III. Human morphology as a branch of anthropology. Human. Morphological and physiological characteristics of humans, t

The main morphological features underlying the determination of the external shape of the human body include:

total (general) signs,

body proportions,

body type

1. Total (general) morphological characteristics.

These include the largest dimensional features of the body, which are important signs of physical development: body length (height), perimeter (girth) of the chest and weight.

Body length (height). Growth reveals gender, age, group and intragroup variability. In the first years of life, children grow rapidly. The body of girls reaches its final length on average at 16-17 years, and for boys at 18-19 years. Until approximately 55 years of age, there is a period of stable body length. In older people, there is a gradual decrease in body length due to the flattening of the intervertebral cartilaginous discs due to the loss of their firmness and elasticity. The average body length for men is 170 cm, for women - 158 cm (1).

Perimeter (girth) of the chest. For applied purposes, it is measured at the level of the most protruding points of the mammary glands and nipple points in men. During growth, chest girth continuously increases and only decreases slightly with age. The increase in chest girth in girls ends at 16-17 years, in boys - 17-20 years. There is no stability in chest girth in adults, as it gradually increases with age.

Body mass. Throughout the growth period, body weight continuously increases. Constant body weight is observed at the age of 25-40 years. After 60 years, body weight decreases as a result of dehydration. Annual changes in body weight reveal large group and individual fluctuations due to changes in nutrition, temperature conditions, etc.

2. Body proportions

The proportions of a body are the ratios of the sizes of its individual parts. Proportions vary depending on age, gender; they vary among people even within the same age and sex group.

There are three main types of body proportions:

dolichomorphic - with relatively long limbs and a narrow short body;

brachymorphic - with relatively short limbs and a long, wide body;

mesomorphic - occupies an intermediate position between dolichomorphic and brachymorphic types.

3. Physique

Determined by a combination of series external signs and, above all, the degree of development of muscles and fat deposits, the variability of which entails changes in other signs of the physique: the shape of the chest, abdomen, and back. The following variants of these signs are distinguished.

Muscle development: weak, medium, strong.

Development of fat deposits: weak, medium, strong.

Chest shape: flat, cylindrical, conical.

Abdomen shape: sunken, straight, rounded-convex.

Back shape: normal (with moderate curves of the spine), stooped (with increased thoracic kyphosis), straight (with smoothed slight curves of the spine).

Posture is understood as the individual characteristics of the configuration of the human body in the sagittal plane in a natural, calm, vertical state, requiring minimal expenditure of muscle energy to maintain body balance. Each posture is characterized by a certain shape of the spine and torso, the position of the head and lower extremities.

In the sewing industry, there are three types of posture:

normal

kinky

To establish whether a figure belongs to a particular type of posture, a parameter is used that determines the bending of the upper body - the position of the PC body.

Human musculoskeletal system

The musculoskeletal system is formed by the skeleton and muscles. The human skeleton forms the basis of the body, determines its size and shape, and together with the muscles forms the cavities in which the internal organs are located. The skeleton consists of approximately 200 bones. Bones act as levers driven by muscles and protect organs from injury. Bones participate in the exchange of phosphorus and calcium.

The human skeleton includes six sections:

spine (axial skeleton),

upper limb belt,

lower limb belt,

upper limbs,

lower limbs.

Composition, structure and growth of bones. The composition of bone tissue includes inorganic and organic substances. The elasticity of the bone is given by the organic substance collagen, and its hardness by mineral salts. The outside of the bones is covered with periosteum, which provides nutrition and growth of bone thickness. The compact substance of the bone is formed by microscopic cells and tubules, through which numerous blood vessels and nerves penetrate from the periosteum into the bone.

There are tubular, spongy, flat and mixed bones.

Tubular bones (humerus, femur) look like a tube with a cavity filled with yellow bone marrow. The ends of these bones are thickened and filled with spongy tissue containing red bone marrow. Tubular bones can withstand heavy loads. Flat bones (scapulae, ribs, pelvis, cranial bones) consist of two plates of dense substance and a thin layer of spongy substance between them.

Bone connections. The movable connection of bones is ensured by joints, which are formed by a depression at the end of one of the articulating bones and a head at the end of the other. The joints are strengthened by intra-articular ligaments, and the articular surfaces are covered with cartilage and enclosed in an articular capsule. The synovial fluid inside the joint acts as a lubricant that reduces friction.

The semi-mobile connection is provided by cartilaginous layers between the bones. For example, between the vertebrae there are cartilage discs. The ribs are also connected to the sternum through cartilage. These connections provide relative mobility.

Fixed joints are formed due to the fusion of bones and the formation of bone sutures (skull bones).

Skin covering

The skin is the largest organ in the animal's body; for example, in humans, its area is about 1.7 m². The skin consists of three layers, the epidermis (outer layer), the dermis and the subcutaneous fatty tissue of the hypodermis.

The epidermis includes five layers of epidermal cells. The lowest layer - the basal one - is located on the basement membrane and represents 1 row of prismatic epithelium. Immediately above it lies the spinous layer (3-8 rows of cells with cytoplasmic processes), followed by the granular layer (1-5 rows of flattened cells), the shiny layer (2-4 rows of anucleate cells, visible on the palms and soles) and the stratum corneum, consisting from stratified keratinizing epithelium. The epidermis also contains melanin, which colors the skin and causes the tanning effect.

The dermis, or the skin itself, is connective tissue and consists of 2 layers - the papillary layer, on which there are numerous outgrowths containing capillary loops and nerve endings, and the reticular layer containing blood and lymphatic vessels, nerve endings, follicles hair, glands, as well as elastic, collagen and smooth muscle fibers, which give the skin strength and elasticity.

Subcutaneous fat consists of bundles of connective tissue and fat accumulations, penetrated by blood vessels and nerve fibers. The physiological function of adipose tissue is to accumulate and store nutrients. In addition, it serves for thermoregulation and additional protection of the genitals.

In addition to the skin itself, the body has its anatomical derivatives - formations that develop from the skin and its rudiments. Various secretions of glands located in the skin are also part of the outer covering of the body.

Leather derivatives

Main articles: hair, fur, feathers, claws, mucus

Hair - component protective cover, mainly in mammals, are phylogenetically derived from the epidermis of the skin. In animals, thick hair is called fur or wool. So-called “hairs” (trichomes) are also found on various plant organs.

Mane - long hair, covering the neck and back of some mammals. It is often one of the distinguishing characteristics of males in the presence of sexual dimorphism. It can have a variety of shapes, from lush and surrounding the entire head to a neat standing strip along the spine.

Fur is the hairline of mammals. Unlike wool, the concept of fur applies only to the families of mustelids and lagomorphs, as well as to some species of rodents (beaver) and canids (foxes), as well as cats - lynx, leopard, and so on.

Wool is the hairy covering of the skin in mammals other than humans.

Undercoat (lat. Pili lanei) is a type of hair in mammals. They are thin, twisted and do not contain a cortex (lat. Cortex pilii). Arranged tightly as secondary hairs around the hairs of the coat itself (primary hairs). The main purpose of the undercoat is thermal insulation. The hair of the undercoat has only one sebaceous gland.

A feather is a cutaneous horny formation of birds, as well as some groups of dinosaurs. Feathers grow from rows of depressions in the skin called pterilia. Only a few flightless birds, such as penguins, have no pterilia, and feathers grow evenly throughout the body. The feathers do not evenly cover the entire body, but leave bare areas (apterilia, or apteria). The following parts are distinguished: the rod (lat. rachis), with the lower thick part - the edge (calamus), and the fan (vexillam); Inside the edge there is dried keratinized tissue (dush).

Down is a feather with a soft core and weak development of the fan. An ordinary down feather is a short shaft with a tuft of barbs on top and has the shape of a tassel. The length of the edge is small - less than 1 mm. The length of the blade part with the rod can reach 10-20 mm. The barbs extend symmetrically from the shaft, but their number per 1 mm of shaft length is greater than on the feather, and they are much longer. The beards of the fuzz have rays, the length of which is about 1 mm; The thickness of the down barbs is about 5-7 microns, they are strong, flexible, and elastic.

Claw (lat. ungues) is a horny formation of skin origin on the terminal phalanx of the finger in terrestrial vertebrates: most reptiles, all birds, many mammals and some amphibians. The main functions of the claw are to facilitate movement, protection and attack. The claws of mammals are especially different: in climbing species they are sharp, in cats they are relatively thin and retractable, in burrowing species they are large and flattened.

Nails are horny plates (modified claws) on the dorsum of the ends of the fingers of the upper and lower extremities of most primates. Nails are derivatives of the epidermis. The science that deals with diagnosing the condition of nails is called Onychology.

The hoof is a hard, horny structure around the distal digital phalanges of ungulate mammals. For artiodactyls the term hoof is adopted. Anatomically, hooves correspond to human nails. The hoof is a modified skin in which the lower layer is missing and the epidermis has been converted into a callus.

Osteoderms, or secondary cutaneous ossifications, are ossifications located in the mesodermal layer of the skin in some vertebrates. Osteoderms are usually small in size and plate-shaped. Cutaneous ossifications developed repeatedly and independently in the process of evolution in different groups of tetrapods and are not homologues of the bony scales of fish.

Scales are the outer covering of some living creatures, formed by horny or bone plates. Most fish are covered with scales, although in some they are reduced. Their scales are protective bone formations in the skin, sometimes having a complex structure. The fish scales are combined with the presence of mucous glands in the skin.

Mucus is a secretion product of cells, in multicellular organisms - mainly from the epithelial tissue of the mucous membranes. This viscous substance most often consists of glycosaminoglycans, also often containing some antiseptics (for example, lysozyme) and immunoglobulins, which serve to protect the epithelial cells of the lungs, gastrointestinal tract, genitourinary system, vision and hearing in mammals; epidermis in amphibians, gills in fish. Snails, slugs and some invertebrates also produce mucus, which, in addition to its protective function (both mucous and against predators due to its unpleasant taste), can facilitate movement and play a role in communication.

Exoskeleton

Main article: Exoskeleton (biology)

For most invertebrates, in particular for mollusks and arthropods, the exoskeleton acts as an integumentary system. In mollusks it is represented by a shell, and in arthropods it is represented by a chitinous shell.

The shell consists of three layers:

Periostracum - outer layer,

Ostracum - middle layer shells,

Hypostracum is the inner pearlescent layer.

Respiratory system

The respiratory system (lat. systema respiratoria) is a system of organs in humans and other animals, which serves for gas exchange between the body and the environment (provides the supply of oxygen and the removal of carbon dioxide). Organisms can obtain oxygen from the air (air respiration) or consume oxygen dissolved in water (water respiration). Respiratory organs are present only in aerobic organisms; anaerobic organisms do not have them. In humans, other mammals, and birds, the anatomical features of the respiratory system include the airways, lungs, and special muscles. In some animals (in particular, amphibians, fish, and a number of crustaceans), cutaneous respiration plays a vital role in gas exchange, when oxygen enters through the surface of the body. Cutaneous respiration often includes intestinal respiration, when the function of gas exchange is carried out by the intestinal lining (in coelenterates). In fish and other aquatic animals, the main respiratory organ is the gills - outgrowths covered with blood vessels. Insects have a very simple respiratory system - tracheas (thin air tubes). Plants also have a respiratory system, but the direction of gas exchange is opposite to that of animals. In protozoa and lower multicellular organisms (protozoa, sponges, coelenterates, many worms) there are no respiratory organs, and gas exchange occurs only through diffuse respiration (through the surface of the body).

