Orthoepic norms of the language. Features of the pronunciation of vowels and consonants, foreign words. Rules for pronunciation of vowels and consonants

Sound laws (including the laws of pronunciation) are sound phonetic changes that regularly occur in the modern Russian literary language. We will indicate the basic laws of pronunciation of vowels and consonants.

1. Law of vowel reduction. The pronunciation of vowel sounds is determined by position: under stress, vowel sounds appear in their main quality [a], [e], [i], [o], [u], [s]; in unstressed positions, quantitative and qualitative reduction occurs.
2. Law of consonant deafening. Voiced consonants at the end of words are deafened, that is, replaced by voiceless paired consonants: friend - friend [friend] - [friend], shore - shore [b’er’g’] - [b’er’k].
3. The law of assimilation of consonants according to voicedness and deafness. Noisy voiceless consonants are combined only with noisy voiceless consonants, i.e. voiced consonants before the voiceless ones are positionally changed to voiceless: bere[sk]a, la[fk]a, mo[sk], bli[sk]iy, za[ft ]cancer, me[tk]art.

Noisy voiced consonant sounds are combined only with noisy voiced consonants, i.e., voiceless consonant sounds before voiced ones are positionally changed to voiced ones: pro[z'b]a, [zg]eagle, [zb']ezhal, vo[gz]al, o[db]orny. The exception is the voiced consonant sound [v], before which no change occurs: [sv’]il, [k-v]am, plo[tv]a. The pronunciation of any word and any grammatical form of the Russian literary language is subject to these three laws.

The law of assimilation of consonants according to hardness and softness

Hard consonant sounds before soft ones are replaced with soft ones:

• a) hard dental consonants [t], [d], [z], [s], [n] before soft dental [t'][d'][z'][s'][n'][l '] are naturally replaced by soft ones: [z'd']es,
• be[z’- d’]ela, [t’l’]et, pe[n’s’]iya, about ba[n’t’]e, sher[s’t’];
• b) dental consonants [t], [d], [z], [s], [n] before soft alveolar [ch'], [sh:'] are naturally replaced by soft ones: ba[n'sh:'] ik, sm[n'sh:']ik.
• c) hard labial consonant sound [m] before soft labial [m’] softens: ha[m’m’]e, su[m’m’]e.

The softening of dental consonants before soft labial consonants is variable. The norm in this case requires a softening of the dental sound, but in real pronunciation this does not happen. At the beginning of the 20th century, this pronunciation norm was strong, but nowadays it is more characteristic of the older generation than the younger. Thus, some pronounce [s’v’]vet, [z’v’]ver, others - [s’v’]vet, [z’v’]beast. M.V. Panov wrote in “Phonetics” that only in some words is it obligatory to pronounce a soft dental consonant before a soft labial one, for example, r[z’v’]e. A study of modern pronunciation (based on the speech of the younger generation) indicates that in this word assimilation in terms of softness does not occur. The trend in modern literary pronunciation is obvious: assimilation in its softness has lost the force of law and is gradually being lost.

At the beginning of the 20th century, consonants before [j] could only be soft: su[d'j]a, dru[z'j]a, [s'j]em, po[d'j]om, o[t'j ]ride Currently, in some words, softness is firmly preserved ( judge, friends, adjutant etc.), but in others not, they pronounce both po[d’j]ezd and po[dj]ezd. Thus, before [j] the destruction of the old norm is also represented.

Peculiarities in the pronunciation of some consonant sounds and sound combinations

1. In the Russian literary language, the sound [g] is stop-plosive according to the method of formation. In the territory of distribution of the southern Russian dialect (south of Moscow), including the Belgorod, Voronezh, Lipetsk, Kursk, Tambov regions, as well as in Siberia, the fricative sound [g] is widely used. This sound is represented not only in the speech of dialect speakers or speakers of urban vernacular. It is used by people who know the norms of the Russian literary language. In the stunning position, [x] is used, for example: but[g]a - but[x], sapo[g]i - sapo[x]. The presence of the sound [g] in words and forms of the literary language contradicts the modern spelling norm. The norm allows the pronunciation of [g] only in the words bo[g]a, [g]oh, interjections o[g]o, a[g]a. The voiced sound [g] is replaced by the unvoiced [x] in the words bo[x], as well as le[hk']ii, mya[xk']ii and those formed from them.
2. The consonants [zh], [sh], [ts] in the Russian literary language are always hard. Before the front vowels they are pronounced firmly: [zh]zn, [zhe]st, [she]rst, [tse]ly. The exception is some words borrowed from French, For example, jury, Jules , as well as some surnames, for example, Tsyavlovsky. Pay attention to the pronunciation of the words bro[shu]ra, para[shu]t.
3. In the pronunciation of combinations of sounds [stn], [zdn], [vst], [lnts], [stl], [rdts], [rdch], [stts], [zdts], etc., one of the sounds is usually dropped: with [nts]e, le[sn']tsa, chu[st]vo, pra[zn']ik, se[rts]e, i[sc]a (plaintiff), etc.
4. Combinations of sounds [sch’], [zch’], [zhch’], [stch’], [zdch’] are pronounced as [w:’ch’] at the junction of a prefix or preposition with a root: with what [w:'h']em, dishonest, dishonest; in other cases, these combinations of sounds are pronounced as [sh:’]: carter - vo[sh:’]ik, crawler - volume [w:’]ik.

Pronunciation of words with chn combination

In words in place of combinations chn in some cases it is pronounced [chn] or [chn’], and in others - [shn] or [shn’]. In some words, double pronunciation is allowed: both [chn] and [shn]. To correctly pronounce words with the indicated combinations, you should refer to spelling dictionary. "Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by R.I. Avanesov gives for words with a combination chn the following litters:

• a) [shn] is pronounced in the words: birdhouse, bachelorette party, mustard plaster, scrambled eggs, trifling, rag-picker, nodding acquaintance, to nodding analysis, dear friend, boring, of course, on purpose;
• b) [shn] and additional. [chn] in words:bakery, thrush ‘milk trader’,poor student, C student, sensitive;
• c) [shn] and [chn] are pronounced in the words:penny, decent, match;
• d) [chn] and add. [shn] in words:milk, egg, apple, pin;
• e) [chn] and additional. outdated [shn] in words:comic, gingerbread, maid, hat, hawker, watchman, shopkeeper.

In some cases, the pronunciation [shn] is reflected in the spelling: raeshnik, dvurushnik, meticulous, rushnik, gorodoshnik, Stoleshnikov Lane, as well as in some surnames Pryanishnikov, Rukavishnikov and etc.

Pronunciation of words with [e] or [o]

In modern speech you can hear: [zhe]lch and [zho]lch, be[l'e]sy and be[l'o]sy, golo[v'e]shka and golo[v'o]shka, pob[ l'e]knut and po[l'o]knut, father[v'e]tshy and father[v'o]tshy, etc. The general tendency is to establish the pronunciation [o] instead of [e] even in books words. Compare the old and new forms of pronunciation: kneeling - kneeling , cross - cross, brought up - brought up, motley - motley, starry - starry .

Along with this, there are numerous facts of preservation of [e] under conditions that would seem to ensure the transition of [e] to [o], for example, swollen, But expired, multi-tribal, same-tribal , But fellow tribesman

Orthoepic dictionaries strictly establish the norm of pronunciation [e] in the following Russian and borrowed words: athlete, scam, deadwood, firebrand, fishing line, guardianship, sedentary, crypt, ridge, helmet.

The preferred pronunciation norm [o] is noted in the words: whitish (add. whitish ), bile (add. bile), maneuver(extra . maneuver), fade(add. fade). Only [o] is pronounced in words tearful, motley. Pronunciation options [e] and [o] perform a semantic distinguishing function: piece of iron And piece of iron, case And case, sky And palate recognizes And finds out, religious procession And godfather, past year And bleeding.

Pronunciation of borrowed words

The general process of Russification (mastering borrowed words in the Russian language) gradually leads to the subordination of foreign language vocabulary to the pronunciation norms of the Russian literary language. However, the adaptation of the pronunciation of borrowed words to the phonetic nature of the Russian language occurs unevenly and creates difficulties in the pronunciation of such vocabulary.

An important feature of the modern literary language is the unification of the pronunciation and spelling of many foreign words. For example, in the XVII - XVIII centuries. word coffee had several pronunciation and spelling options: coffee, coffee, kokhvay, kokhviy, kokhvey, cafe, cafe, cafe.

In the 19th - early 20th centuries, variation was still very significant: ambergris And amvra, suite And amfilade, passport And passport, hospital And hospital, bivouac And bivouac, tie And tie, cord And snur, curtain And stora, schooner And schooner, wardrobe And cabinet. Now the number of such options has been reduced to a minimum and is enshrined in dictionaries. : galoshes And galoshes, mattress And mattress, tunnel And tunnel, zero And zero, anchovy And Kamsa.

Pronunciation [o] in unstressed positions

The process of mastering foreign words continues to this day. Back in 1915, V.I. Chernyshev wrote that in the speech of educated people it is unacceptable to pronounce foreign words with acania: poet, novel , glass, station, team . Acoustic pronunciation was typical for common speech. Currently, pronunciation [o] without reduction in unstressed positions is classified as mannered, appropriate only in declamation, solemn, sublime speech. A stable pronunciation of unstressed [o] is permissible only in some words: rococo, boa, bolero, cocoa, credo, radio, baroque, trio, foyer etc., as well as in outdated, rarely used words: beau monde, bonton, bonvian etc. Often [o] is pronounced in proper names: Flaubert, Borneo, Chopin .

Sound [e] in unstressed syllables

In borrowed words, in accordance with [e] in an unstressed position, different sounds are pronounced depending on the degree of mastery of the word in the Russian language. In words that retain a bookish-literary character, [e] is pronounced at the beginning of the word and after a hard consonant: ecu, aeolian harp, bookplate , Evenk, equipment, excavator, extract, embryo, asteroid, businessman, andante. In foreign words that have been fully mastered by the Russian language, at the beginning of the word it is possible to pronounce a sound intermediate between [s] and [e], i.e. [ые]: [ые]migrant, [ые]enthusiast, [ые]tazh. In the dictionary edited by R.I. Avanesov there is a warning: In place of the letter uh The sound [and] or close to it should not be pronounced. [Decree. Dictionary, 2000. P. 646]. After a hard consonant in the first pre-stressed syllable (in the first unstressed position) [ые] is pronounced: at[ые]lie, but[ые]rbrod, syn[ые]tichesky; in other unstressed syllables (in the second unstressed position) - [ъ]: alt[ъ]rnativa, modernization, t[ъ]nnisist.

Pronunciation of soft and hard consonants before [e]

The pronunciation of words in the Russian language is characterized by a pattern: before [e] there could only be soft consonants. Therefore, in borrowed words before [e], hard consonants were replaced by soft ones. Now this pattern has been lost: in many borrowed words only hard consonants are pronounced: an[e]nna, but[e]rbrod (here and in the following examples we indicate the sound [e] regardless of its position in the word), t[e]rmos , t[e]mp, kabar[e], caf[e], code[e]ks, cocktail[e]il, mod[e]l, part[e]r, past[e]l, shat[e] ]n, r[e]quiem, tyr[e], ex[e]ma. In some words, double pronunciation is allowed - with a hard and soft consonant: [de]duction and [d'e]duction, [de]kan and [d'e]kan, kong[re]ss and kong[r'e]ss , k[re]do and k[r'e]do, [te]terrorist and [t'e]terrorist, [de]po and [d'e]po. In many words, only a soft consonant is pronounced: pool, beige, brunette, museum, pioneer, rail, term, overcoat, plywood.

Pronunciation of double consonants

In accordance with the spelling of two identical consonants, and can be pronounced long consonant, and short . Long pronunciation double letters for consonant phonemes are facilitated by their position in the word:

• a) at the beginning of words: , [v’:ied’en’iii], [k - kDmu];
• b) between vowels, the first of which is stressed: [van:b], [g’et:o], [kas:b];
• c) at the junction of a prefix with a root or a preposition with a word: [b’ies:ov’snyi][b’ies - sov’s’t’i];
• d) in rarely used words, in words perceived as borrowed: [d’il’em:b], [pDs:’if].

Double consonants are not pronounced as long:

• a) at the end of words: [m’ietal], [class];
• b) next to another consonant [rus’ii]; however, in some adjectives, especially those formed from words using the suffix- sk-, pronounce [s:] beforeTo: sailor[s:]ky, kirgi[s:]kyy, spa[s:]kyy;
• c) in the first part of compound words:machine-tractor [mDshyntractarny].

Pronunciation is rarely long pp.

Many words can be pronounced in two ways, for example, telegram, panel . When turning to the spelling dictionary, it is necessary to take into account that double pronunciation is often not reflected in it.

Features of pronunciation of names and patronymics

First names and patronymics, which are used in the function of address primarily in oral speech, are distinguished by some pronunciation features that go back to the spoken language. Many of these pronunciation features have passed from colloquial speech into codified literary language, including public speech.

The combination “first name + patronymic” is used in the most different situations in written and oral speech: in official documents - decrees, orders, lists; in official and private correspondence, in addressing the interlocutor in various communication situations, in naming third parties. Moreover, the degree of discrepancy between pronunciation and writing depends on how unprepared, emotional or intimate the speech is. Let's consider some features of the pronunciation of names and patronymics in modern Russian:

• - Eevich in patronymics it is pronounced as [e(i)ich’], [eich’], -Eevna - How [evn]: Alekseevich - Alek [s’eich’], Alekseevna - Alek [s’evn];
• -aevich pronounced as [aich’]: Nikolaevich - Nikol[aich’], -Aevna - like [avn]: Nikolaevna - Nikol[avn];
• - Ievich, -evich pronounced as [ich’]: Dmitrievich - Dmit[r’ich], Yuryevich - Yu[r’ich’]. With more distinct speech, it can be pronounced [ich’]: Yuryevich - Yu[r’ich’]; -ievna, -evna - like [внъ] in an official setting: Dmitrievna - Dmit[r'vnъ], in an informal setting - like [нъ]: Vasilievna - Vasya[l'nъ], Evgenievna - Evge[n'nъ], Afanasyevna - Afana [s'n];
• - male names on -a (ya) are declined according to feminine inclination and form masculine patronymics on-ich [ich’]: Savva - Savvich [sav:’ich’], Ilya - Ilyich [il’ich’]; female patronymics in -ichna pronounced as [ishn]: Ilyinichna - Ilya [n’ishn];
• - ovich (-evich) not under stress are pronounced as [ych’], [ich’] or as [ъч’]: Maksimovich Maksim[ych’], Igorevich Igo[r’ich’], Pavlovich - Pav[lch’];-Aries pronounced as [n:b] or [nъ]: Aleksandrovna - Alexa[n:b], Mikhailovna - Mikhal[nъ], sometimes such patronymics are pronounced with the syllabicity of the previous sonorant: Mikhailovna - Mikha[ln]a. Middle namesYakovlevich, Alexandrovichusually pronounced as , . The forms of patronymics [sanych’] and [san:ъ], [palych’] and [pal:нъ] are colloquial and are used only in informal communication situations.

