the production process, determine their optimal set for each workplace, arrange performers accordingly and establish the best relationship between workers through rational cooperation of their labor. Rational decision These issues make it possible to use living and material labor more efficiently, significantly reduce the loss of working time and equipment downtime, and increase production efficiency.
In modern conditions, increasing the efficiency of labor by improving its division and cooperation should be carried out on the basis of a wider combination of professions, expanding the scope of application of multi-machine (multiple-unit) services, and the further development of the collective (team) form of organizing workers' labor. (6)
2. Levels of control
Large organizations need to perform very large volumes of management work. This requires dividing management work into horizontal and vertical.
Horizontal principle Division of labor is the placement of managers at the head of individual divisions and departments. Horizontally divided management work must be coordinated so that the organization can achieve success in its activities. Some managers have to spend time coordinating the work of other managers, who, in turn, also coordinate the work of managers. This vertical deployment of the division of labor results in levels of management.
Vertical principle division of labor is the creation of a hierarchy of management levels to coordinate horizontally divided management work to achieve organizational goals.
The vertical division of labor leads to the formation of vertical management levels - for example military organization, as well as in business organization. The titles of the posts do not imply that similar positions are directly comparable in different organizations. It is usually possible to determine in an organization where one manager stands relative to others. This is done through the job title.
Organization size is just one of several factors that determine how many layers of management a company must have to achieve optimal results.
Regardless of how many levels of management there are, managers are traditionally divided into three categories.
LOW-LEVEL LEADERS ( operational managers). mainly monitor the implementation of production tasks to continuously provide direct information on the correctness of these tasks. Managers at this level are often responsible for the direct use of resources allocated to them, such as raw materials and equipment.
MIDDLE MANAGERS. The work of junior managers is coordinated and controlled by middle managers. They prepare information for decisions made by senior managers and transmit these decisions, usually after transforming them into technological convenient form, in the form of specifications and specific tasks for lower-level line managers.
SENIOR MANAGERS. The highest organizational level - senior management - is much less numerous than others; they are responsible for making the most important decisions for the organization as a whole or for the main part of the organization. Strong senior leaders imprint their personality on the entire image of the company. (1)
Conclusion
Production is unthinkable without cooperation, the cooperation of people, which gives rise to a certain distribution of activities. “It is obvious,” wrote K. Marx, “that this necessity of distributing social labor in certain proportions cannot in any way be destroyed by a certain form of social production - only the form of its manifestation can change.” Forms of labor distribution are found direct expression in R. t., which determines the existence historically certain forms property. “Different stages in the development of the division of labor,” wrote Marx and Engels, “are at the same time different forms of property, i.e., each stage of the division of labor also determines the relationship of individuals to each other according to their relationship to the material, tools and products of labor " (6).
The reduction of the working day and the enormous increase will give people the opportunity, along with professional creative work, to constantly engage in their favorite activities: art, science, sports, etc. In this way, the one-sidedness caused by antagonistic R.t. will be completely overcome, and the comprehensive and free development of all people will be ensured. (5)
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Directions for improving the division and cooperation of labor.
Labor cooperation.
Division of labor, its forms and efficiency criteria.
Lecture 5. Division and cooperation of labor.
The organization of labor in an enterprise begins with its division, which, as an element of labor organization, represents the separation of types of activities of workers, the establishment of functions, responsibilities, and scope of action for the workers of each of them, as well as for their groups that form different divisions.
The division of labor according to the form of manifestation is divided into 2 types:
The first type is the division of social labor into various branches of labor;
The second type is the division of labor in the production of any product.
Each type includes types of division of labor. The first type includes 2 types: general and specific, the second type includes a single division of labor.
The general division of labor is the process of separating various types of labor activity within the whole society, i.e. division of labor between various areas of activity and production.
Private division of labor is the process of separating various types of labor activity both across industries, agriculture, and within them - into individual enterprises.
Unit division of labor means the separation of various types of work within an organization, within certain structural divisions, as well as the distribution of work among individual workers.
Depending on the type and type of work, the division of labor is distinguished: functional, professional, technological and qualification. In addition, the division of labor occurs on a “territorial” basis between large and between small divisions, as well as within divisions. All of the above forms of separation coexist, i.e. are present at the same time.