The respiratory organs of animals were formed due to an increase in the area of ​​the respiratory surface: protrusion or invagination of the skin. Most primary aquatic animals have protrusions of the outer integument that perform the respiratory function: gills of fish and crustaceans, ctenidia of mollusks, gill books of horseshoe crabs, cutaneous gills of echinoderms. Some aquatic animals have developed internal respiratory surfaces: the aquatic lungs of sea cucumbers, the anal respiratory system of aquatic dragonfly larvae, and the plastrons of some water bugs.

Human morphology

Human psychosomatics is mediated by social factors, and it is social factors that constitute the most fundamental characteristics of the holistic psychosomatic activity of a person.

When starting to present the subject of human morphology, we will immediately highlight two problems that are not strictly related to each other. 1. The actual morphology (structure or organization) of the psychosomatic integrity of the human body. 2. Functional asymmetry of this fundamental integrity. Considering the first problem, we will focus only on those aspects that are directly related to the professional activity of a social worker (teacher, doctor, lawyer).

We will begin our presentation of material on morphology with a brief designation of areas of the body (soma), which may turn out to be a “zone” of psychosomatic activity of the human body. Within the framework of general morphology, the human body is divided into the following regions.

Head- the following areas are distinguished: cranial and facial. The cranial region is divided into the frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal lobes. In the facial area, the areas of the eyebrows, eyelids, nose, eye sockets, eyeballs, lips, chin, cheeks, and ears are distinguished.

Neck consists of the following regions: the occipital region, the anterolateral regions, the anterior region, divided into sections lying under and above the hyoid bone, the lateral regions, including the sternocleidomastoid muscles, and the region of the supraclavicular triangle, where the carotid artery pulsates.

Torso consists of the following segments: chest, abdomen and pelvis. The chest is divided into the front surface, the chest as such, and the back surface - the back. The anterior surface of the chest consists of the sternum and pectoral region (with the mammary glands in women) and the area underlying the mammary glands. The back includes the area of ​​the shoulder blades and the subscapular area. The abdomen consists of the following sections: in front - the abdominal region as such, the lateral areas of the abdomen, in the back - the lumbar region and lower back. The pelvis consists of the pubic region and the femoral-inguinal region - in front; the gluteal region - from the back, and the thigh regions - from the sides.

Upper limb (arm) consists of the deltoid region, axillary region, shoulder region, elbow, forearm, wrist and hand.

Lower limb (leg) consists of the thigh, knee, lower leg, ankle and foot area.

When analyzing human morphology, it is necessary to highlight the biotypology of sexual differentiation in it. Biotypology of gender studies psychosomatic types (general in the individual), caused by varying degrees of sexual differentiation. The scheme of sexual biotypes covers types of sexual insufficiency, hypersexual types and intersexual types. Within the framework of sexual insufficiency, the following options are distinguished: infantilism or juvenile forms (due to dysfunction of the endocrine glands) and male and female eunuchism (due to deficiency of sex hormones). Hypersexual types: hyperandrism (satiriasis) in men with highly developed sexual characteristics, hyperginism (nymphomania) among women. Intersexual types - hermaphroditism (presence of gonads of the opposite sex and uncertain male or female morphology), feminism in men and virilism in women (in terms of secondary sexual characteristics).

When studying human morphology, it is also necessary to take into account the age criteria for the development of his body. From the point of view of psychosomatics, there are “hot spots of biography”, through which every person who has lived to a certain age passes in one way or another. Much attention was paid to the study of age criteria in ancient times, especially during the times of Hippocrates and Galen, as well as during the Renaissance (Leonardo da Vinci, Albrecht Durer, etc.). Almost all “systems” of human typology are built taking into account age-related “corrections”.

The morphology of the development of the human body is represented by various stages in which the processes of “assimilation” of external “material” (natural and social) predominate, manifested by simple body growth. Body growth is subject to the laws of alternation (alternations every six months and alternations that determine the material substrates for the “hot spots” of the biography). Based on alternation processes, body growth can be divided into following periods: “turgor” (primus, secundus, tertius) - with a predominance of growth in width and depth and periods of “proceritas” (prima, secunda) - with a predominance of growth in length. The entire period of growth can be divided into childhood (first and second), puberty and adulthood. Ends with adulthood psychosomatic evolution person.

Morphological changes during growth accompany ongoing changes in the size and proportions of the human body and its internal and external organs. The main stages of morphological development include the following periods: infancy (puppet forms), neutral childhood (in terms of sexual differences), “bisexual” childhood, pre-puberty, puberty and adulthood. Then comes the period psychosomatic evolution of man. The period of old age (withering) begins, followed by decrepitude (according to Hippocrates). The period of old age is preceded by adulthood and maturity - relatively stable psychosomatic states of a person, from the point of view of his morphology.

Skin morphology

As the main morphological factors of human psychosomatics, we identify the skin and superficial veins, as well as everything that is on the human skin (moles, hairs, pigment spots, etc. stigma). We will name all the superficial details of the body associated with the psychosomatic functions of the skin. Features of its elasticity and resistance, folds and furrows. Let us separately consider the subcutaneous fatty tissue, which plays an important morphological role due to the characteristics of the localization and amount of fatty deposits. Skin appendages - nails, hair, sweat and sebaceous glands, which also play significant roles in various human psychosomatic conditions. Superficial veins bodies are also psychosomatic stigmas. So, vein swelling - an important sign of a psychosomatic reaction (somatosis). Of course, we emphasize in advance that We consistently carry out a psychosomatic approach to a person With from the point of view of a social worker rather than a clinician. Therefore, we exclude, for example, with the symptom of vein swelling, various organic diseases of the vascular system, the treatment of which is within the competence of a specialist, in this case a vascular surgeon.

Let's consider the following characteristics of human skin: relief, depressions, elevations, thickness, density, color and others. The skin consists of three layers: epidermis, dermis and hypodermis. The hypodermis is the site of accumulation of subcutaneous fat (which sometimes plays an important psychosomatic role in the life of the body). Due to the different thickness of the dermis, the skin acquires the most significant morphological qualities.

The skin is riddled with depressions, furrows, skin folds and skin duplicates. Skin grooves are divided into numerous categories and form unique patterns on the face and body of a person (which may be hereditary stigmas). The following skin formations (psychosomatic stigmas) can be distinguished: 1. Depressions or grooves formed as a result of fusion of adjacent areas. Here there are fibrous cords between the hypodermis and the underlying tissues. Such depressions are the following: median, anterior and posterior grooves of the body, subgluteal groove, inguinal grooves, folds of the limbs. 2. Folds caused by movements, such as movements of the neck, flexion of the torso, or extension of the limbs. For all their commonality, these folds, upon careful study, turn out to be extremely individual and characteristic of the external “appearance” of the subject, constituting his appearance. 3. Muscular grooves caused by contraction of the subcutaneous muscles. They, like folds of skin, are typologically characteristic of the individual. 4. Folds caused by the loss of skin elasticity, for example, facial wrinkles, are extremely interesting for psychosomatics as age-related, biographical and portrait features of a person (remember what Leonardo da Vinci said about them). 5. Structural folds, such as papillary ridges, “shaded areas” or “diamond wrinkles” located throughout the skin surface, are the main components of the individual “map” of the human body.

Sketches by Leonardo da Vinci, stored in the Louvre, clearly demonstrate the above-mentioned components of the skin surface of the human body (the artist attached great importance to these factors in human morphology, especially in age morphology ). The same can be said about Dürer's sketches. Thus, in Berlin, in the prints room, “Sketch. Drawing with a brush." This drawing is a real morphological study of great value from the point of view of a subtle psychosomatic analysis of the shapes and topography of the female body due to the characteristic localization of fat deposits.

As a result of systematic studies of subcutaneous tissue carried out by morphologist Pierre Richet in 1867 (father of the famous biologist and immunologist Charles Richet), it was revealed that zones The localization of fat deposits is identical for both sexes, and the greater thickness of the deposits, as well as some features of the skin relief, are noted mainly in women, at the border between the torso and limbs.

The structure of subcutaneous tissue presents, we repeat, significant individual variations, depending on structural patterns and specific social factors (such as wearing fashionable clothes, the desire to maintain given body proportions in various ways - fasting, physical exercise, etc.). These psychosomatic variations extend to the appearance of the skin and manifest themselves in some of its other qualities (such as elasticity, turgor, color, pigmentation and others). Domestic scientist, creator of the theory of anthropogenesis and morphologist V.V. Bunak in 1956 established the following types skin: 1. Fibrous type, when the hypodermis contains closely intertwined wide fibers, with narrow spaces between them. 2. Delicate type, with fine fibers closely woven. 3. Pasty type, with a loose network of fibers and cells containing a large number of water. 4. Lipophilic type with abundant fat deposits in the spaces between the fibers. The structure of the skin is determined by external examination, as well as by palpation. The structural features of the skin affect the thickness of the skin folds and the depth of the skin furrows. They are decisive for the formation psychosomatic portrait of a person. This portrait reflects not only the condition (habitus), but also the age and, most importantly, the social position of the individual .

Let us now consider the skin appendages and their role in the psychosomatic status of a person.

Skin glands - these are sweat, sebaceous and mammary glands. A functional disorder of the skin glands is the first sign of a person’s psychosomatic ill-being (his genetic or social problems).

Various sweat reactions (somatosis) - “drenched in cold sweat”, “waves of dry heat covering the body”, “greasy skin”, “discharge from the nipples in women not associated with pregnancy”, “sudden aging of the mammary glands - flabby, saggy breasts with wrinkled skin” in a young woman and other symptoms - all these are signs, most likely, of a person’s social ill-being.

Nails are keratinized elements of the epidermis. They have the shape of transversely convex plates, closed on the sides and in their upper part by a dermal-epidermal fold. The visible part of the nail - the body - is pink, and in its upper part there is a semi-lunar, whitish zone, which passes into the closed part of the nail, into its root. Each nail has its own special shape, influencing the shape of the finger, which is extremely individual. Physiognomists of all times have paid great attention to the structure of the nail, seeing in it an important sign that characterizes a person in many ways. In the same way, fashion of all times has not ignored nails: manicure and pedicure are important attributes of fashion. Balzac wrote a treatise on nails. Goethe also devoted more than one page to nails. Psychiatrists can judge with a significant degree of certainty whether a person has mental disorders based on the condition of their nails. Let's take just one example. A certain type of mentally healthy people (but, note, those with chronic social problems) wear a long nail on the right or left little finger, carefully caring for it. Others, also completely healthy people, have bad habit biting nails (they also have specific social and everyday problems). Women paint their nails with different colored polishes in different periods, sometimes completely unaware of why they choose this or that color. This is also characteristic social syndrome .