In rarely used patronymics and in official speech, the indicated contractions of vowels and whole syllables have recently been perceived as disrespectful. In this regard, it is desirable to have a more complete pronunciation of patronymics in - Eevna, -evna in official speech, and rare patronymics - and in a neutral style of speech: Alekseevna -, Ermolaevna - Ermola [внъ]. The form in -ovich is retained in official speech only in the rarest patronymics: Iosifovich, Olegovich, and in -ovna (-evna) - in all cases: Ivanovna, Igorevna.

Dialectal and vernacular influence on pronunciation

Let's listen to our speech and the speech of those around us. We will notice that in the unstressed position sounds are pronounced that do not always correspond to standard pronunciation. The reason for this is that dialects and vernacular influence the literary language, including pronunciation. The most common deviations from the norm are observed in the following cases.

In the area of ​​vowel pronunciation:

1. 1. The speech of native speakers of the Russian literary language may have deviations in the pronunciation of the first vowel stressed syllable after hard and after soft consonants:

On the territory of the South Russian dialect, in the first unstressed position after hard consonants, in place of [a], [o] and [e], the vowel [a] is pronounced, and not the weakly reduced sounds [D], [ые], characteristic of the literary norm: in [a] ]yes, st[a]kan. In the Kursk-Oryol, Bryansk, Smolensk and some other (including Voronezh) dialects, dissimilative akan is observed, i.e. pronunciation in the indicated position of a vowel close to [ы] or [ъ], for example: st[ъ]kan , d[b]rog.

In modern Moscow vernacular, a long vowel can be pronounced in the first pre-stressed syllable if the word has two or more pre-stressed syllables. In this case, in the second pre-stressed syllable the vowel is reduced to zero sound, due to which the vowel of the first pre-stressed syllable is lengthened: behind the gate [name: mouth], treated [pl'i:ch'il'i]. Researchers of modern Moscow vernacular also note a strong reduction in the first pre-stressed syllable: was [blah], said [said], passed[proshl’i].

Instead of the normative weakly reduced sound [D] in the first pre-stressed syllable (and other unstressed syllables), the sound [o] may also be preserved, i.e., okanye, characteristic of Northern Russian dialects, is noted. On the territory of the Voronezh region, a sound close to [o] can be pronounced by people associated with Ukrainian dialects, where there is also no reduction: [good], , [road].

After soft consonants in the first pre-stressed syllable in a literary language, in place of the sounds [a], [e], [o] is pronounced [ie]: [l'iegu'shk]. Under the influence of southern Russian dialects, some words have a dialect sound ['a], i.e. yakan: [l'agushk'], [z'iavl'en'iy]. In the territory of the Northern Russian dialect (north of Moscow), it is possible to pronounce [e], i.e. ekanye, reflecting the influence of Northern Russian dialects: [l’egushk’], [zhelat’].

1. In place of the stressed sound [a] can be pronounced [o] and vice versa: p[o]tit, upla[o]cheno, v[o]rit, as well as l[a]vish, l[a]vit, etc.

In the area of ​​pronunciation of consonants:

Many deviations from the pronunciation norm are observed in the area of ​​consonants. Let us note the most common phenomena:

1. In the territory of the southern Russian dialect, the fricative sound [g] has become widespread: city - [g]ord, genius - eny. It is used not only in dialect speech and vernacular. The speech of the intelligentsia is not free from this sound. In the stun position (at the end of words) [x] is pronounced: brain - mo[sx], snow - dream[x].
2. Speakers of the Russian literary language, whose origin is connected with the southern Russian territory (Ukrainian dialects), may not experience deafening of voiced consonants at the end of words: kolho[z], goro[d].
3. Replacing [f] with [x] or [xv]: ko[x]ta, [xv]izika. It is possible to pronounce [f] instead of [xv]: [f]atit, [f]ast.
4. In some words, colloquial pronunciation with dissimilation of consonants is fixed, for example: lab[l]atory, ko[l]idor, tra[n]vay, bo[n]ba, [l]regular. The influence of vernacular is also noted in the pronunciation of words with intervocalic [v]: radi[v]o, like [a]vo, as well as hard [p]: sk[ry]p, g[ry]by, k[rynka] .
5. Pronunciation with hard labial and labiodental consonants at the end of words and in imperative verbs before the postfix is ​​widespread - those : se[m], golu[n], prepared[f]; fill up, get ready, get to know each other.
6. Pronunciation of consonant groups with simplification is allowed only in informal speech; in formal communication situations, such simplification is a violation of the norms: speed - soon[s’], life - zhi[s’].

In the field of morphology:

Let us note some features in the pronunciation of word forms that are caused by the influence of dialect speech and vernacular:

1. Pronunciation [t’] instead of [t] at the endings of 3rd person singular verbs and plural present tense, for example: will do [t’], will do [t’], say [t’], say [t’].
2. Pronunciation of the fricative [g] at the end of adjectives male genitive singular: red[g]o, public[g]o.
3. Pronunciation of the postfix -sya after vowel sounds like [s’a]: bathed [s’a], met [s’a].

Options due to the age of native speakers of the Russian literary language

In modern Russian pronunciation, some features are determined by the age of native speakers of the Russian literary language. Let us note the most common of them:

1. zzh, zhzh not at the junction of morphemes in the speech of older people they are pronounced as a soft long [zh:']: e[zh:']u, dro[zh:']i, vo[zh:']i, po[zh:']e . The younger and middle generation, as a rule, pronounce a solid long [zh:]: e[zh:]u, dro[zh:]i, vo[zh:]i, po[zh:]e.
2. In the speech of the younger generation, there is a tendency towards the loss of assimilative softening of consonants: to bo[mb']e, a[mb']itsiya, ra[z']e, ko[s']etics, vo[zl']e, e[ sl']i, etc.
3. After sizzling and ts in the first pre-stressed syllable in the speech of the older generation, the sound [ye] is pronounced: zh[ye]let, zh[ye]ket, zh[ye]smin, twenty[ye]ti, losh[ye]dey; the younger generation prefers to pronounce here the sound [D] that is common in the literary language: zh[D]let, losh[D]dey.

Orthoepic norms- These are pronunciation norms of oral speech. They are studied by a special section of linguistics - orthoepy. Maintaining consistency in pronunciation is important. Spelling errors make it difficult to perceive the content of speech, and pronunciation that corresponds to spelling norms makes it easier and accelerates the process of communication.
Features of the pronunciation of vowel sounds in the Russian language.

The main feature of Russian literary pronunciation in the area of ​​vowels is their different sound in stressed and unstressed syllables with the same spelling. In unstressed syllables, vowels are reduced.

Reduction(lat. reduce abbreviate) is a linguistic term denoting a change in the sound characteristics of speech elements felt by the human ear, caused by their unstressed position in relation to other stressed elements.

There are two types of reduction – quantitative (when the length and strength of the sound decreases) and qualitative (when the sound itself changes in the unstressed position). Vowels in the 1st pre-stressed syllable undergo less reduction, and more in all other syllables. The vowels [a], [o], [e] are subject to both quantitative and qualitative reduction in unstressed syllables; The vowels [i], [s], [u] do not change their quality in unstressed syllables, but partially lose their duration.

1. Vowels in the 1st pre-stressed syllable:

a) after hard consonants, in place of o and a, a weakened sound [a] is pronounced: in [a] yes, n[a] ga, M[a]skva, s[a]dy, z[a]bor; after the hard hissing zh and sh, in place of a and o, a weakened sound [a] is also pronounced: zh[a]ra, zh[a]ngler, sh[a]gi, sh[a]fer.

b) after the hard hissing w, sh and c, in place of e, a reduced sound like [s] with an overtone [e] is pronounced, conventionally designated [ые]: zh[ye]na, sh[ye]ptat, ts[ye]luy;

c) after soft consonants in place of the letters i and e, as well as after soft hissing ch and shch in place a, a weakened sound [i] with an overtone [e] is pronounced, conventionally designated [ie]: m[ie]snoy, R[ie ]zan, m[ie]sti, ch[ie]sy, sh[ie]dit, as well as in the plural forms of the word area: area[ie]day, area[ie]dyam, etc.;

2. Vowels in other unstressed syllables:

a) at the absolute beginning of a word, in place of the letters a and o, a weakened sound [a] is always pronounced: [a] watermelon: [a] knó, [a] car, [a] deflection;

b) after hard consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the 1st pre-stressed syllable, in place of a and o a reduced sound is pronounced, average in sound between [a] and [ы], short in duration, conventionally designated [ъ]: g[ъ] lova, k[b]randash, apple[b]k[b];

c) after soft consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the 1st pre-stressed syllable, in place of a/ya and e, a reduced one is pronounced, average in sound between [i] and [e], short in duration, designated conventionally [b]: [p' b]tachok, [l'j]sorub, you[n'j]su, h[b]lovek.

3. The vowel and at the beginning of the root after a prefix or preposition ending in hard consonants is pronounced as [s]:

with whom are you returning from the institute - and [y]institute, with Igor - [with] grief; maintaining [and] in this position and softening the consonant before it is a regional feature of pronunciation and does not correspond to the norm.

4. Stressed vowel sounds in place of e and e. Difficulties arise in the pronunciation of a number of words due to the indistinguishability of the letters e and e in printed text, because to denote them, only the letter e is used. Therefore, it is recommended to remember two rows of words:

a) with the letter e, in the place of which it sounds [e]: scam, spineless, bluff, being, icy conditions, firebrand, grenadier, stout, life, alien, procession of the cross (but godfather), guardianship, sedentary (settled life), successor , successor, surveillance, modern, yoke, barley, etc.;

b) with the letter е, in its place it sounds [o]: hopeless, veder, engraver, bile (permissible bile), bilious (permissible bile), mockery, traveling salesman, priest (but priest), maneuvers, mercenary, convicted, brought in , translated, brought, sturgeon, fable, laid down, brought, brought, obscene, scrupulous, belt, smart, tesha, fur (coarse-haired), etc.

In some pairs of words different meaning accompanied by different sounds of the stressed vowel [o] or [e]: expired (term) - expired (blood), catechumen (shouting like a catechumen) - catechumen (decree), perfect (singing) - perfect (opening).

In some cases, entire syllables, words, and sentences may be subject to reduction. For example, Russian “hello” > fast [pret], now > [right now], person > [cheek], girl > [deushka].

One of the most noticeable words subject to significant changes when pronounced fluently is the greeting “hello” ([ˈzdra.stvuj.tʲɪ]), which is universally shortened to “hello” [ˈzdra.sʲtʲɪ] or even “draste” [ˈdra.sʲtʲɪ] . Some common examples:

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These are the rules for pronunciation of vowels and consonants.

The pronunciation norms of the modern Russian literary language have evolved over centuries, changing. So, for example, in Ancient Rus' the entire population who spoke Russian was Okala, i.e. pronounced the sound [o] not only under stress, but also in unstressed syllables (similar to how this happens today in the dialects of the North and Siberia: in [o] yes, d[o] va, p[o] I’m going etc.). However, okanye did not become the norm of the national Russian literary language. What prevented this? Changes in the composition of the Moscow population. Moscow in the XVI-XVIII centuries. accepted many people from the southern provinces and absorbed features of southern Russian pronunciation, in particular akanye: in [a] yes, d[a] va, p[a] I’m coming. And this happened just at the time when the solid foundations of a single literary language were being laid.

Since Moscow and subsequently St. Petersburg were the capitals of the Russian state, centers of economic, political and cultural life in Russia, it so happened that the literary pronunciation was based on Moscow pronunciation, on which some features of St. Petersburg were subsequently “layered.”

To successfully master orthoepic norms you need:

1) learn the basic rules of Russian literary pronunciation;

2) learn to listen to your speech and the speech of others;

3) listen and study exemplary literary pronunciation, which should be mastered by radio and television announcers, masters of literary expression;

4) consciously compare your pronunciation with the exemplary one, analyze your mistakes and shortcomings;

5) correct mistakes through constant speech training in preparation for public speaking.

The complete style is characterized by:

1) compliance with the requirements of orthoepic standards;

2) clarity and distinctness of pronunciation;

3) correct placement of verbal and logical stress;

4) at a moderate pace;

5) correct speech pauses;

6) neutral intonation.

With an incomplete pronunciation style, the following is observed:

1) excessive abbreviation of words, loss of consonants and whole syllables, for example: shchas (now), thousand (thousand), kilogram of tomato(kilograms of tomatoes), etc.;

2) unclear pronunciation of individual sounds and combinations;

3) inconsistent pace of speech, unwanted pauses.

If in everyday speech these features of pronunciation are acceptable, then in public speaking they must be avoided.

Some difficult cases of pronunciation of vowels and consonants

Pronunciation of vowel sounds

In the pronunciation of a number of words like scam, guardianship, grenadier, fur, faded and so on. Difficulties arise due to the indistinguishability of the letters e/e in printed text, since only one graphic symbol is used to denote them - e. This situation leads to a distortion of the phonetic appearance of the word and causes frequent pronunciation errors.

List of words with stressed vowel [e]:

af e ra

breve started

being

head

holole ditsa

potted

grenada r

single-, foreign-, single-, tribal (but: multi-, multi-tribal)

hagiography

expired (year); but: drained (blood)

Kiev-Pechersk Lavra

perplexed

guardianship

ose long

produced

List of words with stressed vowel [o]:

bl damn

why lie; iron (additional [zhe])

same forehead

oblivion

manyo vr; manyo fidelity

nothing much

eponymous

tip

named

tenyo ta

lye

1. In some words of foreign origin in place unstressed spelling "o" instead of a sound close in pronunciation to [a], the sound [o] is pronounced: beau monde, trio, boa, cocoa, biostimulant, advice note, oasis, reputation. Pronunciation of the words poetry, credo, etc. with unstressed [o] is optional. Proper names of foreign origin also retain unstressed [o] as a variant of literary pronunciation: Chopin, Voltaire, etc.

Pronunciation of consonants

According to Old Moscow norms, the spelling combination -chn- was pronounced as [shn] in the words bulo cheap, deliberate, cheap, trifling, creamy, apple etc. Currently, the pronunciation [shn] has been preserved only in some words: horse chno, boring, egg, eyeglass, mustard, trifling, birdhouse, girlish. In the vast majority of other words, in place of the letter combination -chn- is pronounced [ch’n]: igrushe chalky, creamy, apple, snack, glass etc. In addition, according to the norms of the Russian literary language, the letter combination -chn- has always been pronounced and is pronounced as [ch’n] in words of book origin, for example: al eternal, eternity, carefree, as well as in words that recently appeared in the Russian language: otli chn ik, camouflage and etc.

The pronunciation [shn] today remains in female patronymics ending in -ichna: Nikiti chn a, Ilyinichna and so on.

