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Future directions of development of geospatial data. The role of cartography in development

The study of the history of cartographic science, based primarily on the research of K.A. Salishchev (140), made it possible to single out the main milestones in the development of cartography. The very first cartographic works appeared in primitive society. This can be evidenced by the simplest cartographic images among the peoples of Siberia and Far East; American Indians and Eskimos; Micronesians of Oceania. To this day, drawings relating to the third and second millennium BC have been preserved. Ancient cartographic drawings are known among the peoples of the Ancient East and Egypt. The first scientific cartographic developments appeared in ancient Greece - the Greeks established the sphericity of the Earth and calculated its dimensions, they own the first cartographic projections and the introduction of meridians and parallels into scientific use. The creator of the first image of the Earth was Anaximander of Miletus (610 - 546 BC). Greek thinkers originally imagined the Earth as a disk floating on the surface of the ocean, but already in the fifth century BC, Parmenides suggested that the Earth was spherical. Huge contribution the head of the Library of Alexandria, Eratosthenes (276 - 194 BC), introduced the development of cartographic science. It was he who made the determination of the length of the earth's meridian closest to reality. In his work "Geography", Eratosthenes considered the question of the figure of the Earth, the size and shape of its inhabited land - ecumene, showing the latter on the map.

Hipparchus (190 -126 BC) proposed later to build maps on a grid of meridians and parallels, determining the position of points earth's surface by latitude and longitude. A detailed presentation of the goals of geographical science, as country studies, as well as general characteristics The state of geographical and cartographic knowledge was given by Sgrabon (about 63 BC -23 AD) in his "Geography" in 17 books. In this work, he summarized and systematized a large factual material known by that time.

Theoretical basis Cartographies were laid down by Claudius Ptolemy. In his work "Guide to Geography" in eight books, he predetermined the development of cartographic science for almost fourteen centuries. Ptolemy, developing the regional direction in the development of geography, represented his main task in the cartographic image of the Earth. Criticizing the cylindrical projection, Ptolemy proposed conic and pseudoconic projections, which are still used in an improved form today. Despite the fact that Ptolemy considered the land to be predominant in area over the sea, and Indian Ocean considered as a closed basin, Ptolemy's work was recognized by cartographers and gained authority on long time, thanks to the wealth of factual material, thoughtfulness and rigor of its systematization.

In the IX - X centuries. in the countries of the Arab Caliphate, the so-called "Arab maps" appeared. The execution of these cards was subject to the dogmas of the Koran, which forbade depicting people and animals, so the cards were drawn as diagrams that abstract reality to the maximum, using a compass and ruler in the form of straight lines and arcs of circles.

The further rise of cartography is associated with the onset of the Renaissance. At this time, the development of trade contributed to the rise of navigation, which required grants to help sailors navigate near the coast and on the high seas. So the compass and navigational charts - portolans (XIV-XVI centuries) came into use. Typical portolans did not take into account the sphericity of the Earth, instead of meridians and parallels, portolans covered compass lines showing the direction of the cardinal points of intermediate points. The development of cartography was greatly influenced by the invention of printing in the 15th century, followed by engraving and book printing. In the 16th century in Western Europe Favorable conditions were created that promoted the development of cartographic science and production. Of great importance for mapping open lands were enterprises for the exploitation of the colonies - the Spanish "Chamber for Trade with India", the Dutch and English "East India Companies". These enterprises had special cartographic institutions in which extensive geographical and cartographic material was collected and processed, and geographical maps were also prepared for their own ships. Stable demand for geographical maps has contributed to the emergence a large number private mapping companies. Gerardus Mercator (1512 - 1594) became the most famous among the cartographers of that era, mainly due to his three outstanding works - the map of Europe in 1554, big map world "for navigators" in 1569 and the capital atlas of 1595. Mercator was the first to use a conformal cylindrical projection for a map of the world, explained its significance, convenience and methods of application for navigation, initiating the development of scientific methods for using maps. Mercator used projections in accordance with the shape and position of the mapped territories, as well as the purpose of the map.