Functional division of labor involves dividing personnel into functionally homogeneous groups, each of which is distinguished by its role in the implementation of the production process, or activity. First of all, employees, workers, MOP, students, and security are highlighted. With the functional division of labor, one of the problems is to justify the feasibility of combining the functions of workers from different functional groups, for example, main and auxiliary workers. It is also necessary here to resolve issues of justifying the level of centralization and specialization of work for individual functional groups.
Professional division consists of dividing workers into professions and specialties. A profession is understood as the type of activity (occupation) of a person who has certain theoretical knowledge and practical skills obtained as a result of vocational training. A specialty is a type of profession, a narrower part of it, the specialization of an employee within the profession. In the higher education system vocational education state educational standards The following professional gradations are distinguished: qualification, specialty and specialization.
Technological division of labor involves the arrangement of workers by stages, phases, types of work and production operations, depending on the production technology, content and characteristics of the work. Here there are four types of division of labor: subject, detail, operational and by type of work.
With a substantive division of labor, the performer is assigned to perform work related to the manufacture of the finished product.
Detailed division of labor is more common. It consists of assigning a completed part of the product - a part - to the manufacturing worker.
The most common form of technological division of labor is operational division, when a worker performs only one or several technological operations. The operational division of labor is associated with the emergence of a rather complex contradiction between labor productivity and its content. Historically, the process of development of material production went from universal labor to specialized labor. These types of work have their positive and negative sides. Universal labor requires the worker to have versatile skills, equal skill in performing different jobs. As a rule, this work is meaningful, interesting, and full of creative elements. With all these positive qualities such work is not characterized by high productivity. As production became more complex, increasing labor productivity required increasing specialization and a narrower division of labor.
Advantages of specialized labor over universal labor:
1. you can more successfully select a performer to perform work that requires certain individual qualities from him.
2. The training period for an employee to perform a limited range of duties is reduced.
3. The worker quickly achieves mastery, the required speed and accuracy of work.
4. prerequisites are created for more complete mechanization and automation of labor.
5. are created best opportunities to improve the organization of the workplace, equipping it with specialized equipment and tools.
All this contributes to the growth of labor productivity, but at the same time the content of labor decreases; the worker becomes, as it were, an appendage of the machine, one of its parts. Crossing the rational boundary of specialization leads to the fact that the growth of labor productivity stops due to the accumulation of negative aspects of highly specialized labor: interest in work disappears, staff turnover increases, etc.
Technological division of labor by type of work - when none of the listed types of technological division are suitable, for example, welding, painting work.
The qualification division of labor is the distribution of work depending on its complexity between workers of different qualification groups. The level of qualifications of workers is established on the basis of assigning qualification categories to them. The first category corresponds to the lowest level of qualification.
To resolve issues of division of labor, the concepts of “borders of division” and “level of division” are used.
The boundaries of division are the lower and upper limits, below and above which, respectively, the division of labor is unacceptable.
The division level is an accepted calculated or actually achieved value that characterizes the state of the division of labor.
There are the following boundaries of the division of labor: technical, economic, psychophysiological and social.
The lower technical limit of the division of labor will be a production operation consisting of one labor technique, the upper technical limit of the division of labor will be the production of the entire product at one workplace.
The lower economic limit of the division of labor will be such a division of the labor process when the reduction in working time spent on performing an operation due to deepening specialization is equalized, and then begins to be covered by an increase in the time spent on transporting the subject of labor from one workplace to another. The upper economic limit is determined by the duration of the production cycle for manufacturing the entire product at one workplace.
The psychophysiological boundaries of the division of labor are determined by the magnitude of physical and neuropsychic stress on the worker during the working day. For physical activity, the lower limit is energy consumption in the amount of 2.5 - 3 kcal/min, the upper limit is 4.5 - 5 kcal/min.
Social boundaries The division of labor is determined by the level of monotony of labor and staff turnover, the attitude of workers to work, and the state of interpersonal relationships. The monotony of labor is regulated by the duration of repeated homogeneous operations during the working day. The limit value is the duration of such operations is at least 30 seconds; the frequency of repetition of heterogeneous elements of the operation must be at least five per 30 seconds.
If the boundaries of the division of labor indicate the limits of acceptable decisions that should guide the organizers of labor and production in this area, then for a specific production situation it is important to find best option, that is, the optimal level of division of labor, which is calculated based on the use of economic, psychophysiological and social criteria.