The letter combination -ch- in the word that and in its derivatives is pronounced as [pcs]: [pcs] about, something [pcs] about, [pcs] something, not [pcs] about. The word something sounds [ch’t].

Combinations of the letters zhzh and zzh can be pronounced as a long soft sound [zh’zh’] in accordance with the Old Moscow pronunciation: in [zh’zh’] and, dro [zh’zh’] and, later - by [zh’zh’] e etc. However, at present, soft [zh’zh’] in such words is being replaced by hard [zhzh]: in [zhzh] and, dro [zhzh] and, later - by [zhzh] e etc. Soft long [zh’zh’] is recommended for stage, as well as radio and television speech.

In the pronunciation of the word rain, the variant before predominates [PC'] with persisting but becoming obsolete to [sh’sh’]. In other forms of this word in modern Russian the sound combination [zh’] has been fixed: before [zh’] I, before [zh’] and.

Pronunciation of borrowed words

In the position before the sound [e], denoted in writing by the letter e, both soft and hard consonants are pronounced in borrowed words, for example: detective - [dete] active, academy - aka[d’e] miya.

Lack of softness is often characteristic of dental consonants d, t, z, s, n and consonant r, for example: fo [ne] tika, [re] quiem. However, in borrowed words that have been fully mastered by the Russian language, these consonants are pronounced softly in accordance with the tradition of the Russian letter e to denote the softness of the preceding consonant sound: mu ze y, te rmin, shine el and etc.

Remember the pronunciation of the following words!

List of words with soft consonants before E (aka [d'e] mia, [b'er'e] t and etc.):

ah re ssion

Academy Miya

disinfection

de pressia

de kan [d "e] and [de]

de fis

competence

congress ss

museum

Ode ssa

pathe nt

pre ssa

pre ssing

progress ss

se yf

service

se ssia [s "e] and [se]

those rmin

federal

the bus

express ss

jurisprudence

List of words with firmly pronounced consonants before E (a [de] pt, [dete] rminism and etc.):

A de quatny

antise bird

ate ism

business s, business change n

sandwich

degradation

de qualification

décolleté

de cor

de mping

dete rminism

dispensary

indexation

computer

conse nsus

mene jer (additional [m "ene])

nonce nose

desk

pretentious

producer r

protection

rating

requiem

stre ss

those zis

those ICBMs

those mp

trend

thermos

extrase ns

energy

P.S. In borrowed words starting with the prefixes de- before vowels, dez-, as well as in the first part of complex words starting with neo-, with a general tendency towards softening, fluctuations in the pronunciation of soft and hard din are observed:

devaluation [d"e and de]

disinformation [d"e and de]

neocolonialism [neo and additional. n"eo]

IN foreign-language proper names recommended solid pronunciation consonants before e: De Cartes, Flouber, "De Cameron", Rembrandt and etc.

Hard [sh] is pronounced in the words parachute [shu], brochure [shu]. In the word jury it is pronounced soft hissing [w"]. The names Julien and Jules are also pronounced softly.

1. When pronouncing some foreign words, erroneous extra consonants or vowels sometimes appear. Should be pronounced:

   incident (not incident[n] dent)

   precedent (not precedent)

   dermatin (not dermatin)

   compromise (not compromise)

   competitive (not competitive [n] capable)

   emergency (not w[e] emergency)

   institution (not an institution)

   future (not future)

   thirsty (not thirsty)

INTRODUCTION

The collection of exercises represents the first part of the educational and methodological complex for the course “Russian language and culture of speech”, developed in accordance with the State educational standards higher professional education of the second generation (2000) for students of non-philological specialties.

The tasks included in the collection are aimed at mastering the norms of the Russian language, taking into account the dynamics of language processes, at developing and consolidating skills and abilities correct speech that does not contain errors or any deviations from currently existing orthoepic, lexical, grammatical (both morphological and syntactic) norms. Each section is preceded by a brief summary of reference and theoretical material, which contributes to the successful completion of the exercises. In addition, some training tasks also come with reference instructions and examples of implementation. The normative aspect of speech culture is presented in the exercises along with aspects of language and speech variability, while it is assumed that the choice of a possible option should not only be based on knowledge of the norm, but also be determined by the characteristics of the communication situation and communicative expediency. At the same time, the task of improving spelling and punctuation literacy is being implemented.

Thus, the main goal of the set of exercises is to improve the culture of both oral and written speech.

The collection is intended for practical classes for the course “Russian language and culture of speech” and for independent work of students.

CULTURE OF SPEECH AND LANGUAGE NORMS

Exercise 1. Write down 3-4 definitions of speech culture from textbooks and teaching aids. Analyze and comment on them. How do the concepts of “speech culture” and “correct speech”, “good speech” relate?

Exercise 2. Analyzing the definitions of a language norm given below, write down the specific features inherent in it.

1. Language norm(literary norm) - these are the rules of use speech means in a certain period of development of the literary language, i.e. the rules of pronunciation, word usage, the use of traditionally established grammatical, stylistic and other linguistic means accepted in social and linguistic practice. This is a uniform, exemplary, generally accepted use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).

(L.A. Vvedenskaya, L.G. Pavlova, E.Yu. Kashaeva. Russian language and culture of speech)

2. Norm- this is a set of language means that are most suitable (“correct”, “preferred”) for serving society, emerging as a result of the selection of linguistic elements (lexical, pronunciation, morphological, syntactic) from among coexisting, present, newly formed or extracted from the passive stock of the past in the process of social, in a broad sense, assessment of these elements.

(S. Ozhegov. Dictionary of the Russian language)

SPELLING NORMS

Orthoepy- this is a set of pronunciation norms of a language that ensure the uniformity of its sound design. They include rules for pronunciation of sounds and rules for placing stress. The branch of linguistics that studies pronunciation (orthoepic) norms, which is also called orthoepy.

Pronunciation of vowels and consonants

In accordance with orthoepic standards vowel sounds in unstressed syllables they are reduced, that is, they change their quality, reduce the length and strength of the sound. To a lesser extent, the reduction affects the sounds [i], [s], [u].

Consonants They can also change their quality: voiced words at the end of words and before deaf ones become deafened, deaf ones before voiced words become voiced. In addition, in combinations of some consonants, the preceding sound may be similar to the subsequent one, or may not be pronounced.

Exercise 3. Pronounce the words correctly. Comment on their pronunciation. Write out the words with missing letters by inserting them.

a) pl...tit, rastam...live, pat...logoanatom, h...sy, d...rye, p...grater, x...r...sho, b...rem, small...vato, d...tey;

b) blood, eight, spoon, talk, frost, money, who, without legs, without roads, dirt, s...yes, god;

c) star...ny, hello...six, subscribe...chik, interrupt...chik, man, holiday, happiness, and...chase, report...chik, feeling, sympathize...be...noisy.

Exercise 4. In which words after hissing words should the sound [a] be pronounced, in which words should the sound be close to [s] or [i]? Check the correctness of your answers using a spelling dictionary.

Roast, pity, jacket, horses, spare, champagne, naughty, tea, teahouse, Charleston, watchmaker, sorrel, enchanting.

Exercise 5. In which words are unstressed vowels in place of the letter O pronounced without reduction? Check your answers with the dictionary data .

Poetess, oasis, boa, radio, adagio, beau monde, piano, sonnet, highway, dossier, glass, fiasco, Chopin, Schopenhauer.

Exercise 6. Distribute the words into two groups in accordance with the pronunciation [ch"n], [ch"t] or [shn], [pcs] in place of the letter combinations CHT, CHN. Underline the words in which both pronunciation options are acceptable.

Of course, boring, poor student, bachelorette party, Ilyinichna, hat, bakery, something, heartily, nothing, laundry, candlestick, apple, on purpose, maid, scrambled eggs, birdhouse.

Exercise 7. Partially using phonetic transcription(see sample implementation), one by one write down words in which there is a consonant before the sound indicated by the letter E

a) pronounced firmly;

b) pronounced softly;

c) can be pronounced both hard and soft.

Complete each group with your own examples.

Sample execution:

a) ko[de]ks, s[te]nd, ...

b) ka[t"e]t, [s"e]ria, ...

c) kri[te]riy - add. kri[t"e]riy…

Aggression, sandwich, pool, brunette, ninety, dean, demarche, denomination, depression, detective, dispensary, display, congress, consensus, container, context, confidential, correct, credo, cream, laser, mademoiselle, manager, head waiter, bad manners, model, neurosurgeon, travel bag, Odessa, patent, printer, press, claim, producer, patronage, regression, registry, resume, Rhine, Rembrandt, reputation, Renoir, sequester, Saint Bernard, Seneca, Saint Laurent, session, sonnet, stress, tempo, therapeutic, term, terrorism, Teflon, Freudianism, overcoat, energy, jurisprudence.

Exercise 8. Write down one by one the words in which the letter E is in place of the highlighted letter:

a) the sound [e] or close to [e] is pronounced,

b) the sound [o] is pronounced

c) both pronunciation options are acceptable.

Fill in the missing letters where necessary. What spelling rule did you have to remember? Formulate it.

Akush e r, af e ra, bl e ugly, hopeless e gentle, ber e hundred, grenad e p,be e, and e rnov, w e personal, white e n?yy, brought it e n?yy, sat down e n?y, ist e kishy, ​​man e Vra, newborn e n?y, exchange e n?y, embittered e n?yy, op e ka, os e long, immersed e n?y, led e n?yy, brought e n?y, acquired e n?y, tame e n?y, produced e n?yy, done e n?y, clutch e new, deepened e n?y, carried away e n?yy, simplify e n?y, philist e r, ridge e t, chauffeur e R.

Remember!

scam custody maneuvers

skuk[sh]o Fomini[sh]a not [what]o

Accent

Accent- highlighting a syllable in speech using phonetic means- duration, intensity. In Russian the accent is free(falls on any syllable of a word), maybe mobile(in forms of the same word it falls either on the stem or on the ending), and maybe fixed(in all forms of one word it falls on the same part of them).

Stress can vary forms one and the same words(n O gi and legs And) And different by lexical meaning words(h A mok and deputy O To).

A special branch of linguistics studies the nature and functioning of stress - accentology.

Exercise 9. Place emphasis on words. Note the cases of variant stress.

Agent, alphabet, anatomist, arrest, pampered, pamper, religion, exorbitant prices, gas, gastronomy, citizenship, genesis, hospital, load, gas pipeline, dispensary, contract, leisure, driven, doze, regular, frosted, clogged, rusted, sign, jagged, spoiled, invention, industry, spark, exhaust, catalog, quarter, whooping cough, combiner, prettier, flint, cooking, kitchen, kilometer, hunk, begin, obituary, oil pipeline, promised, facilitate, encourage, wholesale, pizzeria, sealed, seal, fable, funeral, sentence, force, produced, beets, carpenter, means, meatballs, deepen, deceased, phenomenon, chaos, owners, cement, gypsy, driver, sorrel, expert, exalted.

Exercise 10. Form nouns from these verbs using a suffix -(e)niy- and a zero suffix. Place the stress in the resulting pairs of words .

Execution sample. Strengthen - strengthening; call - call

Provide, intercede, convene, concentrate, intend, normalize, reward, think.

Exercise 11. Group words into two columns, selecting pairs for them in accordance with the stress function:

a) form-distinguishing;

b) meaningful.

Execution sample.

a) p at ki (noun, plural) - hands And(R.p., units), ...

b) m at ka - torment A, ...

Atlas, protein, armor, vision, salted, sharpened, games, mugs, love, well done, naked, organ, abyss, immersed, close, cursed, developed, village, coal, ask.

Exercise 12. Select accentological options for the given words and comment on them from the point of view of equality, admissibility, preference for use in a particular area of ​​communication. Complete the list with your own examples.

Chaos, mining, alcohol, phenomenon, barge, cooking, sparkling, meatballs, cottage cheese, loop, chassis, industry.

Exercise 13. From these nouns, form the nominative plural and genitive singular and/or plural forms. Place emphasis.

Reference. As a result of shifting the emphasis from the stem to the ending, the singular and plural forms of the nominative and genitive case of nouns may be opposed.

Execution sample. Port - ports, ports, ports, statement - statements (Name of p. plural and R.p. units) statements (R.p. plural), ...

Bow, bandage, coat of arms, goulash, goose, door, board, rod, tuft, elbow, stem, orphan, cake, unt, manger, sheet, plane, keychain, area.

Exercise 14. Form the short masculine, feminine, neuter and plural forms from these adjectives and participles. Place the emphasis.

Reference. In the feminine forms of short adjectives and participles, the stress may fall on the ending rather than on the stem.

Close, convened, taken, sold, deep, lived, accepted, cheap, young, begun, bright.

Exercise 15. Form the past tense forms of masculine, feminine, neuter and plural from these verbs. Place emphasis on words. What are the features of stress in verbs with a prefix? You-?

Reference. As a rule, in the feminine forms of the past tense of verbs, the stress may fall on the ending ( have taken, But tookA) and not on the base, except for verbs with a stressed prefix.

Take, select, collect, choose; drive, drive, catch up, drive out; give, issue, create, transfer; wait, wait; live, live survive, get rid of; pour, spill, fill, pour out; take, tear, lie, understand.

Exercise 16(control and repetition). Copy by inserting missing letters, opening parentheses and placing punctuation marks. Place emphasis on the highlighted words. Explain the pronunciation of sounds in place of missing and highlighted letters .

I.1. There's a procurator here got up from the chair...shaped his head with his hands and on a yellowish e G horror was expressed about the shaved face. 2. But he ( immediately ) under…vil e G about my own will and without exception ve sank into a chair. 3. Thus, to the death penalty which must be carried out... Xia With… G one day three robbers were talking V . 4. The first two taken from battle by Roman power. 5. The last ones captured monthly power and condemned...we Sanhedrin. 6. It was all over and there was more to say ( n.../about/what ). Ha-Nozri left ( on )Always and the terrible evil pains of the procurator (n...) there is no one to relieve them Wednesday d stva except death. 7. He ( That )hour tried...to explain it...and the explanation...was terrible...it seemed vague to the procurator h then he G o (then) (n...) agreed with convicted , or maybe I listened to something (n...)to the end. 8. And two years ago d started in the apartment (n...)about...filmed incidents...processions from this apartment people started without... trace and... scratch. 9. - How? Even after my G O petitions ? Petitions That G In whose person does Roman power speak?