Hair. Without dwelling on the structure of hair, we will note only those qualities that are included in the general psychosomatic structure of a person. So, hair can be soft, silky, or hard. Hair shape, color and quality represent anthropological and social differential characteristics. The final hairline of a person is preceded by embryonic hairline - “fluff”, and then secondary hairline, which develops to varying degrees in different areas of the body. On the trunk and limbs there are areas covered with hair, which alternate with areas without hair or with hair remaining in the form of a fluff. The final body hair develops during puberty after the previous hair has been replaced. During this period, hair develops and grows in the axillary and pubic areas. Hair in other areas of the body serves as an expression of sexual differences, which is called sexual dimorphism. In women, the hairline does not change compared to childhood, and the hair growing in the pubic area is limited at the top by the suprapubic abdominal groove. In men, the size of the hair-covered areas of the body increases. Hair covers the chin and upper lip. The area of ​​hair at the level of the pubis begins to grow in the shape of a hair-covered triangle, the tip of which reaches the navel. Hair appears on the front surface of the chest, sometimes it thickly covers the back, down to the lower back, as well as the limbs. There is a certain relationship especially between the hair on the extremities and the hair on the lower abdomen. Hair growth in these areas can be used to assess the final development of hair, which may vary depending on hereditary and functional factors, as well as on the person’s membership in a particular social group. Hair is located on the surface of the body in the form of curved lines called “streams” (fluvia - rivers, according to Hippocrates). These currents separate or merge into centers called "vortices". There are divergent vortices, for example, in the areas of the medial corner of the eye, the back of the head, the armpits, in the inguinal grooves, in the areas of the gluteal fold, the dorsum of the feet and hands. Converging vortices are located, in particular, at an angle lower jaw, in the navel and genital area. The flows of one vortex meet the flows of another vortex, forming straight or rounded stripes called nodal lines. On the anterolateral surfaces of the body, two lateral vertical lines connect the axillary vortex with the inguinal vortex. The hairs that diverge from these lines converge towards the midlines, which are the front and back lines of the body.

The most important sign of hair growth is the intensity of hair growth, which is associated primarily with the hormonal activity of the body - hormones of the adrenal glands and sex glands. Distinguish male hair type and female hair type, also male hair type according to the female type and female hair type according to the male type. Endocrinologists are always alarmed if a person’s hair type changes dramatically at some stage of life. Behind this phenomenon there may be various serious illnesses. For psychosomatics, the type of hair growth indicates:1)by family affiliation (father's line or mother's line); 2)on the characteristics of a person’s character - male or female type. For example, sparse vegetation On a man’s face, along with rounded shapes, there is a sign of a female biotype. “Mother-in-law's path” (a narrow strip of hair from the pubis to the navel in a woman), dense hair in the anus and hairs on the nipples, as well as on the chin and upper lip are signs of the male biotype in a woman. With various psychosomatic decompensations, changes in hairiness on the human body are possible. Therefore, the condition of the hairline is an important criterion for the psychosomatic state of a person..

A person acts with both nails and hair in accordance with fashion and the requirements of the time. Men, for example, are starting to wear braids, and women are starting to cut their hair short or even shave their heads bald. For all peoples at all times, cutting hair, dyeing hair, and wearing wigs were unique social signs. Dyeing hair in unnatural (chemical) colors, killing hair with special means, as well as defiant hairstyles - all these are indirect signs of the state of not only the human soul, but also the spiritual state of society as a whole. Let us emphasize once again that The “relief” of the hairline is an important genetic and social trait. It is precisely this, like nothing else, that is the result of the dialectical relationship between the biological and the social in a person, manifested in the form of his psychosomatics. It is unlikely that any clinician can explain such simple psychosomatic reactions of human hair as “goose skin”, “chicken skin”...

The “map” of the human body, which a psychosomatic person uses to navigate, will not be complete without venous system. As with everything that we find on the surface of the body, vessels visible through layers of skin characterize a person from two important aspects: hereditary (repetition of the pattern of vessels from generation to generation) and social (the vascular system is the most important mechanism of psychosomatic response to various social factors). Looking ahead, we will say that many somatosis are formed precisely by the vascular system of the body. The venous system, compared to the arterial system, is more labile to psychosomatic “changes” in a person. Thus, all kinds of skin irritations, from simple redness of the skin to eczema and ulcers, are provided by the venous reaction.

The arterial vascular system is more stable. Arteries are located on the surface only in some places of the body (the pulse is measured using them - the carotid arteries, the distal segment of the radial arteries, the arteries of the dorsum of the feet, etc.). The heart, the most important vessel containing arterial blood, is of particular psychosomatic interest.

According to the topography of the veins, one should distinguish veins of the head, veins of the limbs and veins of the torso. To understand the features of their localizations and, mainly, the conditions in which they are more clearly manifested, knowledge of the general plan of organization of the human venous system is required. But, since studying this plan is not our task, we will limit ourselves to the necessary information about the venous system. Veins are blood vessels that collect blood coming from capillaries and deliver it to the heart. There are deep and superficial veins. The deep veins accompany the arteries. For students of human morphology, the superficial veins are of particular importance, the location of which does not depend on the course of the arteries. These veins form bizarre patterns on the body - venous networks. These are the drawings that a psychosomatic person uses to navigate: Are they paternal or maternal? And how often vein swelling bothers the person? Greek sculpture (Polykleitos style) attached great importance to the vascular patterns of the saphenous veins, carefully delineating them. The same can be said about the drawings of Leonardo da Vinci and Durer.

Skin relief should include the following: skin malformations such as moles and freckles. Almost every nation has various beliefs, superstitions, and omens associated with moles and freckles. Not only women, but also men, most likely at all times, decorated themselves with artificial moles. The spots on the skin were a sign of caste. The attitude towards freckles is also ambivalent. For some peoples they are a sign of beauty, chosenness and attractiveness (mainly among northern European peoples), for others they are signs of degeneration, some kind of physical or moral inferiority. Moles are different malformations of the skin: vascular, pigmented, warty and mixed. For psychosomatics Of interest are vascular (angiomas) and pigmented ones. Vascular moles live up to their name - birthmarks. They are inherited. And by looking at the moles, one can judge which line of the parents the child continues - paternal or maternal, although it happens that, bypassing the parents, a mole indicates that they belong to the grandmother's or grandfather's family branches. In rare cases, moles from both parents are inherited.

Pigmented moles are not inherited. A person may have them from birth, but may also appear or disappear during certain age periods. Most often, their appearance or disappearance is associated with "biography hot spot"(this concept was introduced by the domestic psychiatrist-suicidologist A.G. Ambrumova). Warty moles - formations caused by various microbes or viruses of local (skin) significance and are not associated with psychosomatics.

Freckles and are inherited (at the same time, they are very often transmitted from grandfather to grandson or granddaughter, bypassing parents, or in each generation), and mark changes in the body that are important for human psychosomatics. It is no coincidence that freckles appear in the spring, when... human body As part of nature, spring changes occur, namely the revival of hormones. Pregnancy spots akin to freckles, because they are also associated with the hormonal activity of the body.

But still moles and freckles are malformations of the skin and, as such, act as signs of the accumulation of mutant factors in a given human race. A malignant tumor can develop from vascular and pigmented moles - melanoma, a practically incurable disease that quickly leads to death.

The described skin relief, visible to the naked eye, is determined by and determines the morphology of a person. But, analyzing morphology as a characteristic of human psychosomatics, we must consider invisible constants, associated with the skin surface. What is meant here is pain areas , described by the Russian therapist GA. Zakharyin in 1885 in “Clinical Lectures” and erogenous zones, described in the ancient Indian Kama Sutra, as well as thermal zones.

G.A. Zakharyin described pain areas, referring to the skin localization of radiating pain of certain internal organs: liver, kidneys, heart, etc. Subsequently, therapists began to unlimitedly expand the pain zones to include areas in which persistent and excruciating pain was difficult to associate with any organ. The author of this book conducted clinical trial on six thousand patients with similar pain localizations, on the basis of which the so-called persistent pain syndrome, independent psychosomatic state of a person. Currently, psychosomatics are interested in pain areas, not associated with an organic disease of one or another organ (radiating pain was referred to clinicians).

Erogenous zones Every adult who is sexually active knows this one way or another. A psychosomatician studies the topography of erogenous zones, from which one can judge sexual differentiation and, in particular, the characterology of a person. The psychotherapist uses this topography to navigate the process of psychoanalysis (looking ahead, let’s say, for example, oral eroticism, anal eroticism, genital eroticism - the stages of puberty or regression identified by Sigmund Freud; each of these stages has its own erogenous topography). American sexologists have a saying: “As sex is, so is man.” Indeed, from the map of erogenous zones one can judge some important aspects of human psychosomatics.

Thermal zones. It is known that body temperature (36.6 degrees) is distributed unevenly on the skin. It is no coincidence that body temperature is measured where it remains stable, that is, it does not depend on psychosomatic factors, a shows the clinical state of the body (within the framework of “healthy” or “sick”). Let us remind you that temperature can be accurately measured in the armpits, oral and anal cavities. In other places it fluctuates significantly and not due to human illness. So, the palms and feet are sometimes cold, sometimes hot. The forehead, temples, heart area, spinal column area, epigastric area, perineum often show a temperature different from the main one. And this is precisely the temperature “map” for assessing a person’s psychosomatic state. Some temperature zones can directly be considered generic stigmas. For example, constantly cold palms or a feeling of heat in the back of the head during excitement. In the same way, a feeling of heat or chills at a normal general temperature can also be classified as stigmas. If you measure different temperature zones during this (heat or chills), then you can find out exactly which zone sets, so to speak, the tone for a person’s entire sensation. When you feel hot, the temperature in the heart and epigastric region is often increased; when you feel chills, the temperature along the spine is lowered.

These are the most important morphological features of a person, mainly associated with his skin. Before moving on functional asymmetry person, let's call it what doesn't have psychosomatic meaning, but what directly pays much attention to physiognomy. Us they are not interested in the structure of the ears, nose, lips, eyeballs and sockets, or chin. External similarity for psychosomatics is only a random phenomenon. We are convinced that clones can, of course, have the same organic diseases, but at the same time different psychosomatics. This was well demonstrated by the study of natural clones - identical twins. Similar doubles, people who are portraitually similar to each other, in all other respects (biological, genetic, typological, psychosomatic and social) represent completely different subjects. The weakness of physiognomy as scientific knowledge is manifested precisely in the neglect of psychosomatics.

It is impossible not to mention such a controversial genetic factor for psychosomatics as blood type. It is known that blood type and some blood diseases are inherited. This fact should classify blood as a psychosomatic component. In fact, blood reactions are extremely controversial (changes in the blood formula, even characteristic of leukemia!), organic in appearance, but in essence psychosomatic, if we keep in mind their origin. But there is a lot of controversy in clinical medicine. For example, doctors have still not agreed on the question of whether atherosclerosis is a disease or aging condition of the body.(The latter was insisted on in the 60s of the 20th century by the famous Russian pathophysiologist I.V. Davydovsky). All nonspecific inflammations in the body (gastritis, colitis, prostatitis, pneumonia, etc.) are successfully treated by psychosomatics, but general practitioners try to treat these same diseases with their own means.

Functional asymmetry is the oldest and at the same time the newest of the human sciences. In Chinese philosophy during the reign of the Chuntsu dynasty (VIII-V centuries BC), the concepts appeared "yin and yang". These paired concepts together with the concept "qi" represent the methodological basis for the modern understanding of human functional asymmetry, reflecting universal law asymmetries of the universe.

In the Jewish mystical teaching - Kabbalah (III-XIII centuries) - one can also find ideas about the functional asymmetry that rules man. Currently, many scientific, popular and science fiction books have been written about the functional asymmetry of nature and humans.