Economic criteria The division of labor is: the cost of working time and material costs for performing work, the degree of use of the qualifications of workers, the duration of the production cycle. Level of labor productivity, production costs, enterprise profit. The economic focus of improving the division of labor is to achieve savings in labor and material costs, which, in turn, leads to a reduction in production costs and an increase in enterprise profits.
The psychophysiological criteria for the division of labor are: indicators of human performance, which depends on sanitary and hygienic working conditions, labor intensity, on the distribution of physical loads on different organs and systems of a person, on the magnitude of the combination of physical activity and mental activity. When dividing labor, the option that ensures maximum human performance and best ensures the health of the worker is selected.
Social criteria for the division of labor include team stability, low staff turnover, high labor discipline, satisfaction with the content and working conditions, etc.
Establishing the optimal level of division of labor with such large quantities of various criteria is a rather complex task. Here it is important to decide where to start and which groups of criteria to give preference to. The experience that most deserves attention is the experience of optimizing the division of labor, when calculations begin with the use of social, then psychophysiological, and only then economic criteria.
Question No. 2.
Labor cooperation is understood as a system of production relationships between workers during the labor process and their interaction in the department and in the enterprise. The cooperation of labor is inextricably linked with its division. The arrangement of workers should be carried out in such a way that their expedient interaction is achieved by rationalizing routes for moving objects of labor, saving labor costs, and reducing the duration of the production cycle.
The scale of cooperation depends on:
Depth of division of labor - the deeper the division of labor, the wider its cooperation;
State of the art;
Existing technology;
Organizational type of production;
Forms of division of labor;
Forms of organization of production.
Forms of labor cooperation are similar in name to forms of its division. Firstly, cooperation is carried out on a territorial basis: inter-shop, intra-shop or inter-site, intra-site or inter-brigade, intra-brigade cooperation, of course, if the enterprise is divided into shops, shops into sections, sections into teams. If the enterprise or institution has a different structural division, then the forms of division of labor will be named in accordance with it.
Inter-shop cooperation establishes interaction between workshops of different functional or technological profiles.
In addition to territorial characteristics, cooperation is established according to species characteristics. Here there are different forms of cooperation: functional, professional, technological and qualification. In turn, within the framework of technological cooperation, cooperation is divided into subject, detail, operational and by type of work.
It is important to professionally and knowledgeably resolve issues of establishing rational forms of division and cooperation of labor. improvement of these forms is achieved by combining professions and positions, expanding work areas, and using multi-machine or multi-unit services. Development of collective forms of organization and stimulation of labor. The use of methods based on the use of psychophysiological characteristics of people’s perception of a particular production environment, taking into account the socio-psychological factors of the production environment, such as the gender and age composition of the team, the value orientations of workers, the totality of their needs, interests, preferences, and motives of behavior, has great potential.
Question No. 3.
The main directions for improving the division and cooperation of labor:
1. Combination of professions is a form of organizing the work of an employee when, during normal working hours, along with work in his main profession, he also performs work in one or more professions or specialties.
The possibility and economic feasibility of combining professions is determined by the following prerequisites and conditions:
The presence of unused working time among employees;
Mismatch of combined work in time;
Technological and functional similarity of combined work, their close relationship with each other, territorial proximity;
The absence of a negative impact of combined work on the accuracy and quality of their implementation;
The theoretical and practical preparedness of the employee to combine work.
2. Combination of functions is the performance, along with the duties of the main profession, of certain functions previously performed by employees of other professions. While maintaining the profile of his work, the employee partially performs the work of another employee.
Combining professions and functions should not be confused with part-time work. Part-time work is work outside of school hours, i.e. after the end of the main work period.
The combination of professions and functions is developing in the following areas:
A) combination of dissimilar professions, predetermined by the use of multidisciplinary technological equipment;
B) combining the main work with the maintenance of your equipment;
C) combining the main job with economic maintenance of the workplace;
D) combining dissimilar but interrelated auxiliary work;
D) consolidation of overly fragmented operations, increasing the diversity and content of work.