(M. Bulgakov)

II. 1. There were many shadows, and one of them was darker and denser than the others. swam faster and lower with... eraser she fell from a piece of cloud that floated closer to z…later than others. (Gorky). 2. It also gave her great pleasure...to see the city's toy... chn oh la...ki. 3. In order to appease the girls’ father, the boy took with him a couple of apples, a sweet feast, a handful of nuts V . (Gr.). 4. Once upon a time in Russia it’s true lived the sad...sad young generation who smiled at the summer, the sea and the sun...and chose " Pe psi". 5. Adventure experience in the Moscow Region, ok...there was a beneficial effect on Tatarsko’s professional...abilities G O. 6. Sc e Naria and K O n ts ep ts and they began to d...at Xia he (needs) a lot of le G what about tagline for “Parliament” Pugin even gave a (n...) large advance. About e ct Tatarsko G about the light background was completely (opposite) the young face of marked (n...) knowledge... sch Astyem white tutu with le G with those s...l...those letters and text. A job that pr…n…powered the main money was boring chn but it’s a burden... and perhaps even shameful. Remaining chn 1st Literature Center zmeditors and publishers... still gave holy... and meager little fruits (Pelev.).

GRAMMAR STANDARDS

Grammar- the study of the grammatical system of a language - is divided into morphology and syntax. Morphology studies the grammatical forms of words belonging to the main grammatical classes, syntax- grammatical forms of basic syntactic units - phrases and sentences. Grammatical word classes- these are parts of speech, classified in accordance with the principle of their changeability/immutability by gender, number, cases, persons, moods, tenses and on the basis of their syntactic properties.

Grammar rules accordingly include norms morphological(rules for the formation and use of word forms) and syntactic(rules for the construction and use of syntactic units).

MORPHOLOGICAL STANDARDS

Noun

Exercise 17. If possible, match these nouns with masculine or feminine nouns that are correlative to them in meaning. With each of the paired nouns, make up sentences that could be used: a) in an official business communication situation, b) in everyday communication.

Reference. Nouns naming a person by profession, position, rank and forming gender pairs ( seller - saleswoman), are stylistically differentiated: masculine nouns are used in book styles of speech.

Lawyer, graduate student, ballerina, bachelor, accountant, doctor, general, geologist, director, doctor, speaker, inspector, manicurist, typist, candidate master, cashier, manager, Researcher, seller, teacher, investigator, hairdresser, teacher, champion, surgeon.

Exercise 18. Make up phrases by matching the noun groups A, B adjectives, to noun groups IN- past tense verbs. What were you guided by when choosing definitions for indeclinable noun?

A. Veil, parcel, vanilla, potato, roofing felt, tulle, corn, shampoo, aerosol, moth, beans, pemoxol, ammonia, gimp, migraine, mouse.

B. Attache, croupier, vis-a-vis, lady, sconce, meringue, kiwi, coffee, cocoa, communique, embargo, kangaroo, pony, salami, protégé, show, zero, mango, somersault, chimpanzee, Porsche, Tartu, Batumi, Tokyo, Congo, Dovzhenko, Kurosawa, Vaikule, L'Humanite, Daily Telegraph, Aragvi, Medeo.

IN. Ministry of Internal Affairs, UES, Navy, tank car, business education, invoice, solo bill, Ministry of Finance, CIS, NEP, FIDE, PE, FSB, IMF, AIDS, UN, Moscow Ring Road, Moscow State University.

Exercise 19. Form and write down the singular forms of the nominative case of these nouns, indicating their gender. What words have generic variants?

Execution sample. Rails - rail (m. r.); shutters - shutter (m.r.) and shutter (f.r.).

Sandals, boots, sneakers, slippers, shoes, clips, boots, dumplings, bunches, shoulder straps, rails, knees, knees, keys, shutters, flippers, banknotes, cuffs, adjustments, epaulettes, dahlias, knee socks.

Number

Exercise 20. Form and write down the plural forms of the nominative case of nouns, highlight the endings. Underline the nouns that have stylistically equivalent variants of this form. Write down these options.

Execution sample. Officer - officers; city - city; tenor - rounds, tenors.

Director, doctor, contract, admission, instructor, professor, engineer, accountant, editor, boat, cake, choice, bill of exchange, handwriting, stamp, passport, body, month, sector, sniper, anchor, vacation, broker, admission, port, report, mechanic, warrant, spotlight, proofreader, tone, body, pass, tractor, driver, rector, lecturer, sweater.

Exercise 21. Form the genitive plural form of these nouns.

Boots, felt boots, socks, stockings, trousers; apples, oranges, eggplants, tomatoes, tomatoes; Armenians, Georgians, Bashkirs, Tatars, Kyrgyz, Mongols; soldiers, partisans, hussars, grenadiers, miners, sappers; grams, kilograms, amperes, watts, arshins; rails, adjustments, carats, glasses, sheets, shafts, fathoms, skittles, mangers, twilight, everyday life, estates, nannies, waffles.

Case

Exercise 22. Complete the endings of the nouns, choosing them taking into account the use of these phrases a) in everyday everyday conversation; b) in an official business conversation.

A kilogram of sugar..., a tank of gasoline..., a lot of people..., a batch of cognac..., a little snow..., add heat..., buy tobacco..., brew tea..., put cottage cheese..., take bromine..., lose sight..., choke on the smoke..., take out of the forest..., come out from the rear....

Exercise 23. Add endings to the nouns. Motivate your choice.

Meet in the workshop..., earn money for the garden..., be on vacation..., stand in the snow..., get lost in the smoke..., sit in a circle..., infuse honey..., cash in on alcohol..., understand the cha..., slip on glue..., live in the forest...

Remember!

Exercise 24. Form oblique cases of these nouns.

Chef, corresponding member, test pilot, major general, alpha rays, gram-mass, raw cotton, single mother, invoice, partner company, business center, bank-mortgage, holding- company, novel-newspaper, rocking chair.

Remember!

Along the Moscow River

On a raincoat

In a pay phone

Adjective

Exercise 25. Form short forms of these adjectives and write down the resulting pairs, inserting missing letters where necessary.

Insensitive, numerous, painful, related, slow, characteristic, majestic, selfish, friendly, ignorant.

Remember!

Exercise 26. Form all possible forms of degrees of comparison for these adjectives and write them down.

Business, dry, sonorous, important, thin, thin, young, sharp, coffee-colored, striped, deep, super-powerful, intelligent, capable, unique, beautiful.

Remember!

Numeral

At declination complex and compound numerals According to cases, all their constituent parts and components change.

Collective numerals have limited lexical compatibility.

Numerals one hundred, forty, ninety, one and a half, one and a half hundred have only two case forms: one hundred - one hundred, forty - forty, ninety - ninety, one and a half - one and a half, one and a half hundred - one and a half hundred. However, as part of complex numerals one hundred forms other case forms.

Exercise 27. Write the numbers in words. Decline the numerals.

142, 579, 864, 1423.

Exercise 28. Rewrite, replacing numbers with words.

1. Subtract 165 from 997. 2. The village is located only 1.5 km from the regional center. 3. Every month the library is replenished with 150-200 publications. 4. The difference between 186 and 73 is 113. 5. Add 791 to 542. 6. The distance between the cities is more than 2300 kilometers.

Remember!

Exercise 27. From the nouns below, select those that cannot or are not desirable to be combined with collective numerals. Make up phrases with them using the “cardinal number + noun” model. With the remaining nouns, make up phrases using the model “collective numeral (two, three, four, etc.) + noun.”

Reference. As a rule, feminine nouns and nouns denoting animals are not combined with collective numerals.

Man, student, professor, glove, horse, kitten, citizen, employee, Muscovite, newspaper, sleigh, soldier, chick, mayor, glasses, sister, son.

Exercise 30. Complete the phrases by adding collective numbers both, both in the required form.

Rings on... hands, on... river banks, hope for... sons, love... sisters, quarrel with... girlfriends, be friends with... students.

Remember!

Both daughters

About both daughters

On both banks

Verb

Parallel temporary forms verbs may vary semantic and stylistic shades.

Exercise 31. Form groups from verbs A forms of the 3rd person singular present - simple future tense; and from verbs of the group B- masculine past tense forms. If there are parallel forms, explain their specificity.

A. Splash, move, drip, wave, splash, whine, purr.

B. Freeze, dry up, dry up, come running, get stronger, get wet, wither, sour, disappear.

Exercise 32. Choose forms of the imperative mood of verbs that correspond to the norms of the modern Russian language.

1. Read/read the text and correct/correct your mistakes. 2. By August 15th, exhibit/exhibit samples of your factory’s products. 3. Empty/empty the contents of the packet into boiling water. 4. Notify/notify about receipt of the transfer. 5. Drip/pour 10 drops of medicine into a glass. 6. Clean/clean your boots.

Remember!

Participle

Imperfect participles formed using suffixes -and I from imperfective verbs, perfect participles- using suffixes -v, -lice from perfective verbs.

Participles with suffixes -V And - lice (-shi) can be opposed stylistically.

Exercise 33. Form participles from these verbs. Which of them do not form participles?

Search, find, notice, run, meet, put, write, give, wear, walk, agree, forgive, forgive, answer, sing, salt.

Exercise 34. Form perfect participles from these verbs. What verbs do not form gerunds?

Rinse, wait, sing, run, delete, write, lengthen, salt, correspond, respond, lock, lock, save, look back, receive, take away, eat, name, win, eat, notice, take, agree, forgive.

Participle

Participles, formed from reflexive verbs, denote a sign of an object (person), which is both the subject and the object of the action for which the sign is named.

Exercise 35. Determine from which verbs these participles are formed. What is the difference in the meanings of the participles that make up the pairs? Make up a phrase or sentence with each participle.

Treating - being treated; biting - biting; guiding - guiding, using - being used; unfastening - unfastening.

Remember!

Outstanding scientists

Difficulties encountered

Memorable Events

Adverb

Exercise 36. Mark the adverbs that correspond to the literary norm. Make sentences with them.

Always - always; in half - in half; from there - from there; here - here; tam - tama; in vain - in vain; instead - instead; behind - behind; from the side - from the side.

SYNTAX NORMES

Collocation

Collocation- is a connection of two or more significant words based on the subordinating relationship of agreement, control or adjacency.

At management the main word of the phrase requires the placement of the dependent word in a certain case. In synonymous phrases main words (single root or similar in meaning) usually “control” different cases.

Coordination - subordinating connection, in which the dependent component of the phrase is formally likened to the main one, for example, takes the form of the same case and number.

Exercise 37. Make up phrases using the words given through // as the main words, and the words from brackets as dependent words, putting them in the required case (case-prepositional) form.

Pay // pay // pay (travel, purchase); confidence // faith (victory, success); worry // miss (parents, children, relatives); characteristic // review // review (film, article, device, student); put on // put on (suit, tie, child, sister); superiority // advantage (they, opponent); concern // concern // worry (loved ones, health, expenses); order // order // contract (delivery, transportation, pension).

Exercise 38. Correct the mistakes made in the use of case-prepositional forms. Mark the cases where they are used correctly.

I. Explain the reasons for closing the enterprise; talk about the capabilities of the team; prove that data re-checking is necessary; indicate available advantages; to say that this problem is also relevant for our region.

II. According to the orders of the chief; contrary to guidelines, due to successful performance; due to insufficient evidence; failure due to poor organization.

III. Confidence for tomorrow; monitoring the progress of treatment; student-oriented conversation; introduce this; preparation for exams.

Remember!

Exercise 39. Make up phrases using homogeneous control words from the column on the left and dependent words from the column on the right. In what cases does each of the control words require its own case form of the noun?

Exercise 40. Find and fix management errors.

1. He knew and managed the enterprise well. 2. We understand and sympathize with you. 3. Trusts plan and develop relationships. 4. You must report and take strict action. 5. They found out and are preparing for the conference.

Exercise 41. Put the adjectives given in brackets in the correct case form.

Two (faithful) friends, three (talented) athletes, four (illustrated) magazines, two (western) regions, three (dispatched) carriages, four (completed) tasks.

Offer

Offer- a grammatically and intonationally designed unit of speech, which is a means of forming, expressing and communicating thoughts.

Main members of the proposal- subject and predicate - characterized by grammatical and semantic consistency.

Participle and verb, to which it refers, denote actions the same subject. Therefore, those sentences with participial phrase(gerunds), in which either there is no “full-fledged” subject of the actions called the verbal form-predicate and gerunds, or the subjects of these actions do not coincide.

Exercise 42. Match the predicate with the subject. Justify the choice of one form or another of the predicate.

I. In the last half of the year (to arrive) 21 trains with oil. 15 people (pass) the exams with excellent marks. 31 students of our faculty (participate) in the experiment. 141 people (answer) the survey questions. 16 schoolchildren (receive) 1st degree diplomas.

II. Successfully (develop) livestock and crop production in the region. The knowledge and experience of experts (help) understand this problem. Arrhythmia, angina, coronary artery disease (retreat) if you undergo this treatment.

III. A number of regions (to refuse) subsidies. Most enterprises (increase) production of products of this profile. Only part of the shareholders will vote for such a decision. Several European countries (offer) to open an account in their banks.

IV. The engineer (to prepare) the project on time. Doctor Ivanova (define) the diagnosis. Courier Masha (deliver) mail. The compere (announce) the next number. Maestro (to create) a new masterpiece.

Exercise 43. Find and correct errors related to the use of gerunds.

1. Turning off the tap, the flow of gas will immediately stop. 2. Having learned about the train delay, I was overcome with anxiety. 3. If you fail to fulfill the terms of the agreement, sanctions will be applied to you. 4. No one knows what happened that day, destroying the trust between them. 5. Trying to establish the reasons for the short supply of building materials, we had to turn to special data. 6. With this information, there is no need to make additional calculations. 7. After speaking at the meeting, the employee was fired.

Exercise 44.(control and repetition). Write it down by opening the brackets and putting words from them in the required form. Fill in the missing letters and add punctuation.

I. 1. According to (law) according to (custom), one of these two criminals will need to be released in honor of the great Easter holiday coming today (Bulg.). 2. But thanks to his (screams), the anxiety was transmitted to the (120) room (Bulg.). 3. Contrary to (predictions) of my companion, the weather cleared (Lerm.). 4. However, the meeting that had gathered today was of a completely different kind: it was formed (as) a consequence of... (necessity) (Gog.). 5. In Elena’s room, thanks to (thick curtains), it was almost dark (Kupr.). 6. Dubrovsky […] decided, contrary to (all concepts) about the right of war, to teach his captives a lesson with rods (Pushk.). 7. Then the procurator realized that the Roman infantry was already leaving according to his (order) (Bulg.).

II. 1. Oh gods, my gods, (poison) to me, (poison)!... 2. I went for a swim on the (Moscow River). 3. I myself would drink (tea) with pleasure on the balcony this (hour). 4. “Give me (Narzan),” Berlioz asked. “(Narzan) isn’t there,” answered the woman in the booth and for some reason she was offended. 5. Now the regent put a clearly unnecessary pince-nez on his nose. 6. The brunette sat down in a chair and Bassoon then dumped a whole pile of (shoes) on the carpet in front of her. The brunette took off her... right... (shoes). 7. Bassoon […] handed the citizen two pairs of silk (stockings). 8. As a result (this) the results for (both) parties are always the same. 9. The hippopotamus cut a piece (pineapple) and ate it with salt and pepper. 10. I (n...) a little (n...) tired and had a lot of fun at the ball... . 11. Having drunk the third glass (cognac) which on Azazello (n...) produced (n...) what effect the visitor spoke...