Asymmetry of psychosomatics is: 1) internal, constituting typological and characterological characteristics of the individual, and 2) external, in which human life activity takes place; 3) organic(thus, many human organs are paired and are in an asymmetrical relationship to each other, primarily the cerebral hemispheres) and 4) functional, which directly reflects the psychosomatic activity of the subject, determining many parameters of this activity (the main one is each person lives and acts as an individual in his own, individual space and time). Functional asymmetry is a fundamental indicator of human life, because it determines its duration.

Towards the internal asymmetry of man include such main psychosomatic characteristics as bidominance And bimodality all psychosomatic activities. That's a very difficult question. Therefore, we will limit ourselves to pointing out that bidominance separates holistic, total and stable psychosomatics on the functions of two subjects with opposite psychosomatic characteristics (in every living person there are “yin” and “yang”). For example, sensory activity (for which the right hemisphere is responsible) is carried out by the left half of the body, thereby creating the illusion of holistic activity. And motor activity (for which the left hemisphere is responsible) is carried out by the right half of the body (right working arm, right leading leg, etc.), but the illusion of integral activity is also created. Both during sensory and motor activity, integration is carried out due to personal-psychic mechanisms. Left and right characteristics of a person are opposite. So, left - active, purposeful, strong-willed, analytical, rationalist, aggressive, angry, destructive, controlled by thanatos with anal eroticism. Right - sensitive, sensual, irrational, passive, contemplative, creative, aimless, mystical, driven by eros with genital eroticism. The left one corresponds to the masculine principle - yang, the right - to the feminine principle, yin. These principles are united by vital energy - qi(without vital energy not a single human intention can be realized).

A fundamental characteristic of functional asymmetry is that the left one works in the future tense(the hemisphere, like an antenna, is open to the flow of time coming from the future). The right one works in the past tense(the hemisphere, like an antenna, is open to the flow of time coming from the past). Integration occurs in the present, where bidominant subjects (like Mr. Hyde and Dr. Jekyll) merge into a single personality. The bimodality of the right and left half of the body is also integrated into a single soma. Now we can give the main characteristic of human psychosomatics is the integrating principle for morphology. There is an organ in the brain that provides anatomically specified integration - corpus coliozium which connects the right and left hemispheres of the brain. When it is damaged, a person, remaining in one body, seems to represent two opposite subjects, with opposite psychosomatic characteristics.

External asymmetry, in which a person functions is determined, first of all, by such a fundamental characteristic of the universe as one-way (and irreversible) passage of time. The hour hand on Earth on all clocks in the world moves from left to right. (Note that in the Universe this is not the only direction in which time moves. “Parallel worlds” are perfectly described Jorge Luis Borges in the story “The Garden Where the Paths Branch”). Our world is built according to law right-handed majority: houses, cars, mechanisms, all life activities take place in a right-handed world.

Functional asymmetry reflects the social foundations of human psychosomatics. The slightest changes in these foundations are immediately recorded as a violation of functional asymmetry, until it disappears. Functional asymmetry disappears only with the biological death of a person.

In the section on human morphology, it is necessary to consider such psychosomatic parameters as “hot spots of biography.” Otherwise, psychosomatics may appear as something unshakable and self-sufficient. All researchers who tried to understand the laws of the unity of a person’s “body and character” paid due attention to critical age periods.

The first hot spot is pubertal period (age from 12 to 15 years). It is equally difficult for both girls and boys. Under the influence of the extreme activity of the entire hormonal system, a restructuring of the body occurs and the first breakdown of the psychosomatic system occurs. The girl turns into a woman: she begins to menstruate, therefore, she is able to become a mother. The boy turns into a man: his voice breaks, secondary sexual characteristics and sexual hyperactivity appear. During this period, behavior often acquires features of deviant and delinquent. Systematic masturbation begins.

The second “hot spot” of the biography worries the girls more. This period is from 20 to 25 years (in different cultural and ethnic groups it can fluctuate within four years). During this period, a girl has one task - creating a family and having a child. Psychosomatics corresponds to these tasks. Conscious and unconscious intentions are aimed at achieving this main goal. During this period, young men are externally and internally concerned with one thing - to inseminate as many women as possible. We emphasize that when speaking about “hot spots of biography,” we mean only the main function of the psychosomatic “structure” of the body, being aware of all the complexity and diversity of human life as a person and individual.

The following “hot spots” in the biographies of women and men do not coincide. For women, this is the age of about 30 years, when there is a global psychosomatic restructuring in all directions: I live wrong, I have the wrong husband, I raise my child incorrectly, the job I was created for is not the one I was created for, life is wasted, I am getting old, etc. During this period, according to world statistics, in developed countries the percentage of divorces initiated by women is highest, women often change jobs and even place of residence, relationships in the family and with children worsen, various diseases appear for the first time, a woman may start smoking and drinking alcohol , have lovers, can engage in promiscuous sex. There are also frequent cases of both demonstrative and completed suicide. This period lasts no more than three years and ends with calm, until the next “hot spot” - menopause.

For men, an almost similar period begins at the age of 40, when a man begins to suffer from the same problems as a woman at 30. But there are also differences. Thus, men during this period rarely commit suicide, and almost never

  • Clinical and morphological manifestations of chronic general venous congestion
  • Morphological changes in internal organs during shock.

    • Section 1.

    Theoretical basis clothing design

    Topic 1.2.

    Anthropometric characteristics of the human body.

    Basic morphological features of the external shape of the body

    Human.

    The main morphological features that underlie the determination of a person’s external form include: total, or general, sizes, proportions, physique and posture.

    Anyone morphological feature The body is characterized by variability. The form, degree of expression and direction of variability for different characters are different and are determined by the influence of factors such as age, gender, social environment, features of the biochemical activity of the body.

    Total (general) morphological characteristics.

    Total characteristics include the largest anthropometric characteristics: body length (height), chest parameter (girth) and body weight, reflecting external form the human body and are the most important signs of physical development.

    Body length. Body length reveals age, sex, group, intragroup and epochal variability.

    Age dynamics of body length. The average body length in newborns, according to the Moscow State University Research Institute, is: for boys - 51.5 cm, for girls - 51.0 cm.

    The greatest increase in body length in children, equal to an average of approximately 25 cm, is observed in the first year of life. Then the growth rate gradually slows down. From 10 to 12 years old, girls grow slightly faster than boys. Therefore, the average body length of girls during this period becomes greater than that of boys. By the age of 13, the average body length in boys and girls levels off, and then in boys it increases faster than in girls.

    The greater body length in girls in the period 10-12 years is explained by the fact that puberty and the associated acceleration of growth begins in girls much earlier (about 2-3 years) and ends earlier than in boys. As a result, over a certain period of time, girls tend to be larger than boys of the same age. Anthropologists believe that on average girls reach their final body length by the age of 16-17 years, and in boys by 18-19 years.

    A person's body length remains constant from approximately 16-19 to 55 years, after which it begins to gradually decrease.

    The decrease in body length is explained by the flattening of the intervertebral cartilaginous discs due to their loss of firmness and elasticity, as well as an increase in the bends of the spine (stooping). These phenomena occur due to the aging of the body.

    There is a change in body length even during the day. By the evening, when a person gets tired, the body length usually decreases by 1.5-3 cm. In the morning (after sleep), the body length is greatest.

    Body length less than 125 cm and more than 200 cm in most cases belongs to the pathological category (dwarfs and giants). The greatest body length noted in the scientific literature was two men - 278 and 255 cm.

    Epochal changes in body length. Over the past 100-150 years, many countries have seen a sharp increase in the body length of adults and children. According to some foreign data, the epochal shift in body length for adults is 1 cm per decade or 2.5 cm per generation. According to the Moscow State University Research Institute, the body length of adolescents in the USSR from 1935 to 1955. increased by an average of 5 cm. Acceleration is also reflected in the earlier attenuation of growth processes.

    Perimeter (girth) of the chest. In anthropology, the most studied is the so-called anthropometric chest girth, which determines the perimeter of the skeletal base of the chest.

    For applied purposes, the largest girth of the chest is usually measured at the level of the protruding points of the mammary glands in women and the nipple points in men (chest girth 2 and 3).

    Age dynamics of chest girth. With age, chest girth continuously increases, which is associated with the growth of the bone skeleton, muscle and subcutaneous fat layer, and only with old age does it decrease somewhat.

    According to the Moscow State University Research Institute, by the end of the first year of life, the chest circumference of boys is 49 cm, and that of girls is about 48 cm. The increase in chest girth occurs unevenly over the years. The maximum annual breast growth in girls (5-6 cm) is observed at the age of 11-12 years, in boys (4-4.5 cm) - at the age of 12-14 years. There is no stability in chest girth in adults, as it gradually increases with age. After 20 years, an intensive increase in chest girth is usually observed due to an increase in the subcutaneous fat layer. According to the Moscow State University Research Institute, in adults younger age(18-29 years old) the average chest circumference is approximately 6-7 cm smaller than that of older people (50-59 years old).

    Body mass. The average weight of adult men on the globe is 64 kg, for women – 56 kg.

    Sharp deviations in weight, especially in the direction of increase, occur quite often in connection with many diseases associated with dysfunction of the endocrine glands. In exceptional cases, body weight can reach 150 kg.

    Dynamics of mass change. The greatest increase in weight is observed in the first years of a child’s life. According to the Moscow State University Research Institute, the average weight of a newborn boy is 3.5 kg, and that of a girl is 3.4 kg. During the first year of life, body weight increases 3 times. From 1 to 7 years of age, the annual increase gradually decreases. After 7 years, an increase in the annual increase is again observed. It reaches its maximum (4-5 kg ​​per year) in girls at 12-15 years old, in boys at 14-17 years old.

    After 17 years, the annual increase in body weight decreases again and continues in women until about 20, and in men up to 25 years.

    The increase in weight after growth is completed is mainly caused by an increase in the fat layer. There are significant fluctuations here, which are closely related to the state of the body, nutritional conditions, and the like.

    Concept of human age

    Biological community of hominids. Morphological signs of hominization.

    * Upright posture (bipedia or orthograde).

    * Finely manipulated hand with opposable thumb.

    * Highly developed relatively large brain.

    All these features make up the so-called “hominid triad,” but they arose chronologically unevenly.

    A form that climbs trees and sometimes descends to the ground, tends to have an upright body position, and occasionally moves on its hind limbs, with a brain volume of 450-500 cm3, similar in size and strength to chimpanzees, which did not have extremely pronounced specializations, stands at the origins of anthropogenesis and forms the initial form for the formation of the hominid family. The transition from this form to Australopithecus dates back to the end of the Pliocene or the very beginning of the Pleistocene, about 2-3 million years ago. The beginning of anthropogenesis (Greek anthropos - man, genesis - emergence) - the process of the emergence of man is dated back to 2.5-3 million years.

    Causes of anthropogenesis.