Cartography also developed in Russia; in this regard, one can note the outstanding work of Russian cartographers of the 16th century. - "The Big Drawing for the whole Moscow state", as well as the work of the SU. Remezov, which collected and systematized extensive geographical material ("Drawing book of Siberia" (1701), "Chorographic drawing book" (1697-1711), "Service drawing book" (1702-1730), etc. .).

In the second half of the XVII - early XVIII in. cartographic works have taken a prominent place in the activities of the largest academies of sciences in Paris, Berlin and St. Petersburg. A major contribution to science was made by the astronomical and geodetic work of French scientists to determine the shape and size of the Earth. In England, in 1675, in order to facilitate the determination of longitudes at sea, the Greenwich Observatory was established, whose employees made a significant contribution to the development of cartography.

Since the beginning of the XIX century. for armies, detailed and accurate maps areas, the creation of which was taken over by the military topographic services. At the same time, other, new areas of cartographic activity began to appear, brought to life by the development of the natural sciences; geology, meteorology and soil science, as well as economics and statistics. It is with them that many innovations in cartography are associated; isotherms (A. Humboldt, 1817), pseudo-isolines (N. Ravn, 1856), point method, tapes of cargo and passenger flows, etc.

In 1902, the Austrian geographer Karl Peuker suggested the formation of cartography as an independent science of graphic representation of the world around us. Later, the German geographer Max Eckert published the cartographic work "The Science of Maps, Research and the Fundamentals of Cartography", in which the tasks of scientific cartography were charged with considering the whole variety of cartographic works, analyzing the essence, tasks and purposes of maps, establishing certain norms on the basis of which practical cartography did the mapping. Methods and processes for making maps, methods for their study were not included by Eckert in the sphere of interests of scientific cartography.

Subject of cartography. Short review development of cartography.

1.1. The subject of cartography and its relationship with other sciences

In accordance with the state standard, under cartography understand the field of science, technology and production, covering the study, creation and use of cartographic works.

Cartography is also defined as the science of displaying and studying the phenomena of nature and society, through cartographic images, as spatial figurative-sign models.

The first definition of cartography mainly characterizes the structure of cartography as a science and a branch of practical activity; the second - focuses on the wide use of maps and cartographic techniques in the cycles of physical-geographical, socio-economic sciences.

Cartography is subdivided into a number of disciplines. The main ones are: cartography, mathematical cartography, designing and compiling maps, preparing maps for publication and publishing maps, as well as organizing and managing cartographic production.

Cartology studies the general properties of geographical maps, types and methods of use. A special section of cartography forms history cartography, which studies the patterns of development of cartography as a science and a branch of practical activity. big practical value has a systematization of knowledge about cartographic sources.

Mathematical cartography studies ways of constructing mathematical basis kart. Its main subject of research is the theory of cartographic projections. The survey of map projections is carried out for the purpose of mapping.

Design and mapping studies the modeling of cartographic works, the methods and processes for their compilation and editing.

Development of the theory and practice of cartographic generalization one of the main objectives of this discipline.

Map preparation for publication is aimed at studying the methods of graphic and colorful design of maps in order to give clarity to the cartographic image and its technological suitability for reproduction. One of the main tasks of this discipline is the development of the theory of construction sign systems and methods of artistic design of maps (cartographic design).

Card publishing is a discipline that studies the methods and means of making circulations of cards, is one of the sections of general printing.

Organization and the economy of cartographic production was formed in our country in the middle of the last century as a result of the development of a network of cartographic enterprises. The tasks of this discipline include the study and development of methods for the operational management of the production and economic activities of enterprises.

The structure of cartography is constantly evolving, bringing together or separating individual disciplines. For example, the introduction of computer technologies into cartographic production has brought together the processes of designing, compiling and preparing maps for publication.

Cartography is in close connection and interaction with geodesy, photogrammetry, as well as mathematics, geography and art.

Geodesy provides cartography with the initial data for calculating map projections and constructing a cartographic image. Cartography, in turn, taking into account the scale of mapping, affects the accuracy of the geodetic base.

Photogrammetry provides aerial and cosmophotomaterials for compiling (updating) maps. Photogrammetry uses methods for constructing and transforming cartographic projections, methods for cartographic images, methods for compiling and editing maps.