(M. Bulgakov).

III. 1. The variety show (to have) great success. 2. The (new) dealer (announce) that there are no more bets. 3. (Beginner) dealer Maria Vasilyevna already (get) approval from management. 4. The winners of the (prestigious) Grand Prix were famous artists. 5. The (competent) jury highly (appreciate) the work of the (young) couturier. 6. (My) counterpart was wearing a luxurious evening dress. 7. (Old) Tbilisi (to amaze) tourists with its mystery.

LEXICAL STANDARDS

Vocabulary- vocabulary of the language. The lexical composition of the language is heterogeneous. It highlights:

By area of ​​use - common vocabulary; vocabulary stylistically marked(poetic, colloquial, colloquial, etc.); vocabulary, limited in use by various factors: social(professionalism, jargon), territorial(dialectisms);

From a historical perspective - newest(neologisms) and outdated vocabulary (archaisms and historicisms);

By origin - primordial And borrowed vocabulary.

Lexical meaning of the word- the content of a word, reflecting in the speaker’s mind the idea of ​​an object, property, process, etc. Based on the lexical meaning of words, microsystems are formed in the language (homonyms, antonyms, synonyms). Using word in speech, should be considered

- meaning, inherent in literary language;

His lexical compatibility, determined by semantics, stylistic affiliation, emotional connotation, grammatical properties of the word, etc.

Violation of this leads to speech errors. These include, in particular, a) redundancy of expression, consisting in semantic duplication - the unjustified use of words with similar meanings ( pleonasm) or in the repetition of cognate words ( tautology); b) lexical failure, which consists in omitting a necessary word in a sentence.

Exercise 45. Find in the sentences and write down in groups a) terms and professionalisms, b) territorial dialectisms, c) jargons; write them out in groups.

1. The government's task is to contain inflation. 2. The infinitive is the indefinite form of the verb. 3. Instead of all the pot-bellied little things that are credited for trifles, people will take millions of dollars (Pelev.). 4. Echotacardiograph - a device for diagnosing heart diseases. 5. I was carried away by the wind (Shol.). 6. The foal ran, muffledly rattling its balabon (Shol.). 7. Google - symbolic mathematical quantity, expressed as one followed by one hundred zeros. 8. My friend failed the exam, got a couple, because he was caught with spurs. 9. Gavrila said that her voice was so thin (Turg.). 10. How it sausages you (Pelev.). 11. Blood is drawn in the laboratory from 9.00 to 12.00. 12. Moreover, it requires that this clip be cooler than that of other idiots (Pelev.).

Exercise 46. Write out neologisms and archaisms from these sentences one by one. If possible, select modern synonyms for archaisms. Explain the meaning of neologisms.

1. The search carried out revealed a whole group of archers (Gran.). 2. As promised, a few minutes later the pager on his belt rang (Pelev.). 3. Sergey took a form with his logo from the client (Pelev.). 4. The younger sister, Zhenya, was silent while they were talking about the zemstvo (Czech). 5. It was this clip that made it clear to a large number of monkeys vegetating in Russia that the time has come to change into jeeps... (Pelev.). 6. The suitcase was brought in by the coachman Selifan […] and the footman Petrushka (Gog.).

Exercise 47. Write one by one in a column:

a) former neologisms that have become commonly used words;

b) neologisms that have not yet become widespread in the language;

Analyze new vocabulary from the point of view of its origin.

1. Along the desolate alley you pass Morevo (North). 2. On the website you can find basic information about the company. 3. The chairman of the executive committee was appointed by order. 4. There were also several simpler computers in the room, scanners and some kind of complex video recorder with many indicators. 5. So the evening left the windows into the horror of the night, gloomy, December (Lighthouse). 6. The pioneers completed the waste paper collection plan. 7. The Internet cafe began its work. 8. The work went to agencies that had their own copywriters and so-called creators on their staff (Pelev.).

Exercise 48. Determine the appropriateness of using obsolete words in the following sentences. If necessary, edit phrases. Indicate the archaisms that have “returned” to the active vocabulary.

1. After the seizure, this act was drawn up. It indicates the quantity seized. 2. Based on the results of the inspection, a lawsuit was filed against the perpetrators. 3. There was a seal of silence on her lips. 4. Our friend works as an economist. 5. Deputies are accustomed to measuring everything according to their own yardstick. 6. An important law was adopted at a meeting of the Duma. 7. Recently a wonderful holiday was held at the gymnasium. 8. Governor elections took place in the region.

Exercise 49. Explain the meaning of borrowed words using dictionaries.

Abstract, stimulus, adaptation, alternative, argument, briefing, precedent, extrapolation, level, imitate, limit, sanction, debut, role, ignore, manager, doctrine, postulate, autonomy, vacancy, local, directive, evolution, analogy, synthesis, analysis, conference, symposium, total, legitimate, philanthropist, regression.

Exercise 50. Copy foreign words, inserting missing letters where necessary. Find synonyms for them.

I. Dilemma, simulation, discussion, resource, self, humane, humanism, team, business, dessert, gallery, efficiency, progress?, compromise?, an?otation, com?unique, indi?erently, kol?oquium, dissertation, association, collegial, hallucination, ap?robation, pes?imism, des?ant, business?, ter?or, collection.

II. Suv...r...nitet, pr...zident, pr...ambula, pr...priority, pr...stigious, pr...valiate, p...period, pr...nter, pr...tensia.

Exercise51. Determine the appropriateness of using foreign language vocabulary. Correct the sentences if necessary.

1. You cannot be indifferent to the problem of rising crime. 2. The older generation prevailed at the rally. 3. An identical debate took place in the next classroom. 4. The representative forum began its work as a quorum was reached. 5. New perspectives have opened up for the evolution of cultural work. 6. Confidential confession should not be ignored; it will impress those present. 7. The role of the actress has changed. 8. The effectiveness of the savings regime depends on how much financial expenses are limited. 9. The specific features of each type of art cannot be ignored. 10. Statement of violation of the company’s operating regulations leads to a distortion of its image. 11. Presentation of the products of our industry and agriculture is the main objective of the exhibition.

Exercise 52. Reveal the lexical meaning of these words using explanatory dictionaries. Write down the unambiguous words first, then the polysemous ones. Using the latter in different meanings, make up phrases with them.

Good, year, go, round, fly, March, house, wind, road, milk, forest, language, deep, black, fresh, talk.

Exercise 53. Write out from the sentences :

a) words used in their literal meaning;

b) words used in a figurative meaning. Specify how the value will be transferred.

Reference. U ambiguous words delimit basic(main, direct) and derivative(figurative) meanings that are related to each other based on similarities or adjacency, according to which there are different ways of transferring values ​​- metaphor And metonymy.

1. There was silence all around, the stars looked from the sky in deep humility... (Czech). 2. Rose is dozing, cannot sleep, the dew is silvering in her (Balm.). 3. Round dances of the stars intertwined in wonderful patterns in the distant sky (Lerm.). 4. The darkness of the autumn night surrounding us trembled (Gorky). 5. Loiko will go far into the steppe at night, and his violin will cry until the morning (Gorky). 6. The moon quietly looked at the restless, but submissive element (Lerm.). 7. ...Fine dew fell on the leaves and grasses, glittered with silver on the cobwebs; the damp, dark earth seemed to still retain the ruddy trace of dawn; Songs of larks rained down from all over the sky (Turg.).

Exercise 54. Select a series of synonyms for these words, taking into account their polysemy.

Reference. Each meaning of a polysemantic word has its own synonymous row.

Old, hot, short, round.

Exercise 55. Make synonymous rows for the words. Explain the differences between synonyms in the same row (shade of meaning, emotional and stylistic coloring, frequency of use).

Sadness, angry, walking, in vain; eyes, ugly, shine, good; brave, distant, shout, very.

Exercise 56. Eliminate from the synonymous series words that are not synonyms in relation to others. Motivate your choice.

2. Rain, storm, hail, snow, blizzard.

3. Blizzard, storm, hurricane, wind.

4. By chance, on purpose, by chance, spontaneously, too much.

5. Applaud, admire, clap, knock, applaud.

6. Bold, courageous, hero, courageous, courageous, dashing.

Exercise 57. Make up phrases with each of these synonyms, using the words given in brackets and without violating lexical compatibility.

1. Private, individual, personal, personal (freedom, possessions, project, transport, law).

2. Enormous, large, huge, large (labor, child, city, contribution, plot).

3. Bend over, bend over, tilt (forward, towards the water, on the side, to the right, below).

Exercise 58. Taking into account the stylistic coloring of the synonyms, continue filling out the table with your own examples.

Exercise 59. Remember and write down five proverbs that use antonyms.

Exercise 60. Choose antonyms for the words.

Day, black, go, joy, take, easy, open, big, remember, far.

Exercise 61 Write down antonyms and analyze their stylistic function.

1. The cry of separation and meeting - you, window in the night! (Color). 2. I’m sad because you’re having fun (Lerm.). 3. How few roads have been traveled, how many mistakes have been made! (Es.). 4. The happy man’s enemies die, the unhappy man’s friend dies (Necr.). 5. Joy crawls like a snail, grief has a mad run (Lighthouse). 6. The rich fell in love with the poor, the learned fell in love with the stupid, the ruddy fell in love with the pale, the good fell in love with the harmful, the golden fell in love with the copper half (Color). 7. They got together. Water and stone, poetry and prose, ice and fire are not so different from each other (Pushk.). 8. In life there is death, and in death there is life (Balm.). 9. Everyone is ready to share the fun, no one wants to share the sadness (Lerm.). 10. I look at the future with fear, I look at the past with longing (Lerm.). 11. For the whisper and for the cry, for eternity and for the moment, for the burnt-out dawn, for laughter and for sadness, for the quiet “goodbye” - I thank you for everything (Rozhd.).

Exercise 62. Write down words that have homonyms and ambiguous words one by one. Justify your point of view.

Reference. There is a connection between different meanings of a polysemantic word, but homonym words are not related to each other in meaning.

Bow, earth, current, key, golden, month, know, wave, mouth, soft, scythe.

Exercise 63. Make up phrases with paronyms.

Reference. Paronyms- words that are similar in meaning and sound (spelling) but not identical.

Long - long, angry - malicious, offensive - touchy, dress - put on, businessman - business trip, executive - executive, problematic - problematic, burdened - weighs down, master - economic, tactful - tactical, neighboring - neighborly, careful - thrifty, tourist - tourist.

Exercise 64. Explain the differences in the meanings of these phrases:

A dangerous person is a fearful person; master the material - master the material; condemn an ​​action - discuss an action.

Exercise 65. Choose synonyms for these paronyms from brackets .

Spare - thrifty (prudent, reserve);

intolerable - intolerable (inadmissible, intolerable);

successful - lucky (lucky, successful);

understandable - understandable (capable, clear);

hidden - secretive (insincere, secret).

Exercise 66. Make up phrases with these words.

Reference.Paronomases- words that are similar only in sound.

Escalator - excavator, addressee - addressee, continent - contingent, warrant - order, forum - quorum.

Exercise 67. Make up word combinations without violating lexical compatibility.

Reference.Lexical compatibility- the ability of a word to be combined not with all, but only with some words from a certain semantic class.

Win, suffer (defeat, victory, victory, a little). Play, have (role, meaning, thing, success, weight, volleyball). Give, give (importance, time, attention). Acquire, gain (respect, fame, authority, fame, thing, love). To earn, to enjoy (victory, respect, results, authority, approval).

Exercise 68 Edit phrases. What lexical error was made in them?

1. The formation of different forms of ownership is an urgent need of the time. 2. We had to agree to the signing of a new version of the agreement. 3. Unusual phenomenon aroused the interest of scientists and was the reason for starting scientific research. 4. Builders receive construction materials uninterruptedly. 5. Successful leadership requires advanced training of managers. 6. Our capabilities may be limited.

Exercise 69. First write down the numbers of sentences with tautological combinations, and then with pleonastic ones. Write down the edited phrases. What offer numbers and why did you write them down twice?

1. The work is completely finished and complete. 2. Everyday routine is destructive for a creative person. 3. Parliamentary hearings will resume again in the new year. 4. The administration has the right to dismiss an employee for absenteeism without a good reason. 5. The garment factory has started sewing new garments. 6. City residents are satisfied with the work of life support systems. 7. The author's main argument is based on an analysis of numerous facts. 8. The simultaneous coexistence of old and new is a striking sign of the times. 9. Usually and most often according to tradition, only traditional forms are taken into account.

Exercise 70. Correct the sentences. What is the reason for their speech redundancy?

1. Don't look back. 2. You can hypothetically assume that the situation will change for the better. 3. Cuba was considered the last remnant of the socialist system. 4. The first debut of the aspiring singer turned out to be successful. 5. The winners were presented with memorable souvenirs. 6. The opinions of elders are not simply ignored, but not taken into account. 7. A thundercloud hung over the city, and everything around was plunged into darkness. 8. Incorrect and erroneous conclusions obscure the main essence of the work.

Exercise 71. Edit phrases, eliminating illogicalities arising due to speech insufficiency.

1. Compare the results of the first table with the second. 2. Chekhov’s heroes differ from the works of other writers. 3. Our conclusions do not coincide with other researchers. 4. Some students do not agree with others. 5. The walls of the laboratory are decorated with tables, diagrams, formulas and great physicists. 6. Among the exhibits of the exhibition are products made of gold, silver, amber, as well as famous masters of wood carving.

Exercise 72(control and repetition). Write out foreign language vocabulary from the text. Emphasize neologisms. Explain the meanings of the borrowed words and comment on the possibilities of their use. Place emphasis on the highlighted words and comment on their pronunciation.

1. The man takes credit. With this loan, he rents an office, buys a Cherokee jeep and eight boxes of Smirnovskaya. 2. A feeling of boundless greatness awakens in him, and he orders himself an advertising video. 3. At one twenty I’ll come to you pager I'll call. 4. The script did not have a specific plot - it consisted of alternating historical reminiscences and metaphors. 5. Tatarsky tried to jump a step higher in the advertising hierarchy and began to develop advertising concepts. 6. The situation was more like a smoking landscape after atomic explosion. 7. What associations does the word “parliament” evoke in you?

(V. Pelevin)

Exercise 73(control and repetition). Edit the sentences to eliminate lexical errors. Explain what they are.

1. The collected material allows the author to draw conclusions. 2. The monograph outlines the points of one concept. 3. At the end of the book there is a list of recommended literature. 4. This person does not accept criticism, but meets it with great irritability. 5. It was proposed to increase the existing low prices. 6. It is necessary to motivate performers to achieve optimal results. 7. The festive evening will take place on Saturday morning. 8. The director listened to the proposals made to improve the work of the company. 9. By March, the length of the day gradually increases.