    1. Transition to upright posture.

    3. Brain development.

    4. Social factor, namely work activity.

    The question of the ancestral home of man seems very complex. Undoubtedly, at least three continents can be excluded from the desired territory - both Americas and Australia, separated by vast sea expanses (isolation of Australia before the appearance of higher mammals, evolutionary development did not go further than marsupials, in America there are no close to humans narrow-nosed monkeys, the broad-nosed monkeys of South America are another evolutionary line far removed from humans). Some scientists place the ancestral homeland where the greatest number of remains of human ancestors have been found. There are at least two points of view on the issue of the ancestral home:

    1. Asian ancestral home (remains of Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus, finds in India).

    2. African ancestral home (explained by the similarity of humans specifically with African apes).

    Biological characteristics and commercial significance of ramming the Yeisk estuary

    Ram Rutilus rutilus heckeli (Nordmann 1840) Maximum body length up to 35 cm, weight up to 1.8 kg, but prevailing from 100 to 400g. The ram has a high, laterally compressed body. Body height is on average 34 - 36% of its length. The dorsal fin has 9-11 rays, the anal fin has 11 rays...

    Biology of quail in Blagoveshchensk region

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    Biosphere. Stages of biosphere evolution

    The first hominids appeared at the end of the Miocene (5-6 million years ago) in the territory East Africa. In previous years, it was believed that hominids separated from other apes much earlier, in the Middle Miocene (12-15 million years ago), and not in Africa...

    The relationship and regulation of the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins in the human body

    All biochemical processes occurring in the body are closely related to each other. The relationship between protein metabolism and redox processes occurs in various ways. Individual bio chemical reactions...

    Species and speciation

    The example concerns a complex of sibling species formerly grouped under the name “malaria mosquito” (Anopheles maculipennis). In some regions it prefers to feed on humans...

    The causative agent of anthrax

    Dependence of the spatiotemporal structure of an open system and its statistical properties on time

    The general process for any systems existing in the frequency range from 1024 (proton) to 10-17 (Universe) Hz is a 1/f type process, for which the parameter value of the observed event is inversely proportional to the frequency of the event...

    Comprehensive characteristics of the red noctule (Nyctalus noctula) of the fauna of the North Caucasus

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    Concepts of modern natural science

    Traits inherited with the sex chromosomes X and Y are called sex-linked. In humans, the Y chromosome contains a number of genes that regulate spermatogenesis, the manifestation of histocompatibility antigens, affecting the size of teeth, etc...

    Morphological constitution of a person. The problem of connection with psychological characteristics of the individual

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    Lifestyle, significance of the white hare and bison. Measures to prevent the death of animals from diseases

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    The role of mitochondria in apoptosis

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    Horseflies natural reserve"Kamyshanova Polyana"

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    Siberian pine

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    Search Lectures

    50. Assignment (( 50 )) TK 50 Topic 2-0-0

    Energy consumption increases significantly during strenuous physical work. An athlete's energy expenditure can be

    R more than 21000 kJ (5000 kcal) \ day

    51. Task (( 51 )) TK 51 Topic 2-0-0

    Proteins do not perform the function...

    R thermoregulatory

    52. Task (( 52 )) TK 52 Topic 2-0-0

    Not used to determine general physical performance

    R Rosenthal test

    53. Task (( 53 )) TK 53 Topic 2-0-0

    Fats in the body do not perform the function...

    R reference

    54. Task (( 54 )) TK 54 Topic 2-0-0

    The human body contains organic and inorganic substances. Water is approx..

    R 40% body weight

    55. Task (( 55 )) TK 55 Topic 2-0-0

    A psychobiological disease characterized by significant weight loss and failure to maintain normal body weight is called:

    R anorexia

    56. Task (( 56 )) TK 56 Topic 2-0-0

    If more carbohydrates are consumed than necessary to meet the body's energy needs, their excess:

    R turns into fat

    57. Task (( 57 )) TK 57 Topic 2-0-0

    Human biochemical indicators include the definition

    R type of muscle fibers, their ratio, metabolism in tissues after intense physical activity

    58. Task (( 58 )) TK 58 Topic 2-0-0

    Condition of the body associated with insufficient amounts of vitamins in the body:

    R hypovitaminosis

    59. Task (( 59 )) TK 59 Topic 2-0-0

    In order to assess the dynamics of the functional capabilities of the external respiration system, the indicator is not used..

    R chest circumference

    60. Assignment (( 60 )) TK 60 Topic 2-0-0

    Carbohydrates do not perform a biological function in the human body.

    R physical

    61. Task (( 61 )) TK 61 Topic 2-0-0

    Highly specialized proteins that speed up chemical reactions in cells are...

    R enzymes

    62. Task (( 62 )) TK 62 Topic 2-0-0

    Restoring muscle glycogen, one of the prerequisites for optimal post-exercise recovery, can take up to

    R 48 hours or more

    63. Task (( 63 )) TK 63 Topic 2-0-0

    On average, girls' daily energy consumption is

    64. Task (( 64 )) TK 64 Topic 2-0-0

    On average, the daily energy consumption of young men is

    65. Task (( 65 )) TK 65 Topic 2-0-0

    The influence of genetic factors on human health is from all influences

    66. Task (( 66 )) TK 66 Topic 2-0-0

    The mineral content of the human body is about

    R 4% body weight

    67. Task (( 67 )) TK 67 Topic 2-0-0

    The highest pressure in the vascular system is called

    R systolic blood pressure

    68. Task (( 68 )) TK 68 Topic 2-0-0

    With a sharp change in time zones, performance in the

    R difficult coordination sports

    69. Task (( 69 )) TK 69 Topic 2-0-0

    The optimal internal body temperature for which highest scores activity of the most important vegetative systems, is

    R 36.6 degrees

    70. Assignment (( 70 )) TK 70 Topic 2-0-0

    Heart rate from 130 to 150 beats/min belongs to the zone of physical activity intensity

    R aerobic

    71. Task (( 71 )) TK 71 Topic 2-0-0

    Located in the spinal canal

    R spinal cord

    72. Task (( 72 )) TK 72 Topic 2-0-0

    Not involved in the digestion process

    R spleen

    73. Task (( 73 )) TK 73 Topic 2-0-0

    The brain and spinal cord belong to

    R central nervous system

    74. Task (( 74 )) TK 74 Topic 2-0-0

    Of the given indices, only one is not related to the assessment of body weight. This is the index

    R Broca–Brugsch

    75. Task (( 75 )) TK 75 Topic 2-0-0

    Does not apply to the abdominal press

    R rhomboid major muscle

    76. Task (( 76 )) TK 76 Topic 2-0-0

    The definition does not apply to human morphological indicators

    arm and leg lengths

    R heart rate at rest and in response to exercise

    77. Task (( 77 )) TK 77 Topic 2-0-0

    Does not apply to the main criteria of physical development

    R heart rate

    78. Task (( 78 )) TK 78 Topic 2-0-0

    A person's muscles make up from his total weight to

    79. Task (( 79 )) TK 79 Topic 2-0-0

    The patella is

    80. Assignment (( 80 )) TK 80 Topic 2-0-0

    The total number of muscles in a person is more than

    81. Task (( 81 )) TK 81 Topic 2-0-0

    The spinal column is the basis of the solid support of the body. It includes

    R 22 vertebrae

    82. Task (( 82 )) TK 82 Topic 2-0-0

    The adaptation of an organism to changed conditions of existence is called

    R adaptation

    83. Task (( 83 )) TK 83 Topic 2-0-0

    The human heart consists of

    R four departments

    84. Assignment (( 84 )) TK 84 Topic 2-0-0

    The degree of mobility in the joints does not depend on

    R height and weight features

    85. Task (( 85 )) TK 85 Topic 2-0-0

    The most small vessels This

    R capillaries

    86. Task (( 86 )) TK 86 Topic 2-0-0

    The factors of comfort in human life and well-being do not include

    R anatomical

    87. Task (( 87 )) TK 87 Topic 2-0-0

    The science that studies the dependence of well-being on the weather is

    R biorhythmology

    88. Task (( 88 )) TK 88 Topic 2-0-0

    With an excessive intake of synthetic vitamins into the body, it develops

    R hypervitaminosis

    89. Task (( 89 )) TK 89 Topic 2-0-0

    The most valuable and essential fats are found in

    90. Assignment (( 90 )) TK 90 Topic 2-0-0

    A person’s performance gradually increases and reaches its highest peak by

    R 10 – 13 hours

    91. Task (( 91 )) TK 91 Topic 2-0-0

    A decrease in human performance is observed after

    92. Task (( 92 )) TK 92 Topic 2-0-0

    The average daily protein requirement is

    93. Task (( 93 )) TK 93 Topic 2-0-0

    The human skeleton contains more than

    R 200 bones

    94. Task (( 94 )) TK 94 Topic 2-0-0

    The size of a person's heart does not depend on

    R pituitary gland

    95. Task (( 95 )) TK 95 Topic 2-0-0

    The skeleton of the free upper limb does not include

    R clavicle

    96. Task (( 96 )) TK 96 Topic 2-0-0

    The rhythms of life are not determined

    R rotation of the Sun around the Earth

    97. Task (( 97 )) TK 97 Topic 2-0-0

    Human bones, depending on their shape and function, are not divided into

    R square

    98. Task (( 98 )) TK 98 Topic 2-0-0

    Not considered fat-soluble vitamins

    99. Task (( 99 )) TK 99 Topic 2-0-0

    "Intelligence" translated from Latin means

    R cognition and understanding

    100. Assignment (( 100 )) TK 100 Topic 2-0-0

    Impaired color vision and deterioration of vision in the dark are the main signs of deficiency in the body

    R vitamin A

    101. Assignment (( 101 )) TK 101 Topic 2-0-0

    For persons suffering from bronchospasm of physical effort, the following activities are recommended:

    R swimming

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    Therefore, there are usually three main branches of anthropology: anthropogenesis, racial studies and human morphology. The foundation of anthropology is anatomy, morphology, physiology and biometrics.

    Biological (physical) anthropology studies the variability of human biological properties in time and space.

    In a broad sense, human morphology is the study of the structure of the human body in connection with its development and life activity; includes human anatomy, embryology and histology.

    Implementation into practice morphological research methods of physical and chemical analysis make it possible to obtain data on body composition, i.e., on the tissue components that make up the body of a living person.

    The meaning of the word Morphology according to Efremova: Morphology - 1. A scientific discipline that studies the form and structure of organisms. Morphology in the Encyclopedic Dictionary: Morphology - (from the Greek morphe - form and ... logic) - in biology - the science of the form and structure of organisms.

    Plant morphology. Morphology (of animals. The Bulgarian language is very different in its morphology from other Slavic languages. The meaning of the word Morphology according to the Brockhaus and Efron dictionary: Morphology is a department of grammar that examines a word from its formal composition.

    In Russian, this too disappeared without a trace, also due to phonetics. Morphological assimilation and morphological absorption are the main factors of all morphological or formal changes. Thus, the basis of all morphological changes is purely psychological, and all M. is reduced to the basic laws of psychology.

    Man is a biosocial being, therefore anthropology is distinguished from other human sciences by its close attention to the connection between its biological properties and various social factors.

    Currently, the line between biological and social phenomena appears blurred in sciences such as ethology (the science of behavior) and sociobiology. Note that in Western European and American science, all human sciences are often referred to as “anthropology,” while anthropology in our understanding corresponds to “physical anthropology.”

    At the same time, anthropology consciously moves away from abstracting the species properties of a person. We can say that in this case we're talking about about the spatial morphology of humans, since races differ in complexes of structural features. The branches of anthropology are naturally interconnected.

    Human morphology provides insight into the mechanisms that determined the evolutionary emergence of human characteristics. Morphology helps to understand the ways in which racial characteristics arise.