Cartography has long been associated with mathematics. Initially mathematical methods used in the development of map projections. Nowadays, all the disciplines that make up cartography use mathematical methods. Especially this connection has intensified with the use of electronic technology.

On the present stage The development of cartography established strong links between cartography and information theory. Information theory considers a map as a special form of information storage and transmission. The organization of the service of cartographic information applies the development of information theory.

The closest connection between cartography and geography is social. Geography provides cartographers with knowledge of the most important features natural conditions and socio-economic life of society. Geographers widely use the cartographic method in their research.

Cartography has long used the techniques of fine art in the construction of a cartographic image. Since the information transmitted on the map must not only be accurate and reliable, but also be aesthetically expressive, understood by the consumer.

1.2. Brief overview of the development of cartography

The development of cartography is determined by the needs of society. Newly emerging needs determine the emergence of new cartographic products. With the accumulation of experience in creating maps and the use of the achievements of other sciences, the scientific foundations of cartography were created.

Cartographic images - drawings on tiles about the inhabited area - appeared in primitive society, before the birth of writing. The earliest of those that have come down to us belong to the peoples of the Ancient East (Egypt, Babylonia, China) and date back to 4000 - 3000 BC.

1.2.1. Cartography of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome

The first maps in the modern sense appeared in Ancient Greece. The Greeks established the sphericity of the Earth, introduced the scientific concepts of meridians and parallels, and developed for the first time cartographic projections. The first projections were based on geometric construction methods and were developed and applied in the construction sundial and sky maps. The first maps of the starry sky in the central (gnomonic) projection were developed by a Greek astronomer Thales of Miletus (6th century BC).

The scientific foundations of cartography were laid by the Alexandrian astronomer Hipparchus(2nd century BC). He introduced a coordinate system and proposed to build maps, determining the position of points on the earth's surface in latitude and longitude. Hipparchus developed stereographic and equidistant conic projections.

The first maps of the Earth, taken as a ball, were Marin Tire(about 100 BC) a degree grid was plotted on the map. Built the first globe Krates from Malos (2nd century AD).

The ancient period of the development of cartography ended in the era of the Roman Empire with the creation of works Claudius Ptolemy(90 - 168 AD), a Greek scholar who lived in Alexandria. Ptolemy's work "Guide to Geography" included a description of the then known projections, 27 maps of the world, 26 maps of the regions of the Earth (in a conic, in a stereographic projection), a list of settlements, mountains, rivers, the position of which was determined by geographical coordinates (along the meridians and parallels).

Ptolemy's work was fundamental to cartography for the next millennium. During the Renaissance, when Europe mastered the achievements of the culture of Ancient Greece, Ptolemy's work was reprinted many times.

The development of cartography in ancient Rome was influenced by military affairs and the requests of the administration, which controlled a vast territory. To establish links with outlying provinces, paved roads began to be built. By decision of the Senate, they were measured and each mile marked stone pillar indicating the distances.

Road construction materials formed the basis of the first road maps. These Roman road maps (4th century) entered the history of cartography under the name of the Peutinger tables (after the name of the historian, their first owner). Roman road maps were found in 1507.

1.2.2. Cartography in the Middle Ages (5th century - mid-17th century)

In the early Middle Ages, due to feudal fragmentation, the death of the Roman Empire (5th c.) western- European cartography fell into decay. Against this background, the progress of geographical knowledge in China, Armenia and the countries of the Arab world stands out. In Armenia, the work of Ptolemy became known at the end of the 14th century. Geographic knowledge in countries Arab world found practical use for the collection of fees and taxes. In turn, the development of trade contributed to the accumulation and dissemination of geographical knowledge. Scientists from the countries of the Arab world created an extensive geographical literature, rich in factual material, but the maps they created had a peculiar look. The outlines of geographical objects took the form of circles, arcs and straight lines on these maps.

China during the Middle Ages was an independent center of geographical knowledge. For example, the use of the compass, the invention of paper in the 2nd century, and wood engraving at the end of the 6th century speak of the high culture of China for its time. According to literary sources, it is known that the map of all China was compiled by Pei Xu (223-227), summarizing local sources.