Exercise 74(control and repetition). Analyze a text of 500-700 words from regional print media, paying attention to the accuracy and clarity of presentation, imagery, expressiveness, richness of language, appropriateness of using foreign language vocabulary, jargon, dialectisms, archaisms, neologisms, professionalisms in the text etc. Qualify and correct lexical errors, if any.

TEST QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS ON THE TOPIC

“NORMS OF THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND CULTURE OF SPEECH”

1. What is “speech culture”? Name the main aspects of speech culture as an object of study of a special linguistic discipline.

2. What is a literary language? Name its main characteristics.

3. List the main features of the language norm.

4. What are the grounds for classifying the norms of a literary language and what norms are highlighted in this regard? Which of them are characteristic of written, and which of oral speech?

5. What is the classification of literary language norms?

6. Identify the main functions of stress, illustrating them with appropriate examples. Name the features of stress in the Russian language.

7. What should guide the choice of one of the variants of one or another grammatical form available in the language when constructing a speech utterance?

8. List the main types of lexical errors and name their possible causes.

9. How do the concepts of “lexical norm” and “lexical compatibility” relate?

10. Characterize the lexical composition of the language, taking into account the diversity of aspects of its heterogeneity.

11. Name the main microsystems of the language, the formation of which is determined by the specific lexical meaning of the word. Describe each of them, giving relevant examples.

12. What place do paronyms occupy among lexical microsystems? Paronomases?

13. Name and characterize the main orthological linguistic dictionaries.

Related information.

Issues of correct literary pronunciation are studied by a special linguistic discipline - spelling(from Greek orthos - correct and epos - speech). Orthoepic rules and recommendations have always been the focus of attention of Russian philologists, as well as representatives of those professions whose activities are directly related to public speaking before an audience: government and public figures, lecturers, announcers, commentators, journalists, artists, translators, teachers of Russian and foreign languages, preachers, lawyers. But in recent years, there has been a noticeable increase in interest in the problems of oral culture among various sectors of society. This is facilitated by socio-economic changes in our country, democratization of all aspects of life. The practice of broadcasting parliamentary debates and hearings, speeches in live: statesmen, leaders of parties and movements, political observers, specialists in various areas science and culture.

Mastery of the norms of literary pronunciation, the ability to expressively and correctly formulate spoken speech is gradually being recognized by many as an urgent social necessity.

Historically, the development and formation of the rules of Russian orthoepy developed in such a way that the basis of literary pronunciation was Moscow pronunciation, on which some variants of St. Petersburg pronunciation were subsequently “layered.”

Deviation from the norms and recommendations of Russian literary pronunciation is regarded as a sign of insufficient speech and general culture, which reduces the authority of the speaker and scatters the attention of listeners. Regional peculiarities of pronunciation, incorrectly placed emphasis, “reduced” conversational intonation, and ill-considered pausing distract from the correct, adequate perception of a public speech.

Erroneous pronunciation through radio and television is “replicated” to a huge audience, wittingly or unwittingly assimilated and reinforced, thereby eroding the idea of ​​correctness and purity of speech, which is necessary for every cultured person. In addition, there are certain negative socio-psychological consequences of profanity, which tends to spread (especially in conditions of round-the-clock broadcasting). Since the majority of the listener first of all pays attention to the content side of the information, the sound side of speech is not controlled by him, but is recorded on a subconscious level. In these cases, everything that contradicts the established tradition of the design of Russian sounding speech: a violation of the intonation pattern of the phrase and the text as a whole, unjustified logical stress, pauses that do not correspond to the natural “flow” of speech, causes an intuitive feeling of protest in the listener, creating a feeling of anxiety and psychological discomfort.

Working on your own pronunciation and improving your pronunciation culture requires a person to have certain knowledge in the field of orthoepy. Since pronunciation is largely an automated aspect of speech, a person “hears” himself worse than others, controls his pronunciation insufficiently or does not control it at all, is uncritical in assessing his own pronunciation, and is sensitive to comments in this area. The rules and recommendations for spelling, reflected in manuals, dictionaries and reference books, seem to him to be overly categorical, different from the usual speech practice, and common spelling errors, on the contrary, are very harmless.

Therefore, in order to successfully master the orthoepic norm or deepen knowledge of Russian literary pronunciation, it is necessary, from the point of view of methodological recommendations:

¦ learn the basic rules of Russian literary pronunciation;

¦ learn to listen to your speech and the speech of others;

¦ listen and study exemplary literary pronunciation, which is mastered by radio and television announcers, masters of literary expression;

¦ consciously compare your pronunciation with the exemplary one, analyze your mistakes and shortcomings;

¦ correct them through constant speech training in preparation for public speaking.

The study of the rules and recommendations of literary pronunciation should begin with the distinction and awareness of the two main styles of pronunciation: full, recommended for public speaking, And incomplete(colloquial), which is common in everyday communication. The full style is characterized primarily by compliance with the basic requirements of the orthoepic norm, clarity and distinctness of pronunciation, correct placement of verbal and logical stress, moderate tempo, correct pausing, neutral intonation pattern of the phrase and speech in general. With an incomplete pronunciation style, there is excessive reduction of vowels, loss of consonants, unclear pronunciation of individual sounds and combinations, excessive emphasis on words (including function words), inconsistent speech tempo, and unwanted pauses. If in everyday speech these features of pronunciation are acceptable, then in public speaking they must be avoided.

§ 235. Pronunciation of vowels

The main feature of Russian literary pronunciation in the area of ​​vowels is their different sound in stressed and unstressed syllables with the same spelling. In unstressed syllables, vowels undergo reduction. There are two types of reduction - quantitative(when the longitude and intensity of sound decreases) and high quality(when in an unstressed position the sound itself changes). Vowels in the 1st pre-stressed syllable undergo less reduction, and more in all other syllables. Vowels [a], [o], [e] are subject to both quantitative and qualitative reduction in unstressed syllables; vowels [i], [s], [y] do not change their quality in unstressed syllables, but partially lose duration.

1. Vowels in the 1st pre-stressed syllable:

a) after hard consonants in place O And A [A]: w[a]da?, n[a]ga?, M[a]skva?, s[a]dy?, z[a]bo?r ; after hard sizzling and And w on site A And O a weakened sound is also pronounced [A]: f[a]ra?, f[a]ngler, sh[a]gi?, sh[a]fer .

Note 1. After hard sizzling and, w and after ts before soft consonants a sound like [s] with an overtone [e] , designated conventionally [s uh ] : w[s] uh ]le?t, unfortunately uh ]leniyu, w[s uh ]ke?t , in plural forms of the word horse: lose[s] uh ]where, los[s] uh ]dy?m etc... in the forms of indirect cases of numerals on - twenty: twenties uh ]ti?, thirty uh ]ti? etc.; in rare cases, sound [s uh ] pronounced on the spot A in position before hard consonants: rzh[s uh ]Noah. w[s] uh ]smi?n .

Note 2. Unstressed [O] pronounced in conjunctions But And What , and is also allowed in some foreign words, for example: b[o]a?, b[o]mo?nd. rococo?. F[o]re?c .

Note 3. Preservation O in unstressed syllables is a feature of regional pronunciation, therefore the pronunciation M[o]skva?, p[o]ku?pka, p[o]e?dem, v[o]zi?t. railway station not up to standard;

b) after hard hissing f, w And ts on site e a reduced sound is pronounced like [s] with an overtone [e] , designated conventionally [s uh ]: w[s uh ]na?, sh[s uh ]pt?t, ts[s uh ]lu?y ;

c) after soft consonants in place of letters I And e , as well as after soft hissing h And sch on site A a weakened sound is pronounced [And] with an overtone [e] , designated conventionally [And uh ] : m[i uh ]sno?y, R[i uh ]za?n, m[i uh ]sti?, h[i uh ]sy?, sh[i uh ]di?t , as well as in the plural forms of the word area: area uh ]where, area uh ]dy?m etc.;

d) on the spot I And e a sound is pronounced at the beginning of a word [And] with an overtone [e] , denoted [And uh ] in combination with the previous one [th]: [yi uh ]here?, [yi uh ]nta?r, [yi uh ]ytso?.

Note. Preservation [A] in an unstressed syllable after soft consonants is a feature of regional pronunciation, therefore the pronunciation [v’a]za?t, bi?na, h[a]sy?, [ya]ytso?, [ya]vi?tsya does not correspond to the norm.

2. Vowels in other unstressed syllables:

a) at the absolute beginning of a word in place of letters A And O a weakened sound is always pronounced [a]: [a]rbu?z: [a]kno?, [a]car, [a]deflection;

b) after hard consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the 1st prestressed one, in place A And O a reduced sound is pronounced, intermediate in sound between [A] And [s] [ъ]: g[ъ]lova?, k[ъ]randa?sh, i?bl[ъ]k[ъ] ;

c) after soft consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the 1st prestressed one, in place and I And e pronounced reduced, average in sound between [And] And [e] , short in duration, designated conventionally [b]: [n’t]tacho?k, [l’l]soru?b, you?[n’t]su, wh[b]love?k .

3. Vowel and at the beginning of the root after a prefix or preposition, ending in hard consonants, pronounced like [s] : from the institute - and [zy]institute , with Igor - [we are] heartbroken ; saving in this position [And] and the softening of the consonant before it is a regional feature of pronunciation and not up to standard.

4. Stressed vowel sounds in place e And e . Difficulties arise in the pronunciation of a number of words due to the indistinguishability of letters in the printed text e And e , since only the letter is used to designate them e (except for educational literature for primary schoolchildren and foreign students). This situation leads to a distortion of not only the graphic, but also the phonetic appearance of the word, and causes frequent pronunciation errors. Therefore, it is recommended to remember two sets of words:

a) with a letter e , in whose place it sounds [e]: scam, spineless, bluff, being, icy conditions, firebrand, grenadier, stout, hagiography, alien, religious procession (But Godfather ), fishing line, non-existence, perplexed, unappreciated, guardianship, sedentary (settled life), successor, legal successor, surveillance, modern, yoke, barley and etc.;

b) with a letter e , in whose place it sounds [O]: hopeless, buckets, engraver, bile (acceptable bile ), biliary (acceptable gall ), mockery, traveling salesman, priest (But priest ), maneuvers, mercenary, convicted, brought in, transferred, brought in, sturgeon, fable, laid down, brought, brought, obscene, scrupulous, belt, smart, tesha, fur (coarse-haired), lye and etc.

In some pairs of words, different meanings are accompanied by different sounds of the stressed vowel [O] or [e]: expired (term) - expired (in blood), catechumen (screams like a catechumen) - catechumen (decree), perfect (singing) - perfect (opening).

§ 236. Pronunciation of some consonants

1. Consonant [G] in literary pronunciation explosive, instant sounding, when deafened it is pronounced as [To]: sleep[k], bere[k] . Pronouncing “Ukrainian” in its place G , conventionally designated [h] , does not correspond to the norm: [h]ulya?t, boots[h]i? . The exception is the word God , at the end of which it sounds [X] .

2. Instead of h in words of course, boring, scrambled eggs, trifling, birdhouse, bachelorette party, laundry, rag, rag picker , in female patronymics ending in - ichna (Nikitichna, Kuzminichna, Ilyinichna etc.), as well as in words what, to, nothing pronounced [w] .

3. In words man, defector at the place of combination zhch , in the form of the comparative degree of adverbs tougher, harsher (And more scathingly ) in place stch , as well as in place of combinations zch And sch pronounced [sch]: loader, customer, carver, subscriber, sandstone, happy, happiness, account, electronic counting, counter, self-financing, count and etc.

4. When several consonants accumulate in some combinations, one of them is not pronounced:

a) in combination stn not pronounced [t]: teaching? [s'n']ik, ve?[s']nik, what? I?ro[sn]y ;

b) in combination zdn not pronounced [d]: po?[zn]o, right?[zn]ik, nae?[zn]ik , but in a word abyss It is recommended to leave the sound low [d] ;

c) in combination stl not pronounced [t]: happy, envious, conscientious ; in words bony And lay [t] preserved;

d) in combination stl not pronounced [T] ; this produces a double consonant [ss]: maximal? [ss]ky, turie?[ss]ky, rasi?[ss]ky .

5. In some words with a cluster of consonant sounds stk, zdk, ntk, ndk not allowed to fall out [t]: daughter-in-law, trip, summons, typist, bulky, laboratory assistant, student, patient, Irish, Scottish, but: fabric shotla[nc]a .

6. Hard consonants before soft consonants can be softened:

A) necessarily softens I n before soft ones h And With: pe?[n’s’]iya, prete?[n’z’]iya, rece?[n’z’]iya, face?[n’z’]iya ;

b) in combinations TV, dv may soften T And d: Thursday, Tver, hard [t’v’] and [tv’]; door, two, move [d’v] and [dv’] ;

c) in combinations sound And St. may soften h And With: beast, ring [z’v’] And [sound’]; light, candle, witness, saint [s’v] And [sv’] , and also in the word snake [z’m’] And [zm’] ;

G) n before soft T And d softens: ba[n't']ik, vi[n't']ik, zo[n't']ik, ve[n't']il, a[n't']ichny, ko[n't ']text, remo[n't']irovat, ba[n'd']it, I[n'd']iya, stip[n'd']iya, zo[n'd']irovat, and [n'd']ivid, ka[n'd']idat, blo[n'd']in.

§ 237. Pronunciation of individual grammatical forms

Some grammatical forms of verbs, nouns, and adjectives are characterized by special rules for the pronunciation of sounds in suffixes and endings.

1. In verbs with a particle- xia in an indefinite form and in the third person singular and plural at the junction of an ending and a particle is pronounced [ts]: meet, meet - meet [ts], check in, check in - mark [ts], check in - mark? [ts], say goodbye - goodbye? [ts].

In the form of the imperative mood in place of the combination - there are two soft sounds sound [t's'']: mark - mark? [t's''], meet - wind? [t'''] .

2. In the endings of the genitive case of masculine and neuter forms of adjectives, numerals, pronouns - Wow /-his on site G pronounced [in]: big house (lake) - big?[vy], blue flag (sea) - si?ne[vy] . The same rule applies to words today - every[v]o?day, total - ito[v]o? .

Note. In surnames ending with - aho (Shembinago, Zhivago ), sound is pronounced [G] .

3. Graphic abbreviations, found in the text, for example, initials for last name , as well as abbreviations like l (liter), m (meter), kg (kilogram), ha (hectare), p/o (“mail box”), etc. (so on), s (page) and etc. in reading they “decipher” i.e., they “expand” into full words. Graphic abbreviations exist only in written speech for visual perception only, and their literal reading is perceived either as a speech error or as irony, appropriate only in special situations.

§ 238. Peculiarities of pronunciation of Russian names and patronymics

The combination of first name and patronymic is used in various situations, both in written and oral speech: in official decrees on awards, appointments, orders, lists, for example, on personnel records, the composition of production and educational groups, in business and private correspondence, in circulation to the interlocutor, in introducing and naming third parties.