    The method of reconstructing a person’s appearance from the skull is also anthropological. For medicine and psychology, human age biology is of great importance, establishing patterns of growth and development. The concept of the human constitution allows doctors to assess the risk of pathology, take into account the patient’s condition and properly organize treatment.

    Human morphology

    Anthropology is inextricably linked with other biological sciences– genetics, molecular biology, embryology, paleontology and others. Anthropogenesis, otherwise called paleoanthropology, human paleontology, or evolutionary anthropology, is the study of human variation over time. Researchers of anthropogenesis aim to trace all the vicissitudes of human evolution.

    The second significant task of anthropogenesis is the study of human paleontology itself, or paleoanthropology in the broad sense. The classification and dating of the fossil ancestors of our species Homo sapiens occupy one of the central places in the section of anthropogenesis. The next stage of knowledge is to identify in the diversity the predecessors of our own line of evolution and dead-end branches.

    One of the most significant results is the discovery of the fact of uneven biological and social evolution of man.

    Identifying human specificity is one of the most important tasks of anthropogenesis. Of the three main branches of anthropology, this has the greatest practical significance. The tasks of age-related anthropology are, first of all, the periodization of ontogenesis - human development from birth to death (auxology deals with the early stages of life, gerontology deals with the later stages).

    Human morphology deals with individual variability of a person - age-related changes and constitutional characteristics.

    Racial studies, often called ethnic anthropology, studies human variability in space. In anthropology, the doctrine of the human constitution as the totality of its individual morphological and functional characteristics has been formed and is developing.

    Category: UnitTags: Highlight

    Basic characteristics of the human body."

    The human body combines 3 groups of characteristics: morphological, functional and personal.

    Morphological characteristics determine the structure, structure, location of cells, tissues, organs, anatomical systems and apparatuses, which are considered in accordance with the levels structural organization human body.

    Functional characteristics determine the processes occurring in the human body.

    Basics of the functional characteristics of the human body:

    Property is a genetically determined ability of fledglings, organs and systems.

    Physiological process - this is a set of biochemical, biophysical and physiological reactions occurring in different structures and elements of a person.

    Function - specific activity of cells, tissues and organs, their properties manifest themselves as a physiological process or a set of processes. Functions are conventionally divided into somatic and vegetative. Somatic functions are carried out due to the activity of the skeletal and muscular systems. Vegetative functions are carried out due to the activity of internal organs.

    Physiological reactions - these are changes in the structure of the function of the body, its cells in response to various influences of environmental factors or stimuli.

    Each reaction has its own form and degree of manifestation and is an external manifestation of reactivity.

    Reactivity - the ability of the body to respond in a certain way to the influence of various environmental and internal environmental factors.

    Each reaction and process has its own specific mechanisms of implementation.

    Mechanism of physiological reactions – This is a sequence of structural and functional changes that occur in the human body by cells under the influence of various kinds of stimuli, i.e.

    e. mechanism, allows us to answer the question - “how are physiological processes carried out”

    Personal characteristics — determine to a large extent the mental activity of a person: directed conscious activity, ability, character, will, feelings, emotions, etc.

    All characteristics allow us to perceive and form an idea of ​​the human body as a single whole, in which particular physiological processes are subject to the laws of operation of a complex integral system.

    The process of cognition of physiological patterns is inconceivable without a deep study of the structure of an organ or organ system. Therefore, studying the structure of organs is a necessary stage in understanding the essence physiological processes and the relationship between the structure and function of a living organ or an integral living system.

    Each organ or separate organ system performs specific functions, but their independence in human behavioral acts is relative. Thus, in the implementation of a food behavioral reaction, the manifestation of physiological activity - the search, intake and processing of food - turns out to be subordinate to the solution of the main task - satisfying food needs.

    Morphological and functional dependence and interdependence between organs and systems of the human body is carried out due to the activity of the control and regulation system and the internal environment of the human body according to the principle system hierarchy: elementary life processes are subject to complex system dependencies.

    Thus, the lower departments are already subordinate to the higher departments and automatically maintain a given mode of life.

    Combining the above, we can highlight that at the heart of life

    The human body as a single whole lies in the structural-functional relationship and interdependence of various organs and systems based on the activity of the control and regulation system and the internal environment of the body according to the principle of hierarchy: the subordination of lower regulatory structures to higher ones and the dependence of the activity of higher regulatory departments on the functioning of lower ones.

    On this basis, the highest personal characteristics of a person and the levels of regulation of life processes are formed:

    a) Highest level: regulation of the functions of the whole organism and the relationship with the external environment carried out by the central nervous system;

    b) Second level: autonomic regulation of the functions of human internal organs;

    c) The third level is humoral regulation due to hormones produced by the endocrine glands;

    d) The fourth level is nonspecific regulation of physiological functions carried out by liquid media of the human body.

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    Characteristics of morphological characteristics that determine

    External body shape of a woman

    Total (general) morphological characteristics. The shape and size of a person's body changes throughout his life. They characterize the physical development of a person.

    To characterize the physical development of women, figure measurements are used: “Body length (Height)”, “Chest girth” and body weight.

    Height is determined by measuring body length, which is taken vertically from the floor to the apex of the head.

    Body length has great individual variability and ranges in women from 134 cm to 182 cm. Deviation from these values ​​is considered pathology.

    A woman’s body reaches its maximum length by the age of 17–18 years. Constant growth persists until 45 - 50 years, after which it decreases by 0.5 -0.7 cm for each subsequent five years. A person's height also changes throughout the day.

    By the evening, when a person gets tired, the body length decreases by 1.5 - 3.0 cm; in the morning the body length is greatest. Adult women have an average height (158 cm) less than men (170 cm).

    The figure measurement “Chest girth first” (Og1) determines the perimeter of the chest; with age it increases, which is associated with the growth of the bone skeleton, muscles and subcutaneous fat layer; becomes more or less constant by the age of 18-20.

    The period of relative stability of chest girth is observed at the age of 25 - 40 years. After 40 years, it increases rapidly. This is due to an increase in the subcutaneous fat layer. In women aged 18 - 29 years, the average chest circumference is 6.0 - 7.0 cm less than in women aged 45 - 60 years.

    As you age, your chest circumference decreases somewhat.

    When designing women's clothing measurements of four chest girths are used: first (Og1), second (Og2), third (Og3) and fourth (Og4).

    Chest girth third (Og3) is accepted as the main (leading) feature. It is measured at the level of the protruding points of the mammary glands in the horizontal plane. The average value of Og3 is. 96 cm. Chest girth fourth (underbust) is used in the design of corsetry.

    Body weight also constantly changes with age, but this occurs unevenly over the years. The average body weight of a newborn girl is 3.4 kg, and the average weight of an adult woman is 64 kg.

    Relatively stable body weight in the normal state of the body in women is observed between the ages of 25 and 40 years. Then it increases slightly, after 55 years it is insignificant.

    Proportions of female figures. The proportions of the human body are the ratios of the projected dimensions of it individual parts. Among adults, there are three main types of proportions: dolichomorphic, brachymorphic and mesomorphic.

    The dolichomorphic type is characterized by relatively long limbs and a narrow short body, the brachymorphic type is characterized by relatively short limbs and a long wide body, the mesomorphic type is an intermediate, average type of proportions between the brachymorphic and dolichomorphic types of proportions.

    The difference in height between people depends largely on the length of the legs.

    Therefore, the dolichomorphic type is more typical for tall women, while the brachymorphic type is more typical for short women.

    The proportions of a person's body change significantly with age (while a person grows). Moreover, the change in proportions occurs due to a decrease in the relative sizes of the head and torso and the relative lengthening of the limbs.

    Thus, in adult women, the length of the legs is 53% of the body length, in a newborn girl - 33%. This affects the shape and proportions of clothing for children, youth and older women.

    There are differences in proportions between men and women. Thus, women have relatively wider pelvises and narrower shoulders than men. At the same time, the body length of women is shorter, and the upper limbs are shorter.

    To determine proportions, projection measurements of the human body are used.

    Characteristics of posture types of female figures. Posture, like other morphological features, largely determines the features of the external shape of the human body.

    Posture refers to the natural habitual position of the body while standing and moving. On posture significant influence influence the structure of the spine, the magnitude of its bends in different areas, as well as the degree of development of muscles and fat deposits.

    When designing clothes, posture is determined by the shape of the contour of the torso from the back when looking at the figure in profile. The characteristics of the dorsal contour of the body must be known to ensure the right balance(equilibrium position) of the product on the figure.

    Women's figures have different postures.

    With any posture, the body is in balance. This is achieved by adapting to the equilibrium vertical position of the body its various parts (arms, legs, head, torso), i.e. their shapes and sizes change depending on posture.

    To establish whether a figure belongs to a particular type of posture, a dimensional feature is usually used, which determines the curvature of the upper part of the body “Body position” (Pk), - the horizontal distance from the cervical point to the plane tangent to the protruding points of the shoulder blades (Figure 3.5, a) .

    In the classification of figures adopted for the mass production of clothing, three types of posture are distinguished on this basis: normal, stooped and kinked (Figure 3.5).

    A figure with normal posture is a conventionally typical figure (average type).

    A female figure with normal posture is characterized by slightly sloping and developed breasts. The protruding points of the mammary glands are located slightly below the level of the armpits and are pushed forward relative to the protrusion of the abdomen. The belly is usually oval in shape, located below the waist line and protrudes slightly forward; the protruding points of the buttocks are slightly (about 1 cm) shifted back relative to the protruding points of the shoulder blades.

    The waist notch and buttock protrusion are moderate; legs are slender.

    The curved figure of women is characterized by a wide spread of the chest and shoulders, a straight back.

    The waist notch and buttock protrusion are increased. The neck is tilted less forward. The chest is more developed, the protruding points of the mammary glands are raised and, despite the protruding and high belly, are significantly shifted forward. The width of the chest is increased, and the width and length of the back are reduced compared to a figure with normal posture; the value of Pk is reduced.

    A stooped figure has a rounded upper back, often with prominent shoulder blades, especially in thin women; The waist notch and buttock protrusion are reduced; the neck is tilted more forward; chest flat or sunken; the protruding points of the mammary glands are shifted downwards and protrude slightly forward relative to the protrusion of the abdomen; the stomach is located slightly lower and protrudes more forward; shoulders and arms tilted forward; muscle development is most often weak; The width and length of the back to the waist are increased, and the width and length of the front are reduced.

    The value of Pk is greater than that of a figure with normal posture.

    For a more complete description of the types of figures, depending on posture, three structural belts are adopted: shoulder (P1), body (P2) and sub-body (PZ).

    To describe them, six projection dimensional features are used (Figure 3.6): position of the body (Pk), position of the protruding points of the mammary glands relative to the jugular cavity (Pg), depth of the first waist (Gt1), position of the waist in front (Pt), position of the abdomen (Rzh) , the position of the buttocks (Pya) or in other words the depth of the waist is the second (Gt2).

    The location of the structural chords is shown in Table 3.1.

    Each structural belt is characterized by one of the following posture indicators:

    Shoulder girdle posture indicator P1 = Pg-Pk;

    Body belt posture indicator P2 = Pt - Gt1;

    The posture indicator of the subcorpus girdle PZ = Rzh - Gt2.

    The sign in front of the posture index value calculated using these formulas indicates the predominance of one of the posture features over the other.

    This is very important to know when designing clothes, in particular when refining the design during fittings.