The volume of work in a combined profession should, as a rule, be less than in the main job;
The combination must ensure normal (no more than a working day in one shift) employment of the employee;
The expansion of combining professions should be limited to the level of worker fatigue not exceeding physiological norms;
The following requirement must be observed between the volume and quantity of combined work: the greater the volume of combined work, the smaller the number of combinations should be;
The sum of the volumes of combined work, taking into account the time for transition from one workplace to another and breaks for rest and personal needs, must be equal to or less than the duration work shift, i.e.
Where P i is the volume of work;
n – number of combined works;
T per – time of breaks for rest, personal needs and for transitions from one place of work to another when combining professions, min.;
T cm – shift duration, min.
The possibility of involving an employee in combining professions can be characterized by the coefficient K combined:
, where T sv – time free from work in the main profession, min.
3. Expansion of service areas - here there is a combination of work within one profession. This measure can improve the use of working time, release workers whose workday is not fully loaded, and increase the content of work. Often a multi-machine service system is used here, the essence of which is that one or a group of workers simultaneously service several machines.
4. Collective forms of labor organization, in particular, the brigade form of organizing and stimulating labor. In specially organized teams, conditions are created for a change in labor by expanding the production profile of workers and moving them within the team from one workplace to another. Such a movement allows one to overcome the monotony of work, increases its diversity and content, has a beneficial effect on such psychophysiological characteristics of personnel as performance, fatigue, health, improves the economic results of work, and increases its productivity.
Organizational structure is a set of ways by which the labor process is first divided into individual work tasks, and then coordination of actions to solve problems is achieved (Henry Mintzberg, “Structure in the Fist”). In fact, organizational structure determines the distribution of responsibilities and powers within the organization. As a rule, it is displayed in the form of an organigram - a graphic diagram, the elements of which are hierarchically ordered organizational units (divisions, job positions).
The structure of the enterprise is established based on the volume and content of the tasks solved by the enterprise, the direction and intensity of the information and documentation flows that have developed in the enterprise, and taking into account its organizational and material capabilities.
Horizontal division of labor
The horizontal division of labor results in each worker becoming a partial worker. In other words, he does not produce a finished product, but only performs some operations necessary to obtain the finished product. In order for the finished product to be ultimately obtained, the actions of all partial workers must, as noted above, be coordinated, i.e. management is necessary.
Where there is no division and cooperation, there is no need for management. The larger and more complex the organization, the more important the role and the more complex the management process. Therefore, if in small organizations the performance of management functions can be combined with other types of activities, then in large organizations management is a separate type of activity.
Vertical division of labor
Since work in an organization is divided into component parts, is carried out through the joint efforts of many people and needs to be managed, someone must carry out this management. If the organization includes a sufficient number of employees and groups whose activities should be coordinated, then there will be many coordinators. This means that a division of labor also arises among coordinators and that their activities will also have to be coordinated. Thus, people appear in the organization whose task is reduced to coordinating numerous coordinator-managers. It is clear that the work that managers will do, coordinating directly with the performers, will be noticeably different from the work of their bosses.
Thus, there are two internal forms of division of labor in an organization. The first is the division of labor into components that make up parts general activities, i.e. horizontal division of labor. The second, called the vertical division of labor, separates the work of coordinating actions from the actions themselves and distinguishes the levels of such coordination.
Functional division of labor is the division of labor depending on the nature of the participation of performers in the production process. In this case, they distinguish:
- workers: main and auxiliary;
- managers: linear and functional;
- specialists: designers, technologists, suppliers, etc.;
25.1Memory: remembering. Conditions that promote meaningful memory. Types of memorization.
Memorization. It occurs in three forms: imprinting, involuntary memorization, voluntary memorization.
Imprinting – durable and precise preservation in short-term and long-term memory events as a result of a single presentation of material for a few seconds.
Eidetic images appear in short-term memory - the image of what was seen is retained in consciousness as a whole, the color and stable shape are preserved.
In long-term memory, imprinting occurs under a strong emotional impression.
Involuntary memorization is the retention of events in memory as a result of their repeated repetition.
Involuntary memorization reflects constantly occurring, repeating events
Voluntary memorization - arose in work; more often than not, a person resorts to memorization.
In relation to the source text, a distinction is made between literal, close to the text and semantic.
Based on the nature of the connections, mechanical and semantic memorization are distinguished.