The surviving text for the map contains instructions on using a grid of squares as a basis for orienting to the cardinal points and placing objects on the map. The Chinese in the 8th century eastern, central and south Asia, as well as the northeastern coast of Africa and Arabia - according to their own voyages of the first half of the 15th century.

In Europe in the early Middle Ages, only those elements of knowledge were recognized that could serve the interests of the church. Due to the decline of trade, the need for maps was negligible. Geographical maps for a long time acquired the form of "monastic maps". A description of the typical features of monastic maps is given by K.A. Salishchev: “the ocean washing the Earth, the central position of Ye Rusalim, in the east (at the top of the map) paradise with its original inhabitants, primitive outlines of land and seas, perspective signs of settlements and mountains, etc. .P.".

The rise of cartography in Europe is associated with the Renaissance, first in Italy (14th - 15th century), then in other European countries (15th - 16th century). The development of trade caused the rise of navigation. In ship navigation, the compass and navigational charts - portolans (beginning of the 14th century) began to be used. Initially, portolans depicted the Mediterranean and Black Seas. They depicted in detail coastline, with an exaggeration of objects important to navigation. Instead of meridians and parallels, the portolans were covered with a compass grid, which made it possible to determine the cardinal points.

For the first time, a linear scale is indicated on portolans (the numerical scale appeared on maps later, in the 18th - 19th centuries). Portolans were drawn on parchment (made from animal skin), which ensured their durability.

The great geographical discoveries achieved as a result of sea expeditions (15th - 17th centuries) and the astronomical determinations made, which made it possible to clarify the size of the Earth, influenced the development of cartography, increasing the accuracy of maps. The need for cards has increased exponentially. Sailors, many of whom, including Columbus, were cartographers, felt a special need for them. Already in the 15th century The Venetian Fra Mauro made a map of the world, which reflected the results of the expeditions of that time. Italian art during the Renaissance influenced the design of frames, map fonts, and the artistic execution of cartouches. With the move to the 16th century. trade routes from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic became the center of cartographic activity in the Netherlands. In the Netherlands, Abraham Ortelius created the first geographical atlas. The novelty of geographical knowledge, reported by the collection of maps of Ortelius (1570), finally excluded Ptolemy's maps from the modern maps of that time, attributing them to the monuments of antiquity.

But of the achievements of this period, the most notable are the works of the Dutchman Gerard Mercator (1512-1594). His fundamental atlas of the world summarized all available information about the study of the Earth. Mercator first introduced the concept of "atlas" into scientific use, the principles of constructing the mathematical basis of atlas maps.

Other outstanding work Mercator is a map of the world. The map depicted the entire surface of the Earth (and not an eighth of it, as in Ptolemy). Mercator developed a conformal cylindrical projection for the map, which is still used in nautical charts.

The development of navigation, trade and the colonization of new lands increased the need for maps. Satisfaction of this demand became possible with the invention of printing and engraving. Until the middle of the 15th century. cards were multiplied by redrawing by hand, at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. engraving (clean engraving and etching) began to be used to reproduce maps.

The collection and systematization of extensive descriptions and maps of various lands served as the source material for compiling world maps. The territory of Russia on these maps was depicted according to the descriptions of travelers who were in Russia and Russian materials that have not come down to us. Thus, the first maps of Russia created in Europe were the map of Muscovy by the Venetian cartographer Agnese (1525) and the map of the Lithuanian Anthony Vid. A. Vid, using the knowledge of the boyar N.V. Lyatsky, who fled from Moscow repressions in 1534, draws in 1540 and publishes in 1555 a drawing of Muscovy with part of Siberia. On the Mercator map of Russia, the territory of the country in the east is shown up to the river. Ob (1594).

It can be considered that the maps of Russia published in Europe constitute an independent collection. They are historical evidence of the level of geographical knowledge until the end of the 17th century. and the contribution of Russian people to the study of Eurasia.

The first surviving document of Russian cartography is the "Book of the Big Drawing". According to the surviving description, the "Big Drawing" (1550-1570) was a route map with settlements and a network of water and land routes.