    When designing clothes, the concept of posture usually includes shoulder height. The dimensional attribute “Shoulder height” (Bp) gives an idea of ​​the inclination of the shoulder slopes - this is the perpendicular distance from the horizontal plane at the level of the neck point to the horizontal at the level of the shoulder point (Figure 3.2, d).

    Based on this feature, there are types of figures with high, normal and low shoulders.

    Table 3.1 – Position of structural belts for determining posture

    Both dimensional signs Pk and Vp, which characterize posture, depend to a greater extent on height: with increasing height, both signs increase.

    Usually the dimensional characteristics Pk and Vp are considered together.

    The identified types of posture of female figures according to the combination of these characteristics are shown in Table 3.2.

    Table 3.2 – Classification of female figures by posture

    IN mass production clothes are made for figures with normal posture and normal shoulder height.

    The posture of a woman's figure is influenced by the height of the shoe heel.

    The average heel height is 3.0 - 4.0 cm. In high-heeled shoes, the upper part of the body leans back, the figure becomes more straightened, and the buttocks protrude more back (Pk and Gt1 decrease, and Gt2 increases). For example, with a heel height of 7.0 cm, the front length increases by approximately 1.5 cm, and the back length decreases by approximately 1.0 cm. The balance value in this case should be increased by 1.0 cm.

    As a result, product fittings (for example, for special occasions) should be performed on figures wearing high-heeled shoes.

    Body types of female figures.

    A person’s physique depends on age, the degree of development of muscles and subcutaneous fat, as well as the size and shape of the skeleton. Various classifications of the physique of female figures have been proposed in the literature. Let's consider one of them. It was developed based on an assessment of the degree of development and distribution of fat deposits in individual areas of the body without taking into account other signs. Taking this into account, there are three main and one additional body groups for women (Figure 3.7).

    1st group includes figures of women with uniform distribution fat deposits throughout the body.

    The degree of fat deposits can be weak, moderate and abundant. Accordingly, three body types are distinguished: leptosomal (thin) (L), normal (N) and Rubensian (R).

    The 2nd group consists of figures with an uneven distribution of fat deposits.

    It includes two body types: upper S - with increased fat deposition above the waistline and lower 1st - increased fat deposition in the lower body.

    The 3rd group includes women’s figures also with an uneven distribution of fat deposits. There are two body types: type Tt - increased fat deposition on the torso and type Ex - increased fat deposition on the extremities.

    Additionally, body types with increased fat deposition in certain areas of the body are identified: on the chest (M), on the hips (T), buttocks, etc.

    There are other classifications of the physique of female figures, which are based on taking into account not only the degree of fat deposits, but also a combination of a number of other morphological characteristics: proportions, degree of muscle development, etc.

    Features of the customer’s external appearance that are taken into account when choosing clothing models are given in the classification of female body composition (Figure 3.8).

    To establish whether a female figure belongs to one or another type of build, the values ​​of the proportionality coefficients (K2, K3, K4) were calculated and the intervals of their variation were determined (Figure 3.9).

    The proportional ratios of the dimensional characteristics of chest girth, waist girth, hip girth, taking into account the protrusion of the abdomen and shoulder girth to height are determined by the value of the K2 coefficient and characterize the physique features of the female figure (thin, plump, normal).

    Features of the distribution of fat deposits over the body surface (upper, lower, equilibrium types) are determined by the value of the K3 coefficient (the ratio of the transverse diameter of the hips to the shoulder diameter).

    The degree of arm fullness (full, normal, thin) is determined by the ratio of the dimensional characteristics of the shoulder girth and the chest girth of the second (K4).

    The entire set of female figures can be represented in the form of nine types based on characteristics of habitus: the shape of the face and neck, the width and height of the shoulders, posture, the degree of development of the mammary glands, the inclination of the neck, etc.

    Habitus – appearance human (constitution). The identified types of habitus allow for more targeted design of clothing in mass production and for individual orders (Figure 3.10, Table 3.3).

    Table 3.3 – Characteristics of the types of female figure habitus

    End of table 3.3

    G3 Junior age group; the face is narrow, ellipsoidal in shape; the neck is long, thin, cylindrical, with a normal slope; shoulders are narrow, of normal height, turned back; the mammary glands are highly developed, located narrowly and high; straightened posture; fat deposits in the area of ​​the cervical point are average
    G4 Middle age group; the face is of medium width, ellipsoidal in shape, the neck is normal, with a large forward inclination; shoulders of normal height and width, with normal turn; the mammary glands are moderately developed, located narrowly and high; posture is normal, fat deposits in the area of ​​the cervical point are average
    G5 Middle age group; the face is wide, pentagonal in shape, the neck is short, cylindrical, tilted forward; shoulders are normal in width, low, with a slight turn forward; the mammary glands are poorly developed, located normally in height; stooped posture; small fat deposits in the area of ​​the cervical point
    G6 Middle age group; the face is narrow, ovoid in shape, the neck is long, thin, hyperbolic in shape with a large forward inclination; The mammary glands are strongly developed, located widely and normal in height; straightened posture; shoulders are normal in width, high, with a slight turn forward; large fat deposits in the area of ​​the cervical point
    G7 Older age group; the face is of medium width, pentagonal in shape, the neck is short, wide, cylindrical in shape, with a normal slope; shoulders are wide, high with a slight turn forward; The mammary glands are highly developed and located high; stooped posture; large fat deposits in the area of ​​the cervical point
    G8 Older age group; the face is wide, orbicular in shape; the neck is normal, conical in shape, with a normal slope; the shoulders are normal, with a slight turn forward; the mammary glands are moderately developed and located low; normal posture; fat deposits in the area of ​​the cervical point are average
    G9 Older age group; the face is narrow and elliptical in shape; the neck is short, wide, cylindrical in shape with an inclination forward; shoulders are narrow, low, with a normal turn; the mammary glands are poorly developed, located normally in width and height; straightened posture, slight fat deposition in the area of ​​the cervical point

    Figure 3.10 – Variants of female figure habitus

    Most women have a mixed body type.

    In addition, the type of one person can change under the influence of age, characteristics of work activity, diet, sports, etc. A tailor of clothing for an individual figure must find the correct solution to the shape of the product, its connection with the material for all variants of body types. A certain difficulty is presented by figures of large sizes and fullness, as well as figures with significant deviations from the standard ones.

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    Basic morphofunctional indicators of physical development. 15

    PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT is a natural process of age-related changes in the morphological and functional properties of the human body during his life.

    The concept of physical development includes the morphofunctional constitution of a person.

    The human constitution is a complex of individual physiological and anatomical features of the human body, which are formed on the basis of hereditary properties acquired under the influence of social and natural conditions.

    Physical development depends on genetic factors, with heredity playing a significant role in the dynamics of physical development and physique, and environmental conditions (social, climatic, geographical, etc.).

    To determine physical development, anthropometric measurements are taken, and various indices are used to assess it. Indices are indicators of physical development, representing the ratio of individual anthropometric characteristics expressed in a priori mathematical formulas.

    The study of the level of physical development of children and adolescents is carried out using the method of determining sigma deviations. The use of this method is based on comparison of indicators of the physical development of the subject (height, weight, OGK, etc.) with the arithmetic average values ​​of these characteristics (M), taken from the table of standards.

    ANTHROPOMETRIC INDICATORS is a complex of morphological and functional data that characterizes age and gender characteristics of physical development.

    The following anthropometric indicators are distinguished:

    — somatometric;

    — physiometric;

    - somatoscopic.

    Somatometric indicators include:

    • Height– body length.

    The greatest body length is observed in the morning.

    In the evening, as well as after intense physical exercise, height may decrease by 2 cm or more. After exercises with weights and a barbell, height may decrease by 3-4 cm or more due to compaction of the intervertebral discs.

    • Weight– it would be more correct to say “body weight”.

    Body weight is an objective indicator of health status.

    It changes during physical exercise, especially during initial stages. This occurs as a result of the release of excess water and the combustion of fat. Then the weight stabilizes, and later, depending on the focus of the training, it begins to decrease or increase.

    It is advisable to monitor body weight in the morning on an empty stomach.

    To determine normal weight, various weight-height indices are used. In particular, in practice they widely use Broca's indexBrugsha:, Whereby normal weight body is calculated as follows:

    - for people 155-165 cm tall:

    optimal weight = body length – 100

    - for people 165-175 cm tall:

    optimal weight = body length – 105

    - for people 175 cm tall and above:

    optimal weight = body length – 110

    More accurate information about the relationship between physical weight and body constitution is provided by a method that, in addition to height, also takes into account chest circumference:

    Body weight (weight) for adults is calculated using the Bernhard formula:

    Weight = (height x chest volume) / 240

    The formula makes it possible to take into account body features.

    • Circles– volumes of the body in its various zones.

    Usually the circumferences of the chest, waist, forearm, shoulder, hip, etc. are measured.

    A centimeter tape is used to measure body circumference.

    Chest circumference is measured in three phases: during normal quiet breathing, maximum inhalation and maximum exhalation.

    The difference between the sizes of the circles during inhalation and exhalation characterizes the chest excursion (ECC). The average EGC size usually ranges from 5-7 cm.

    Circumference of waist, hips, etc. are used, as a rule, to control the figure.

    Physiometric indicators include:

    • Vital capacity of the lungs (VC)– the volume of air obtained during the maximum exhalation made after the maximum inhalation.

    Vital vital capacity is measured with a spirometer: having previously taken 1-2 breaths, the subject takes a maximum breath and smoothly blows air into the mouthpiece of the spirometer until it fails.

    The measurement is carried out 2-3 times in a row, the best result is recorded.

    Average vital capacity indicators:

    - for men 3500-4200 ml,

    - for women 2500-3000 ml,

    - for athletes 6000-7500 ml.

    • Breathing rate– the number of complete respiratory cycles per unit of time (for example, per minute).

    The normal respiratory rate of an adult is 14-18 times per minute.

    Under load it increases 2-2.5 times.

    • Oxygen consumption– the amount of oxygen used by the body at rest or during exercise in 1 minute.

    At rest, a person on average consumes 250-300 ml of oxygen per minute.

    At physical activity this value increases.

    The greatest amount of oxygen that the body can consume per minute during maximum muscular work is called maximum oxygen consumption (IPC).

    • Dynamometry– determination of the flexion strength of the hand.

    The flexion force of the hand is determined by a special device - a dynamometer, measured in kg.

    Right-handers have average strength values right hand:

    — for men 35-50 kg;

    - for women 25-33 kg.

    Average strength values left hand usually 5-10 kg less.

    When performing dynamometry, it is important to consider absolute strength and relative, i.e.

    correlated with body weight.

    To determine relative strength, arm strength is multiplied by 100 and divided by body weight.

    For example, a young man weighing 75 kg showed a right hand strength of 52 kg:

    52 x 100 / 75 = 69.33%

    Average relative strength indicators:

    - in men 60-70% of body weight;

    - in women 45-50% of body weight.

    Somatoscopic indicators include:

    • Posture- the usual pose of a casually standing person.

    At correct posture in a well-physically developed person, the head and torso are on the same vertical, the chest is raised, the lower limbs are straightened at the hip and knee joints.

    At incorrect posture the head is slightly tilted forward, the back is hunched, the chest is flat, the stomach is protruded.

    • Body type– characterized by the width of skeletal bones.