Memorization patterns:
1. by purpose. 2. by means of presenting the material. 3. by logical structure. 4. on organizing the learning process.
Preservation. More or less long-term retention in memory of information obtained through experience.
Preservation has two sides: actual preservation and forgetting.
Playback. Recreation in activity and communication of material stored in memory.
Includes three levels: recognition, reproduction, recall.
Correlation between the levels of development of memorization and retention.1. Fast memorization - fast forgetting. 2. Slow memorization - slow forgetting. 3. fast memorization - slow forgetting. 4. slow memorization - fast forgetting.
Organization of clear and coordinated work of main and auxiliary workers, if the labor productivity of main workers largely depends on the work of auxiliary workers (for example, crane operators and molders in foundries);
Workers who do not have a permanent place of work or clearly defined duties (for example, when performing loading and unloading operations).
Joint labor of a group of workers with elements of interchangeability and combination of professions, since identifying the individual output of each becomes difficult, and consolidation of operations is undesirable due to the unequal workload of workers (assembly and welding work in the manufacture of large machines and units);
Production lines, assembly lines when there is no production need to create reserves at individual workplaces, although they are possible due to the different output of the performers, and only an increase in the output from the final operation is required;
Equipment maintenance when the processing cycle exceeds the duration of one shift (machining on large and unique metal-cutting equipment, forging and stamping work with long heating times for workpieces, etc.);
Servicing multi-machine complexes for machining, when transferring shifts on the move significantly increases labor productivity and equipment utilization (teams of millers, boring machines, teams of workers servicing a complex of gear-processing equipment).
However, the technical conditions of production do not determine the unambiguous choice of the organizational form of labor. For certain types of work, under the same technical conditions, both team and individual forms are possible. In such conditions, it must be borne in mind that the brigade form creates opportunities for changing work, based on the combination of professions and functions, increases its content, promotes professional development and, ultimately, increases interest in work and in its collective results.
At mechanical engineering enterprises, all forms of collective labor organization are common, including specialized shift and cross-cutting teams, complex shift and cross-cutting teams.
22. The concept of division and cooperation of labor, their forms.
Labor cooperation– a system of production relationships between workers during the labor process.
Labor cooperation in enterprises carried out in various forms depending on specific production conditions. This is influenced by:
nature of the equipment used
technology features
type of production
the degree of division of production processes and many other factors.
Cooperation of labor can occur when performing work individually at separate workplaces, when combining professions, or during collective (group) work.
Mandatory conditions for the collective form of labor organization are the presence of production connections between workers in the labor process and common goal work performed. Types of groups according to various criteria:
specialized and complex
with complete, partial division of labor or complete interchangeability of workers
paid individually or collectively with the distribution of collective earnings according to the labor contribution of each employee to the final results of the activities of the entire team (according to KTU, KTV, KKT, etc.)
with full or partial self-government.
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Division of labor - this is the differentiation of people’s activities in the process of joint labor. By the level of division of labor, one can judge the development of the productive forces of society. The higher the degree of division of labor, the higher the level of development of productive forces.
There are three interrelated types of division of labor:
- general (within society, i.e. it manifests itself in the differentiation of people’s activities between large sectors of agriculture, i.e. between industry, construction, agriculture, transport, etc.);
- private (within a separate agricultural sector. In agriculture, this division of labor appears in the form of its delimitation by cattle breeding, pig breeding, gardening, vegetable growing, etc.);
-single (expresses the division of labor between workers within a separate enterprise).
General and specific division of labor is studied in other economic disciplines. The object of NOT is single division of labor.
Division of labor the enterprise simultaneously produces the following basic forms :
1. technological;
2. functional;
3. professional qualification.
1. Technological division of labor carried out on the basis of the division of the production process into stages (procurement, processing, assembly), processing stages, phases, partial technological processes and operations. The technological division of labor is associated with the division of labor according to industries of the enterprise, phases and stages of plant development, and types of work.
Within the framework of the technological division of labor in relation to certain types of work, depending on the degree of differentiation of labor processes, the following differs:
Operating;
Detailed;
Subject division of labor.
Operational division of labor provides for the distribution and assignment of technological process operations to individual workers, the placement of workers, ensuring their rational employment and optimal loading of equipment.
Subject division of labor provides for the assignment to a specific performer of a set of works that allows the product to be completely manufactured (assembling an electrical outlet, etc.).