In an official setting, business communication between people, especially in the work of a teacher, translator, editor, lawyer, businessman, government or commercial employee, there is a need to address people by name and patronymic. Many Russian names and patronymics have pronunciation options that it is advisable to take into account in a given communication situation. So, when meeting a person, when introducing a person for the first time, a distinct, clear pronunciation that is close to the written form is recommended.

In all other cases, incomplete, contracted forms of pronunciation of names and patronymics, which have historically developed in the practice of literary oral speech, are acceptable.

1. - th (Vasily, Anatoly, Arkady, Grigory, Yuri, Evgeny, Valery, Gennady ), ending in combinations - evich, - evna with a preceding separator b: Vasil Evich, Vasil Evna; Grigory Evich, Grigory Evna . When pronouncing female patronymics, these combinations are clearly preserved: Vasil Evna, Anatol Evna, Grigory Evna etc. In male patronymics, full and contracted variants are allowed: Vasya?[l'j'v']ich and Vas[l'ich], Anato?[l'j'v']ich and Anato?[l'ich], Grigo?[r'j'v']ich and Grigo?[r' ich] etc.

2. Patronymic names formed from male given names - to her And - ah (Alexey, Andrey, Korney, Matvey, Sergey, Nikolay ) end in combinations - eevich, - eevna, - aevich, - aevna: Alekseevich, Alekseevna, Nikolaevich, Nikolaevna . In their pronunciation, the literary norm allows both full and contracted variants: Alexeyevich And Alex?[i]h, Alekse?evna And Alek[s'e?]vna; Sergeevich And Serge?[i]h, Sergeevna And Ser[g'e?]vna; Korne?evich And Corn?[i]h, Korne?evna And Kor[n'e?]vna; Nikolaevich And Nikola?[i]h, Nikolaevna And Nikola?[vn]a etc.

3. Male patronymics ending in an unstressed combination - ovich , can be pronounced both in full and contracted form: Anto?novich And Anto?n[y]ch, Aleksandrovich And Alexa?ndr[y]h , Iva?novich and Iva?n[y]ch etc. In female patronymics ending in an unstressed combination - Aries , full pronunciation recommended: Alexander aries, Boris aries, Kirill aries, Victor aries, Oleg Aries etc.

4. If the middle name begins with And (Ivanovich, Ignatievich, Isaevich ), then in pronunciation with a name ending in a hard consonant, and turns into [s]: Pavel Ivanovich - Pavel[y]vanovich, Alexander Isaevich - Alexander[y]saevich .

5. Not usually pronounced ov n And m: Iva?[n: ]na, Anto?[n: ]a, Efi?[mn]a, Maxi?[mn]a .

6. Unstressed words are not pronounced - ov in female patronymics from names ending in V: Vyachesla?[vn]a, Stanisla?[vn]a .

§ 239. Pronunciation of borrowed words

Some of the borrowed vocabulary in the Russian language has some orthoepic features that are fixed in the literary norm.

1. In some words of foreign language origin, in place of the unstressed O sound is pronounced [o]: ada?gio, boa?, bomo?nd, bonto?n, kaka?o, radio, three?o . In addition, stylistic fluctuations in high-style text are possible; preservation of unstressed [O] in words of foreign origin - one of the means of attracting attention to them, a means of highlighting them. Pronunciation of words nocturne, sonnet, poetic, poet, poetry, dossier, veto, credo, foyer etc. with unstressed [O] optional. Foreign names Maurice Thorez, Chopin, Voltaire, Rodin, Daudet, Baudelaire, Flaubert, Zola, Honore de Balzac, Sacramento etc. also retain unstressed [O] as a variant of literary pronunciation.

In some borrowed words in literary pronunciation, after vowels and at the beginning of the word, the unstressed sound sounds quite clearly [e]: duelist, muezzin, poetic, aegis, evolution, exaltation, exotic, equivalent, eclecticism, economy, screen, expansion, expert, experiment, exhibit, ecstasy, excess, element, elite, embargo, emigrant, emission, emir, energy, enthusiasm , encyclopedia, epigraph, episode, epilogue, era, effect, effective and etc.

2. In oral public speech, certain difficulties are caused by pronouncing a hard or soft consonant before the letter in borrowed words e , for example, in words pace, pool, museum etc. In most of these cases, a soft consonant is pronounced: academy, pool, beret, beige, brunette, promissory note, monogram, debut, motto, recitation, declaration, dispatch, incident, compliment, competent, correct, museum, patent, pate, Odessa, tenor, term, plywood, overcoat; word pace pronounced with a hard voice T .

In other words, before e a hard consonant is pronounced: adept, auto-da-fé, business, western, prodigy, riding breeches, dumbbell, grotesque, neckline, delta, dandy, derby, de facto, de jure, dispensary, identical, boarding school, international, intern, karate, square, cafe, muffler, codeine, code, computer, motorcade, cottage, bracket, open-hearth, billionaire, model, Art Nouveau, Morse, hotel, parterre, pathetic, polonaise, purse, poetess, resume, rating, reputation, superman and others. Some of these words have been known among us for at least one hundred and fifty years, but do not show a tendency to soften the consonant.

In borrowed words starting with a prefix de- , before vowels dis- , as well as in the first part of compound words starting with neo- , with a general tendency towards softening, fluctuations in the pronunciation of soft and hard are observed d And n , For example: devaluation, deideologization, demilitarization, depoliticization, destabilization, deformation, disinformation, deodorant, disorganization, neoglobalism, neocolonialism, neorealism, neofascism.

Firmly pronouncing consonants before e recommended in foreign-language proper names: Bella, Bizet, Voltaire: Descartes, Daudet, Jaurès, Carmen, Mary, Pasteur, Rodin, Flaubert, Chopin, Apollinaire, Fernandel [de?], Carter, Ionesco, Minnelli, Vanessa Redgrave, Stallone and etc.

In borrowed words with two (or more) e often one of the consonants is pronounced softly, while the other remains hard before e: strap [rete], genesis [gene], relay [rele], genetics [gene], cafeteria [fete], pince-nez [pe; ne], reputation [re; me], secretary [se; re; te], ethnogenesis [gene] and etc.

In relatively few words of foreign origin, fluctuations in the pronunciation of the consonant before e , for example: with the standard pronunciation of a hard consonant before e in words businessman [ne; me], annexation [ne] pronunciation with a soft consonant is acceptable; in words dean, claim soft pronunciation is the norm, but hard pronunciation is also acceptable [de] And [te] ; in a word session Hard and soft pronunciation options are equal. It is non-normative to soften the consonants before e in the professional speech of representatives of the technical intelligentsia in words laser, computer , as well as in colloquial pronunciation of words business, sandwich, intensive, interval .

Stylistic fluctuations in the pronunciation of hard and soft consonants before e are also observed in some foreign-language proper names: Bertha, Decameron, Reagan. Major, Kramer, Gregory Peck and etc.

3. Solid [w] pronounced in words parachute, brochure . In a word jury pronounced soft hissing [and'] . Names are pronounced the same way Julien, Jules .

LIII. FEATURES OF RUSSIAN ACCESS

§ 240. Russian word stress

Word stress in Russian is characterized by diversity(can stand on any syllable and any part of a word: but? news, science, education, bourgeoisie etc.) and mobility (in different grammatical forms words can move from one syllable to another: head?, head? accepted, accepted?; brave, brave? etc.).

Prepositions, conjunctions and particles usually do not have independent stress and are adjacent to independent parts of speech: out of town, haven't you been?, father, will he come, sit down? . In some cases, the emphasis shifts to the preposition: up the mountain, on? gender, for? night . Thus, independent and function words have the same verbal stress, making up a single phonetic word in sound.

Note. A small number of service parts of speech have weak stress and do not change the quality of the “stressed” vowel. These are unions but, as if, for sure, then... then , some prepositions that do not violate the semantic connection with adverbs ( along, opposite, besides, next to, between etc.), particle Well .

Compound words and words with prefixes anti-, inter-, near-, counter-, over-, super-, ex- and others may have, in addition to the main one, incidental(or secondary) accent, conventionally indicated by the sign gravis ( ‘ ). But among the complex words there are many single-stressed ones: pre-war, independent, car, hostel etc. Collateral stress usually comes first in order (closer to the beginning of the word), and basic- second (closer to the end of the word): oath?crime?, co?ntra?ka, o?kolo?mny, pro?organization, construction, aircraft construction, waterproof?, main?v?ch, inter?regional? th, inter?republican?skiy, dust jacket, vice-president?nt, e?ks-champion?n and etc.

The correct choice of stress in a word is of great importance in working on the culture of oral speech. Below are examples in which erroneous stress is most common. These can be either individual words or some grammatical forms of words:

1) Common nouns:

agent, agronomy, alphabet, apo?krif, apostrophe, are?st, asymmetry, pampering, barman, devilishness, bla?govest, barrel , brave, clanging, gross, val?m val?t, religion, supremacy, evening, genesis, citizenship, grotesque, ground?e, gave? y-la?ma, hyphen?s, dia?spore, dioptre?i, dispensary, do?gmat, shaft, confessor, blinds?, muzzle?, enviable, sign, is? sk, and?canopy, iconographer, from time immemorial?, ische?rpat, katalo?g, ka?tarsis, rubber?k, pantry?ya, klobu?k, colo?ss, coll?ps, whooping?sh, kra ?working, flint, kitchen, marketing, masterful?, messiah, mimicry, hours-long, garbage chute, intention, real estate, wakeful(eye), not? netskiy, untrodden, unspeakably, unregulated (relationship), oil pipeline, newborn, provision, depreciate, facilitate, encourage, education, one-part, wholesale, inquire, review(for manuscript), review (deputy), open, partly, mindful, fir, plateau, repeated, adolescent, anticipate, force, acquisition, dispossession, sanitation, discreet, concoct ?in, concentration, means, joiner, status, statue, story, taboo?, customs, customs, trades, dancer, totem, herbal simple, deepen, Ukrainian, reduce, strengthen, facsimile, extravaganza, phenomenon(phenomenon), needle, cotton, movement, price, Christian, chassis, sorrel, expert, linguistic (norm), linguistic (sausage).

In many words there are fluctuations in stress placement: equal options - denim And denim, hazy And frosty, combo?iner And combine operator, metallurgy And metallurgy, propolis And propolis, a loop? And a loop, face And woman in labor, rust And rust, sa?zhen And soot, cottage cheese And cottage cheese, fa?nza And fanza? ; with standard stress huh?vgustovsky acceptable Augustovskiy , at birch bark acceptable birch bark? , at shell acceptable shell , at wary acceptable wary ; with standard stress industry - obsolete industry , at smart - obsolete smart , at ra?course - obsolete raku?rs ;

2) Proper names:

Aigi?, E?evno, Aze?f, A?be, Ko?be, Eli?n Peli?n, Zahoder?r, Per?res de Que?ler, Steinbeck, Sa?linger, Rua?l A Mundsen, Balmont, Vorontsova-Dashkova, Kapitsa, Sergiy Radonezhsky, Seraphim Sarovsky, Salvador Dali, Jeremiah, Picasso, Zosima. Alexi?y, Ignaty Loyo?la, protopo?p Avvaku?m, Julian Tu?vim, Sokolo?v-Mikito?v, Sa?yudis, Ana?dyr, Balashi?ha, Great U? Styug, Ki?zhi, Ra?donezh, Mount Na?rodnaya, Stavropol Territory, Hanno?ver, Che?ti-Mine?i, Apoca?lipsis, Kali?Gula, Mol?kh, Carnegie Hall, Comedy? France?z. Metropolitan O'Pera, Myanmar, Nicaragua, Peru, Quebec, Sydney, Massachusetts, Missouri, Foro's, Sri Lanka.

Variable stress is allowed in some proper names: Newton (but traditionally: Newton ), Re?mbrandt (but traditionally: Rembra?ndt ), Lee?ncoln (but traditionally: Linko?ln ), Da?vid Co?perfield (but traditionally: David Copperfield Ice ).

Note. In cases where one proper name refers to two (or more) persons, objects, concepts, it is necessary to clarify the specific meaning of this word and, using encyclopedic dictionaries, find out the correct accent. For example, Washington George, first US President, but traditionally Washington- the capital of USA, Makbe?t - a character in Shakespeare's tragedy of the same name, but in the title of Leskov's story "Lady Ma?kbet Mtsensk district".

§ 241. Stress in individual grammatical forms

The mobility of Russian stress, i.e. its transfer from one syllable to another in various grammatical forms of a single phonetic word, causes a number of difficulties in the pronunciation of these forms.

1. Shifting emphasis to prepositions on, for, under, by, from, without possible if the sentence after the noun does not have words explaining it:

1) in combination with a preposition behind

"on the other side, behind" , For example: atgo for? river, for? mountain; pawn for? cheek, for? ear; lay hands on? back, behind? head;

"during" do for? year, for? day, for? night, for? winter; pay for? year, for? day and so on.;

2) in combination with a preposition on (with accusative case) meaning:

"in the direction of, on top of smth" , For example: fall (sit, lie down) on? floor, climb on? mountain, did something hit it? hand, on? nose, put the load on? back, put something on? head, on? legs, on? hands;

“indicating the point of contact with the support” , For example: lie down on? back, fall on? back, on? hands on? head, stand on? legs, on? hands on? head;

"based on the specified period" (with time units), for example: stock up (stretch, enough) for? year, for? day, on? night, on? winter, take out a loan for? year and so on.;

"indication of the measure of difference" , For example: on the? a year older, by? a day earlier, on? head up and so on.;

3) in combination with a preposition By (with dative case) - with the meaning of this preposition "on the surface, within" (about movement), for example: walk on? semi, by? field, by? yard, walk around? forest, fly through? sky, float across? sea, scatter over? semi, by? forest.

With other meanings of these prepositions, stress transfer may not occur, for example:

A) take something for a mountain, for a river, for a leg, for a winter, it is valued for a head, for a hand, a reward for a head, I fear for a hair, for head, legs;

b) pay attention to the hands, to the legs, to the nose, to the floor, to the day, despite the night, to the winter, the land tax;

V) longing for the sea, for the sky, to judge by the yard, for the forest, everyone got a field.

Stress transfer usually does not occur, if in a phrase a noun is followed by a word or words that explain it (subordinate to it or connected with it by a coordinating connection), for example:

A) beyond the Ural River, for a year and two months, for a year of hard work, for a day of his duty, holding the hand of a comrade, taking hold of his father’s shoulders;

b) to Mount Yaman-Tau, put the load on the back of the porter, put a hat on the head of a neighbor, older by a year and two months;

V) around the yard? hotels, on the snow and ice of the Gulf of Finland, on the Laptev Sea.