    The following are distinguished: body types: asthenic (narrow-boned), normosthenic (normal-boned), hypersthenic (broad-boned).

    Determination of the thickness of skin-fat folds.

    To measure the thickness of skin-fat folds, a special device called a caliper is used. When taking measurements, special attention should be paid to its calibration. The pressure exerted by the caliper legs should not exceed 10 g per 1 mm2 of skin surface. The area of ​​skin grasped by fingers should be at least 20-40 mm2. Measurements must be carried out in strictly designated places. Usually the thickness of 8 longitudinal skin-fat folds is determined:

    in the back area - under the lower angle of the shoulder blade;

    2. in the chest area - along the axillary edge of the pectoralis major muscle;

    3. in the abdominal area - on the right near the navel;

    4. on the front surface of the shoulder - above the biceps muscle (approximately in the middle of the shoulder);

    5. on the back of the shoulder – above the triceps brachii muscle (approximately in the middle of the shoulder);

    on the dorsum of the hand – in the middle of the ΙΙΙ metacarpal bone;

    7. on the front surface of the thigh - above the rectus femoris muscle, slightly below the inguinal ligament;

    8. on the back surface of the lower leg in the area of ​​the outer head of the gastrocnemius muscle.

    Towards anthropometric tools include:

    a metal rod anthropometer of the Martin system, which can simultaneously serve as a rod compass;

    2. wooden easel height meter;

    3. large and small thick compasses;

    4. sliding compass;

    5. millimeter (metal, linen or rubberized) tapes up to 1.5-2 m long;

    6. medical scales with measurement accuracy up to 50 g;

    7. caliper;

    8. dynamometers (wrist, deadlift);

    9. goniometers;

    stopometers.

    Martin's metal rod anthropometer and wooden easel stadiometer make it possible to determine with a high degree of accuracy (up to 0.2-0.5 cm) the body length of the subject in a standing or sitting position. In addition, using a metal anthropometer, you can determine the longitudinal dimensions of the body (the length of the shoulder, forearm, hand, entire upper limb, thigh, lower leg, entire lower limb, etc.), which cannot be done with a wooden stadiometer.

    Thick and sliding compasses are used to determine end-to-end dimensions, i.e.

    distances between two points in projection onto a line parallel to the measured axis. Thick compasses, unlike sliding compasses, which resemble rod compasses, have arched legs that make it possible to measure distances between points of the body that lie deeper than the surrounding areas of the body, and which cannot be fixed by the straight legs of a sliding or rod compass.

    Millimeter metal or rubberized canvas tapes are used to determine the perimeters (circumferences, girths) of the body and its segments.

    The caliper is used to measure the thickness of skin and fat folds.

    This device has a specially calibrated spring, which makes it possible in each specific case to produce identical pressure on the fold

    Dynamometers (wrist, backbone) have recently been used to measure the strength of not only the wrist flexor muscles and trunk extensor muscles, but also many other muscle groups (Fig. 7).

    Goniometers (Mollison, Gamburtsev, Sermeev, Yatskevich) are devices for determining mobility in joints in degrees.

    The total mobility in all joints studied makes it possible to characterize such a physical quality of a person as flexibility.

    Mechanical engineering Basic morphological features that determine the external shape of the human body.

    Size typology and size standards of the population.

    Lecture outline:

    2.1 Basic morphological features that determine the external shape of the human body.

    2.2 Total morphological characteristics. Body proportions. Body type.

    2.3 Methods for studying human body size (anthropometry).

    2.4 Modern dimensional characteristics of the human body.

    2.5 Modern size typology and size standards for adults and children. Construction of a system of standard figures.

    2.6 Anthropometric and design sizing standards.

    2.7 Designation of clothing sizes.

    To obtain sufficient information about the object of clothing design - a person, it is extremely important to have a good knowledge of the anatomical structure of a person, the patterns of variability in body sizes among the population and the principles of constructing body size standards.

    General characteristics of the external shape of the human body.

    Plastic anatomy is the study of the external shape of the human body, which is also called the anatomy of external forms or the science of the artist.

    When studying the external shape of the human body, large sections are usually distinguished:

    Torso, neck, head and paired upper and lower limbs.

    In each of the departments, the front, back and side surfaces are distinguished. In this case, you should pay attention to the analysis of the shape of the shoulders, back, chest, abdomen, relative position bones and shape of the upper and lower extremities, types of placement of the arms relative to the body and their relationship with the shape and tone of the muscles, the development of fat deposits.

    The main morphological features that underlie the determination of the external shape of the human body include: total or general features, body proportions, physique and posture.

    Any morphological feature of the human body is characterized by variability.

    The degree of expression and direction of variability for different traits are not the same and depend on factors such as age, social environment, features of the course of biochemical processes in the human body, etc.

    Total [general] morphological characteristics .

    Total characteristics include the largest dimensional characteristics of the body:

    Body length [height] and perimeter [girth] of the chest, as well as weight

    Body length. In newborns, it is on average 50.5 - 51.5 cm.

    The greatest increase in body length in children [cf. . 25 cm] is observed in the first year of life. The body of girls reaches its final length on average at 17-18, and for boys at 18-20.

    Until the age of 45–50, a person experiences a period of stable body length.

    In older people, there is a gradual decrease in body length.

    Perimeter [circumference] of the chest.

    Chest circumference at the end of the first year of life is on average 49 cm in boys and 48 cm in girls. The increase in chest girth in girls ends at 16 - 17 years, in boys - by 17 - 20 years. Stability of chest girth in adults is not observed, since with age there is usually an intensive increase in chest girth due to an increase in the subcutaneous fat layer.

    Body mass.

    The body weight of a newborn is on average 3.5 kᴦ.

    Body weight increases in women until about 20 years of age, in men - up to 25. The age of 25-40 years corresponds to a period of relative stability of body weight. After 40 years, there is an increase in weight by an average of 1 - 1.5 kg per five years due to the strengthening of the fat layer.

    Body proportions.

    The proportions of the human body are the ratio of the sizes of its individual parts [projected dimensions of the body], mainly the limbs and torso.

    Proportions vary depending on age, gender, they are different among people even within the same age and sex group.

    V.V. Bunak identifies three basic types of body proportions:

    • dolichomorphic – with relatively long limbs and a narrow short body;
    • brachymorphic - with relatively short limbs and a long, wide body;
    • mesomorphic[middle] – occupies an intermediate position between dolichomorphic and brachymorphic types.

    The difference in height between people mainly depends on the length of the lower limbs.

    For this reason, the dolichomorphic type is more typical for people of tall stature; the brachymorphic type is more typical for short people.

    Body type. The physique is determined, first of all, by the degree of development of muscles and fat deposits; their change entails a change in other signs of the physique: the shape of the chest, abdomen, back.

    The following signs are distinguished:

    • muscle development – weak, medium, strong;
    • development of fat deposits - weak, medium, abundant.
    • chest shape - flat, cylindrical, conical;
    • belly shape - sunken, straight, rounded - convex;
    • back shape – regular or wavy [with moderate curves of all parts of the spine], stooped [with increased thoracic kyphosis] and straight [with smoothed, small curves of all parts of the spine].

    Different combinations of these features form different external shapes of the human body.

    Accordingly, different body types are distinguished.

    Men's body types.

    V.V. Bunak identifies seven body types for men, three of which are considered basic:

    • chest type - weak fat deposits and muscles, flat chest, sunken stomach and stooped back;
    • muscular type - moderate fat deposits, medium to strong muscles, cylindrical chest, normal or straight back;
    • abdominal type - abundant fat deposition, medium or weak muscles, conical chest, rounded - convex belly, stooped or normal back.

    Women's body types.

    Shkerli identifies three basic and one additional body type groups.

    Body types of female figures according to B. Shkerli:

    Body type 1 – with an even distribution of fat deposits throughout the body.

    n leptosomal - weak fat deposition (L)

    n normal (N)

    n Rubensian - abundant fat deposition (R)

    Body type 2 - with uneven distribution of fat deposits.

    n upper (S)

    n lower (I)

    Group 3 - also with an uneven distribution of fat deposits mainly on the torso (Tr) or limbs (Ex).

    Group 4 - additional body types with increased fat deposition in certain areas of the body, for example, chest (M), hips (T), buttocks.

    Features of the physique of children.

    V. G. Shtefko identifies the body types of adolescents.

    • asthenoid body type - characterized by weak development of muscles and deposits, a flattened and narrowed chest with a sharp substernal angle, a stooped back, and elongated lower limbs.
    • Thoracic type - average development of muscles and fat deposits, slightly elongated and narrowed chest, straight stomach, wavy back.
    • Muscular type - average development of muscles and fat deposits, cylindrical chest with a right infrapectoral angle, straight stomach, wavy back.
    • Digestive type - increased degree of fat deposits, average or weak muscles, conical chest with a blunt sternal angle, rounded - convex abdomen, straight back with increased lumbar lordosis.

    Hand position

    Men Women

    α normal

    b =169±30 b=164±30

    Bent

    β b<1660 b<1610

    straightened

    b>1720 b>1670

    Shape of lower limbs

    The shape of the legs depends on the angle at which the femur and shin bone intersect at the knee joint:

    - axes form a straight line - straight legs

    — the axes form an obtuse angle on the outside — X-shaped legs

    — the axes form an obtuse angle inside — O-shaped legs

    - the axes form a straight line, but diverge from the pelvis - the legs “compass”

    Feet in or out

    Posture

    Posture is usually called the vertical position of the body, characteristic of each body type, without tension, characterized by various curves of the spine in the neck and waist, and shoulder height.

    Volyansky identified three types of posture:

    n kyphotic type - characterized by a large curvature of the thoracic spine and a small curvature of the lumbar spine. In the clothing industry, a figure with such a posture is usually called slanted (stooped).

    n balanced type - characterized by more or less the same degree of curvature of both the thoracic and lumbar spine (in industry - a type of normal posture).

    n lordotic - characterized by a large lumbar curve and a slight thoracic curve (in industry - a type of flexed posture).

    In the sewing industry, a distinction is made between stooped, normal and crooked postures.

    To establish whether a figure belongs to a particular type of posture, a sign is used that determines the bending of the upper part of the body, in the neck area - the position of the body Pk, and in the waist area Gt.

    Figure with normal posture: PC for men - 8.1 + 1.0 cm, for women - 6.2 + 1.0 cm;

    Gt in men - 3.7 cm, in women - 5.0 cm.

    Figure with straightened posture: PC for men - 6.1 + 1.0 cm, for women - 4.2 + 1.0 cm.

    A figure with a stooped posture: PC for men - 10.1+1.0 cm, for women - 8.2+1.0 cm, and a slight bend at the waist.

    The second sign is the height of the shoulders Vp.

    Based on the height of the shoulders, figures are divided into low-shoulder, normal-shoulder and high-shoulder figures.

    Figure with normal shoulder height: Vp for men - 6.4 + 0.75 cm, for women - 5.9 + 0.75 cm.

    Figure with high shoulders: Vp for men - 4.9 + 0.75 cm, for women - 5.9 + 0.75 cm.

    Figure with low shoulders: Vp for men - 7.9 + 0.75 cm, for women - 7.4 + 0.75 cm.

    Changes in the posture of the same person are influenced by various factors: age, condition nervous system, the degree and nature of the distribution of muscle tissue and fat deposits, type of work activity, time of day, type of shoes used, etc.



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