Detailed division of labor involves assigning to the contractor the manufacture of a finished part of a product or part.
2. Functional division of labor provides for the separation of various types of labor activity and the performance of specific work by appropriate groups of workers specializing in performing production or other functions of different content and economic significance.
According to the functional division of labor, there is a division of all workers into:
- main those engaged in the direct production of products or performing basic work;
- auxiliary who do not directly produce marketable products themselves, but provide the work of the main workers with their labor;
- serving who, through their labor, create conditions for productive work of both main and auxiliary workers.
Managers, specialists and employees are divided into separate functional groups.
3. Professional and qualification division of labor is carried out depending on the professional specialization and complexity of the work and involves performing work in the workplace within the framework of a particular profession and the qualifications of the workers. Based on the volume of each type of work, it is possible to determine the need for workers by profession, qualification level and category both for the enterprise as a whole and for its structural divisions.
In this regard, there are boundaries of the division of labor :
1. technological
2. economic
3. psychophysiological
4. social.
1. Technological frontier The division of labor is determined by existing technology, which divides the production process into operations. Lower limit formation of the content of an operation is a labor technique consisting of at least three labor actions, continuously following each other and having a specific purpose. Upper limit division of labor will be the production of the entire product at one workplace.
2. Economic border The division of labor is determined by the fact that the specialization of performers associated with the fragmentation of the labor process should ensure their full workload during the work shift and help increase labor productivity.
3. Psychophysiological boundary The division of labor is determined by acceptable physical and psychological stress. The duration of operations must be within acceptable limits and contain a variety of labor techniques, the implementation of which ensures alternating loads on various organs and parts of the body of workers.
4. Social boundary division of labor is determined by the minimum necessary variety of functions performed, ensuring the content and attractiveness of work. The employee must not only see the results of his work, but also receive a certain moral satisfaction from it. Labor, which is a set of simple movements and actions, reduces interest in it. It does not contribute to the growth of labor productivity and skills of workers.
The division of labor is inextricably linked with its cooperation. The deeper the division of labor, the more important cooperation becomes.
Labor cooperation– joint participation of people in one or different, unrelated labor processes.
The task of cooperation t ore - to ensure the greatest consistency between the actions of individual workers or groups of workers performing various labor functions.
There are two types of cooperation:
1. simple
2. difficult
At simple cooperation There is no division of labor; work is performed collectively and independently of each other. For example: lifting and moving heavy objects manually.
Complex cooperation- the result of the division of labor. Each performer is assigned a specific function. Everyone on his own is not able to carry out the labor process without cooperation with other workers; the work is interconnected and interdependent. For example: grain harvesting, when everyone performs their function (combine operator, driver, tractor driver, etc.).
Forms of labor cooperation:
1. intershop;
2. intra-shop;
3. intra-site.
Intershop cooperation is associated with the division of the production process between workshops and consists in the participation of workshop teams in the general labor process for the enterprise in the manufacture of products.
Intra-shop cooperation consists in the interaction of individual structural units of workshops (sections, production lines).
Intra-precinct cooperation consists in the interaction of individual workers in the process of joint work or organization collective work workers organized into teams.
The role of cooperation in agriculture:
1. Makes it possible to complete work in a short time.
2. Helps increase labor productivity.
3. Helps overcome critical deadlines for many agricultural works.
4. Promotes more efficient use of public means of production
23. The concept of labor norm and labor cost norm. The structure of labor standards.
Labor standard- the volume of work task that the employee must complete within the established working hours. Compliance with labor standards is one of the main responsibilities of every employee.
Labor cost rate- this is the amount of labor that must be spent on high-quality performance of a given job under certain organizational and technical conditions. The norm of labor costs determines the amount and structure of the necessary labor costs to perform a certain job and is the standard with which actual costs are compared in order to determine their rationality.
The structure of labor standards...
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The system of labor norms and standards serves to ensure production
vital processes with data regulating labor activity. By-
The concept of labor standards implies division into norms of labor costs and norms of re-
labor results.
The labor cost rate is the amount of labor that is required
to ensure high-quality performance of assigned work in certain organizations
tional and technical conditions. The norm of labor costs determines the amount and
the structure of the necessary labor costs to perform a certain job and
is the standard with which actual costs are compared in order to determine
dividing their rationality.