2. Stress in adjective forms.

1) the emphasis goes to the ending in the short feminine form: loud, loud?, loud, loud, louder; long, long?, long, long, long; longer; bad, bad, bad, bad; heavy, heavy?, heavy, heavy; rights(no full form) right?, right?, right? you;

2) the emphasis goes to the ending in the short form of the feminine gender and to the suffix of the comparative degree: glorious, glorious, glorious?, glorious, glorious, glorious; whole, whole, whole?, whole, whole, whole; satisfying, satisfying, satisfying?, satisfying, satisfying, satisfying; lean, fast, fast, fast, fast, fast; yu?ny, yun, yuna?, yu?no, yu?ny, yun?e;

3) the emphasis goes to the ending in the short form of the feminine gender and plural (as an equal option), as well as to the suffix of the comparative degree: poor, poor, poor?, poor, poor?, poor; pale, pale, pale?, pale, pale?, pale; important, important, important?, important, important?, more important; faithful, faithful, faithful?, faithful, faithful?, faithful; free(free) , free, free?, free, free?, free, slender, slender, slender?, slender, slender?, slender;

4) movable stress accompanied by alternation e And e: far, far, far?, far? And far, far away? And far away, yes?more; cheap, cheap, cheap?, cheap, cheap, cheap?vle; hard, tough, tough?, tough, tough, tougher; light, easy, easy?, easy?, easy?, easier; dark, dark, dark?, dark?, dark?, darker; clear, clear, clear? And clear, clear, clear, clear .

3. Difficulties in placing stress in verb forms(indefinite form, personal forms, participles, gerunds):

1) verbs ending in - edit with indefinite stress on the last syllable: bombarded, bombarded, bombarded; engraved, engraved, engraved; make-up, make-up, make-up; rewarded, rewarded, rewarded; formed, formed, formed; costume, costume, armor(armor), armored, armored; corrugated, corrugated, corrugated; grouped, grouped, grouped; sealed, sealed, sealed;

2) verbs with roots call for: called?, called, called?, called, called; named, called?, named, called, called, called, called, called, named, called; called, called?, called, called, called, called, called, called;

3) verbs with roots rub: rubbed, rubbed, rubbed, rubbed? and acceptable rubbed, rubbed ; same stress pattern in verb forms wipe, wipe ;

4) verbs lock, unlock: locked, locked?, locked, locked, locked, locked, locked in and acceptable locked, locked, locked, locked?, locked, locked; oh?now, unlocked?, oh?unlocked, oh?unlocked, oh?first, unlocked?in and acceptable unlocked?, oh?unlocked, oh?unlocked, unlocked?, oh?unlocked, oh?unlocked . Same verb stress pattern die except for the form dead , where the stress falls on the root vowel;

5) verbs remove, borrow, understand, accept, undertake, take away, take over and verb begin : With nyal, removed?, removed, removed, removed (shi), removed, removed, removed?, removed, removed; busy, busy, busy?, busy, busy, busy, busy, busy, busy, busy?, busy, busy; similar stress pattern in verb forms accept And undertake; understood, understood, understood?, understood, understood, understood, understood, understood, understood, understood?, understood, understood; take away, oh?take away and acceptable taken away, taken away?, oh?taken away and acceptable taken away, oh?taken away and acceptable taken away, taken away, taken away, taken away, taken away, taken away?, taken away, taken away; adopted, adopted and acceptable adopted?, adopted?, adopted and acceptable adopted, adopted and acceptable adopted, adopted, adopted, adopted, adopted, adopted?, adopted, adopted; begin, started, started?, started, started, started, started, started, started, started?, started, started;

6) verbs to depart, to arrive: I'll lose, I'll lose, I'll kill, I'll kill, I'll kill, I'll lose, I'll lose, I'll lose, I'll lose, I'll lose, I'll lose, I'll lose, I'll lose ; same stress pattern in verb forms arrive ;

7) verbs with roots give (you?give, publish, transfer, sell, surrender ); in the verb you?give in all forms the emphasis falls on the prefix; published, published, published, published, published, published, published, published, published?, published, published, published, published , and?published, and?created, published? and acceptable And?built, and built, and built ; similar stress pattern in verb forms sell ; Pforward?t, pass?m, pass?t, pass?st, pass?m, pass?te, pass?t, passed? and acceptable passed?l, passed on?, passed on? and acceptable passed on, passed on and acceptable transmitted, transmitted, transmitted, transmitted, transmitted, transmitted? and acceptable transmitted, transmitted, transmitted; give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up and acceptable gave up .

PREPARING TEXT FOR VOICE OVER

§ 242. Pausing

Studying the basic rules of Russian literary pronunciation, analyzing “difficult cases” of placing stress in words and grammatical forms, an attentive, thoughtful attitude to the sounding side of speech are necessary prerequisites for independent work on improving the culture of oral speech. But the acquired orthoepic information only partially ensures the successful preparation of a public speech, the ability to pronounce (or read) the completed voluminous text of a message, report, speech, report, etc. Suggested below guidelines can be taken into account during the speaker’s preliminary work on the text of the speech.

1. Pausing- dividing a sounding phrase into smaller speech segments (speech beats, or syntagms) is one of the most important features of sounding speech. Another feature is the presence of pauses, which naturally occur at the boundaries of speech bars and individual phrases.

Speech tact, or syntagma, is the minimum unit of content. A sentence in spoken speech is perceived by the listener and translated from one language to another according to individual speech beats. Different divisions of a phrase into speech beats can interpret the meaning of a sentence differently, for example: “Execution cannot be pardoned” , in which two pause options are possible: 1) Execute/cannot be pardoned ; 2) Cannot be executed/pardoned . Or: 1) Need to study/work/and relax ; 2) We must learn to work/and relax .

2. Correct pausing, i.e., correct division of the text into phonetic phrases, and phrases into speech bars, is the first stage in preparing the text for voicing. Although the sound segment between pauses (syntagma) can be of different durations, average value it is usually seven syllables. But the speech tact (syntagma) has a relatively complete meaning and a certain syntactic design. For example: On the banks of the Moscow River,/opposite the southern port of the capital,/a modern residential area has grown up.// Pauses break up a given simple sentence into separate phrases. Another example: In order to divide speech into beats, / we need stops, / or, in other words, / logical pauses.// This complex sentence is divided into simple ones (pause after the word so you ), simple - into phrases. Thus, thoughtful pausing helps the logical analysis of individual sentences, complex syntactic wholes (see Chapter XLIX), and the entire complete text.

3. In the Russian language, orientation to punctuation marks can serve the basis for correct pausing of text. Thus, in a simple sentence with isolated participial, participial, comparative phrases, introductory and insertive sentences, and appeals, punctuation marks that highlight these syntactic constructions are signals for a pause. For example: On the southwestern outskirts of the US capital/ - Washington, / where Highway No. 95, / leading from the city to the south, / crosses the muddy Potomac River on two bridges, / opposite Arlington Cemetery, / stands a building made of grayish reinforced concrete.//

Note. The pause may be absent with isolated single introductory words and single gerunds: The adoption of a new law is, of course, necessary; When leaving, turn off the lights.

4. Pausing in cases of missing punctuation:

1) between the subject group and the predicate group: A road trip across America/looks like a trip across the ocean// (I. Ilf, E. Petrov);

2) after adverbial words, usually with the meaning of place, time, reason, as well as after additions at the beginning of the sentence: One autumn evening in 1969/in the editorial office of the newspaper “Pravda”/a conversation turned to “One-Storey America” at a meeting of young satirists//(Shatunovsky, Strelnikov);

3) before the union And , if with three or more homogeneous terms it combines the last two: Occasionally / we came across farms scattered throughout the prairie steppe / with the obligatory red barn / silo /And a mighty hundred-year-old tree in front of the porch of the house (Shatunovsky, Strelnikov).

5. Psychological pause It arises in addition to the logical one and is possible when the speaker wants to especially highlight a word and attract the attention of listeners to it. In the second case, we can talk about the ability to “hold a pause,” which is possessed by actors and experienced speakers.

Below is the text prepared for the speech with preliminary marking of pauses. Red oblique lines(/) (in texts there is a continuous oblique line) indicate mandatory pauses, blue oblique lines (¦ ) (dashed line in texts) - to possible, optional.

For Vysotsky, there are no forbidden topics, / he fearlessly, / with defiant courage / wrote and sang about everything / that worried him. / But this was the freedom / which is ensured morally, / by an exact attitude to the subject¦ or phenomenon. / Vysotsky ¦ not only captures,/conveys,/reflects the drama of life./He is dramatic himself,/by the nature of his subjectivity,/individuality,/talent.//Everything/that he did,/and everything that he achieved, / - this is from restlessness, / from the feeling of anxiety that did not leave him.//

The dramatic, / in the words of A. S. Pushkin, / is associated with “passions” and outpourings of the human soul. / In full accordance with this exact observation! / Vysotsky¦ at the very time / when half-whispers reigned / on the one hand ,/and pop noisiness/ - on the other hand,/began to speak and sing in an “open voice”,/passionately,/hysterically,/sometimes turning to shouting.// Just like people sing at home,/in a free,/uninhibited ,/an environment not constrained by strict rules.//(V. Tolstykh, In the Mirror of Creativity).

§ 243. Intonation of the text

The expressive sound of the text is facilitated not only by correct pausing, but also by correct, natural intonation, which meets the requirements of the traditionally established literary norm.

In Russian there are two main types of intonation: ascending(with rising tone) and descending(with a decrease in tone). Rising intonation can also be called intonation of incompleteness, and downward- intonation of completeness.

A special increase in tone, accompanied by increased verbal stress and greater intensity of the stressed syllable, is called logical stress. It is used to semantically emphasize a word or phrase in a sentence. There is a certain pattern between the methods of intonation and punctuation marks, on the one hand, and the semantic relationships in a sentence, on the other.

1. Falling intonation(lower tone), conventionally indicated in texts by an icon (in the examples it is highlighted bold italic

1) point: Moscow. 7 October. Today an exhibition dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the birth of Marina Tsvetaeva opened at the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts;

2) ellipsis(if it denotes completeness of thought): "Petersburg is taken Finns... Kolchak took Syzran. Tsaritsyn..." (Bunin);

3) comma in non-conjunctive and complex sentences with enumerative relations between parts: “On July evenings and nights, quails no longer call and corncrakes, nightingales do not sing in the forest ravines, there is no smell flowers. Daytime blues forgotten, all is forgiven, and the steppe easily breathes in wide breasts…» (Chekhov);

4) semicolon(the pause between parts is longer than with a comma);

5) colon in a simple sentence: The company requires workers: mechanics, turners, milling operators; in a complex sentence: And my request is next: take care of our language, our beautiful Russian language… (Turgenev).

2. Rising intonation(increasing tone), conventionally indicated in the texts by an icon (highlighted in the examples bold), is required in cases where the following punctuation marks are used:

1) exclamation mark: I beg attention! Please stop debate!;

2) question mark: What is special about the current stage of development? society?;

3) comma:

a) in a row homogeneous members simple sentences connected by connecting conjunctions and, yes (in meaning "And" ), or without conjunctions, is accompanied by the intonation of the same type of enumeration: The team has come together business, cheerful, vigorous. Everyone works to the fullest return and enthusiasm;

b) in a simple or complex sentence in the presence of adversatives ( but, but, however ), separating ( either...or, then...that, not that...not that etc.), double comparative ( both...and; although..., but; if not...then etc.) conjunctions are accompanied by heterogeneous, heterogeneous intonation: rising intonation is replaced by descending: Small spool, Yes roads. Is not Street, A avenue. In economics there is no other choice: either force, or ruble ;

c) in a simple sentence with isolated members of the sentence: The editors thank readerswho sent their wishes. IN decision, adopted at meeting, the results of the work are summed up. Despite the difficult weather conditions, the transcontinental flight took place;

d) in a simple sentence in the presence of introductory words and addresses, if they are highlighted in speech time, that is, accompanied by a pause: Reportedly print, the visit of the head of government may not take place;

e) in a complex sentence on the border of its constituent simple sentences: To me Seemsthat the translation style will not be violated if we convey foreign proverbs in moderation and with tact Russians, which correspond to them in content and style, especially in cases where the literal translation is awkward and wordy(K. Chukovsky);

4) a dash in a simple sentence: Life live- not a field go. On right- sea, left- mountains; in a complex sentence: Century live- century study .

3. Rising intonation(increasing tone) is required in all cases when a pause at the boundaries of speech beats (syntagms) occurs in the absence of a punctuation mark:

OftenYou can still hear here statement:/the market in its pure form/no longer exists nowhere,/especially in industrial countries.// Cruel delusion.// If not say/illiteracy¦and blindness.// Yes,/the state today/is trying to correct everything market.// Yes,/monopolies/plan their production,/fight for control of market.// But over market,/and not over anything others!// ...Nothing useful from Togo,/what's the story economyaccumulated for century,/modern farming has not lost. // AND, I'll add,/- can not lose.// Because the market and social division labor/Not detachable.// And the deeper this division labor, /those wider, /more branched¦ market.// A Means,/and his instruments:/money,/price,/taxes,/credit/currency well.// (N. Shmelev, Either power or the ruble).

4. Logical stress(a special increase in tone, accompanied by the intensity of the sound of a stressed syllable, in texts) conventionally indicated by the icon (") (in the examples the letter being stressed is highlighted bold), is allowed only when semantically highlighting the word and phrase in the phrase:

1) within one simple sentence, it is recommended to resort to logical stress no more than once, thus emphasizing new information that is important for a given statement, since changing the place of logical stress changes the meaning of the message as a whole. For example, a sentence Pushkin was born in Moscow may have three options for setting logical stress, depending on what you need to pay attention to: a) PatShkin was born in Moscow; b) Pushkin familyAndwas in Moscow; V) Pushkin was born in Moscowe.

The presence of more than one logical stress in a simple sentence is allowed in a series of homogeneous members, if it is necessary to emphasize each of them: Pushkin's draft is a precious documentent, in which all the articles are recordedAdiy of the creative process, all its aftereffects are preservedecontinuity, all gradual layersenia;

2) in a connected text, logical stress helps the speaker clearly highlight the beginning of a new thought, emphasizes the function words that form the compositional beginnings: firstly, secondly, thus, so, of course, naturally, in the end etc.;

3) stands out accented class of words, the logical emphasis of which is typical for public speaking, since with their help the speaker expresses his attitude to the subject of speech: very, completely, absolutely, not at all, again, again, before, always, annually, usually; is, is not, is not, is possible, should not; important, little, a lot etc.;

4) stand out "reference points" text - words naming the object of speech; first of all, these are terms, as well as words that clarify the meaning of terms and explain them.

Below is an excerpt from N. Shmelev’s article, divided into speech beats, containing intonation markings and logical stress with a focus on pronunciation norms of public speech.

Legend:

(/) continuous oblique line indicates mandatory pauses, (¦ ) broken oblique line - for possible, optional pauses;

- falling intonation(lower tone);

- rising intonation(increasing tone);

(") - logical stress (a special increase in tone, accompanied by the intensity of the sound of the stressed syllable in texts).