Objectively, there are two forms of labor costs: working time costs
costs and labor costs (physical and nervous energy). TO standards for
wasting working time include time norms (Nv), number norms (Nch),
service standards (Nobs), controllability standards (Well), duration standards
operations (Nd) and labor intensity standards (Tn). Standards for physical and nerve costs
no energy include: standards of labor severity, standards of work tempo and standards
psychophysiological functions of the body.
The results of labor are expressed by a certain volume of work performed
bot. TO standards of labor results include: production standards (Nvyr), norm-
standardized tasks, standards for using equipment.
Time standards - the main type of labor standards, since they serve
source data for calculating all labor standards.
Standard time(Нв) determines the required time expenditure of one work-
botnik or group to complete a unit of work (product). Norm time
Time is measured in seconds, minutes, hours, shifts, days. It is applied for
standardization of those types of work for which they can be established in advance
duration:
Hb = t pz + t op + t obs + t excellent . (5.9)
A specific expression of the time norm is t pcs and t pcs.
t PC = t op + t obs + t excellent or t PC = t op ( 1 +
To),(5.10)
Where To - relative amount of time spent on maintenance, as well as rest and
personal needs, % to t op .
t pcs. =
T pz + t op + t obs + t tl , (5.11)
Where T pz – preparatory and final time for a batch of products,
P - number of products in the batch.
Production rate(Nvyr) determines the number of units of product that must be produced by one or a group of workers in a certain period of time (hour, shift). The production rate is measured in natural units (pieces, meters, tkm, cubic meters, etc.). Production rate
applies to workers engaged in performing work of the same name, dis-
is calculated based on the time standard for completing a unit of production or
execution of a unit of work.
Standard of service(But) expresses the required number of units
equipment, workers or production facilities assigned to
services for one or a group of workers. The standard of service is determined based on the duration of the shift ( T cm) and standards of service time for one object (Nv.o):
Number of people(Nchisl) determines the number of workers required to perform a certain amount of work (for example, to service a blast furnace, rolling mill, chemical unit, electric locomotive, train, etc.).
Controllability rate(Well) is a kind of service norm
and is used to standardize the work of employees; determines the number of employees or departments (according to psychologists, 5–8) that can
be directly subordinate to one manager.
Duration norm(ND) is a type of time standard, more often used in conditions of multi-machine maintenance, in automated work. The duration norm determines the time during which an operation (work) must be completed on one machine, unit or workplace (min, h).
Labor intensity norm(Tn) is more often used in collective settings
(team) organization of labor and determines the required time expenditure of one or a group of workers to complete a unit of work or produce a unit of product (norm-hours, normo-min).
Standardized task determines the required nomenclature and volume
work in labor or natural units that must be performed
one or a group of workers for a certain period of time (shift, daily
tka, month). Due to the specific nature of the work performed, which determines
(use of time-based wages in connection with the requirements of high
low quality of work and the inability to fully plan their volumes,
at railway transport enterprises, damage is widely used
a variable form of remuneration with a standardized task. The Sverdlovsk Railway has a well-known experience in developing technological and standardization cards for repair workers.
The standards considered are directly related to difficulty standards(grades) of work performed, which determine the necessary qualifications of workers. Based on the standards of complexity of the work, the rate of payment per unit of time is determined - the tariff rate.
Labor standards are used for internal production planning
labor, labor organization, establishing a normal level of labor productivity, organizing wages, social protection of workers from excessively high labor intensity and organizing labor management in general.
The classification of normative standards is closely related to the classification of labor standards.
labor materials. Regulatory materials for labor standardization - these are regulated parameters of equipment operating modes, labor costs and work breaks that serve to set standards. In terms of content, labor standards are divided into standards for operating modes of equipment, time standards, standards for the pace of work, and standards for the number of employees.
Standards for operating modes of equipment contain equipment parameters (speed, feed, depth of cut, etc.), on the basis of which the most efficient technological process modes are established, ensuring minimal labor costs.
Time standards contain regulated time spent on
execution of individual elements of the labor process (labor movements,
actions, techniques), for the production of a unit of production, the execution of a unit
work, for maintenance of a piece of equipment, workplace, production area, etc.
Work rate standards establish a regulated pace
performing work (on the conveyor).
Number standards determine the regulated number
workers required to perform a given amount of work.
The standards are contained in various reference books. They are being developed
based on observations, measurements and design of labor processes.
Labor standards – source material (basis) for the development of labor standards.
Labor planning is carried out on the basis of labor standards.
Understanding the essence of labor norms and standards is based on understanding the differences between them:
– the norm corresponds to a strictly defined value of factors that determine its value under the conditions of a specific production process;
standards are established for many factor values (for example, time
to move the part depending on its mass: 0.1 kg, 0.2 kg, 0.3 kg, etc.);
– the standard is set for a specific job; standards are used repeatedly to establish standards for work of a certain type;
– standards must be revised when the conditions for which they were established change; The standards have been in effect for a long time.
Main functions labor standards are
distribution by work
scientific organization of labor and production
production planning
assessment of the work activities of individual workers and teams, which serves as the basis for moral and material encouragement and dissemination of best practices.
Labor rationing includes: (The role of labor standards)
study and analysis of working conditions and production capabilities at every workplace;
study and analysis of production experience to eliminate shortcomings, identify reserves and reflect best practices in labor standards;
design of rational composition , the method and sequence of performing elements of the labor process, taking into account technical, organizational, economic, physiological and social factors;
establishment and implementation of labor standards ; systematic analysis implementation of labor standards and revision of outdated standards.
25. methods of labor standardization
Labor rationing- This is a type of labor management activity.
Labor rationing, establishing a measure of labor costs for producing a unit of product or performing a given amount of work in certain organizational and technical conditions.
Under labor standardization methods understand a set of methods for establishing labor standards, including: analysis of the labor process, design of rational technology and labor organization, calculation of standards.
Selecting a method labor standards are determined by the nature of the work being regulated and the conditions for their implementation.
analytical
And total methods.
Analytical methods involve the establishment of standards based on the analysis of a specific labor process, the design of rational operating modes of equipment and work practices of workers, the determination of standards for elements of the labor process, taking into account the specifics of specific workplaces and production units. The norms calculated by this method are called technically justified (if only the technical and technological parameters of the operation are taken into account) and scientifically justified (if not only technical and technological, but also economic, psychophysiological and social parameters are taken into account).
At summary methods standards are established on the basis of statistical data on the time spent on similar work, the experience of a foreman or rater, i.e., without proper justification. Standards established using summary methods are called experimental-statistical. According to experts, such standards are approximately 30% weaker than analytical ones. Experimental statistical norms do not allow efficient use of production resources, so they must be replaced by norms established by the analytical method.
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Labor standardization methods
Labor standardization methods are understood as a set of methods for establishing
establishing labor standards, including: analysis of the labor process, design
development of rational technology and labor organization, calculation of standards.
The choice of labor standardization method is determined by the nature of the standardization
of our work and the conditions for their implementation.
To establish labor standards they use analytical
And total methods.
Analytical methods involve the establishment of norms based on
analysis of a specific labor process, design of rational operating modes of equipment and labor practices of workers, determination of standards for elements of the labor process, taking into account the specifics of specific workplaces and production units. The norms calculated by this method are called technically justified (if only the technical and technological parameters of the operation are taken into account) and scientifically justified (if not only technical and technological, but also economic, psychophysiological and social parameters are taken into account).
According to the methodology for obtaining initial data, analytical methods are divided
on analytical-calculation when normative materials are taken as a basis, and analytical and research, when calculations are made on the basis of data obtained as a result of observation of labor processes at the analyzed workplaces (materials of time-lapse observations).
With summary methods, standards are established on the basis of statistical
data on the time spent on similar work, the experience of the master or
standard setter, i.e. without proper justification. The standards established since then
the power of summary methods is called experimental-statistical. Estimated
specialists, such standards are approximately 30% weaker than analytical
skies. Experimental and statistical standards do not allow effective use
production resources, so they must be replaced by norms that
prepared by the analytical method.
26. The main forms of remuneration are time-based and piece-rate.
The main forms of remuneration are time-based and piece-rate.
Time-based - This is a form of remuneration in which the employee’s salary depends on the time actually worked and the employee’s tariff rate, and not on the amount of work performed. Depending on the unit of accounting for time worked, hourly, daily and monthly tariff rates are applied.