In the 17th century the annexation of Siberia and its economic development were accompanied by the drawing up of drawings and descriptions of newly discovered lands. Drawings and descriptions were collected in the offices of the voivods and consolidated maps of Siberia were compiled from them. This is how the “General Drawing of Siberia” was compiled by the Tobolsk governor Peter Godunov (1667) and the “Drawing Book” - the first Russian atlas of Siberia, consisting of 23 maps. These cards were printed from wooden boards. The maps were oriented to the south, did not have a grid, but contained a lot of information about economic, ethpographic values. For world cartography, they were the only reliable sources about Siberia.

Until the end of the 17th century. Russian cartography developed in an original way. Since its inception, it has been of a state character.

Russian maps were compiled according to real drawings and descriptions compiled on the ground. Domestic cartography is not characterized by hypothetical maps of Arabic and medieval Western European cartography.

During this period, the scientific foundations of cartography were developed in mathematical geography, which included related issues of astronomy, history, and mathematical cartography.

1.2.3. Cartography in the 18th-20th centuries.

At 18 .r handicraft production of maps no longer satisfied the developing trade, navigation, military affairs, reliable maps were needed.

In 1824, the Russian Academy of Sciences was established. Cartographic work was concentrated in the Geographic Department of the Academy of Sciences, in which, until the end of the 18th century. the results of state surveys, materials of expeditions, sea voyages and other geographical studies were summarized. Ivan Kirillov published 37 maps of the Atlas of the All-Russian Empire on the basis of filming route surveys, among which the General Map (1734) is especially important, reflecting the geographical knowledge of the country. In 1745, the Atlas of the Russian was published on 20 sheets under the direction of L. Euler. M.V. Lomonosov, who headed the Geographical Department, Special attention focuses on the scientific formulation of cartographic work, the coordinate basis of surveys and maps.

The need for large-scale maps covering large areas has increased. To this end, the dimensions and shape of the Earth are being specified, surveying methods are being improved, and new projections are being developed. Under these conditions, geodesy takes shape as an independent discipline. The triangulation method developed in geodesy made it possible to create the basis for topographic surveys and create topographic maps.

Top 19 in . topography stands out from geodesy. During this period, the issues of mathematical cartography, the compilation and design of maps are reflected in works on geodesy and topography.

The development of small-scale and thematic mapping went beyond the interests of geodesy, so cartography begins to form as an independent branch of knowledge. But for a long time, mathematical cartography remained the most theoretically developed, while the compilation, design and publication of maps remained a craft.

At the same time, the growing need for maps, necessary for the development of the economy of countries and military affairs, required organizational efforts. By the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. in most European countries, state, mainly military, cartographic and geodetic services are being created with their own institutes and production enterprises.

In Russia, such a service - the Card Case - was created in 1797. In 1812, the Card Case was transformed into Military– topographic a business. Since that time, cartography in Russia has been transferred to military subordination.

As in other major maritime powers of the world, a Hydrographic Service was created in Russia (1827). One of its main tasks is the creation of nautical charts.

As a result of the activities of these services, by the middle of the 19th century. major European countries surveyed and created topographic maps of their territories. (The relief was depicted with strokes). In Russia, topographic surveys based on triangulation were carried out for the western, central and southern provinces of the European part, the Caucasus and the border strip of the Asian part of the country. Three-verst (1:126000), ten-verst (1:420000) maps of European Russia were created on the basis.

In the second half of the 19th century military affairs and economic activity increased the requirements for the accuracy of maps. During this period, the relief on topographic maps begins to be depicted by horizontal lines, the scale of surveys is enlarged. Filming that meets the new requirements is carried out mainly for possible theaters of war.

During the First World War (1914-1918), the production of topographic maps increased sharply and a new survey method, aerial photography, began to be introduced. The use of lithography (printing from flat plates) instead of labor-intensive engraving made it possible to increase the circulation of topographic maps in cartographic publishing and lithography. The transition to lithography allowed for the colorful edition of maps (instead of black and white engraving).

The foundations of modern state cartography in our country were laid in 1919 by the creation of the Higher Geodetic Administration (now federal Service"Ros cartography"). Since that time, the Military Topographic Service and Russian Cartography have been cooperating in our country to the present. One of the main tasks of the civil service "Roskartography" is topographic knowledge of the country's territory, surveying, updating and publishing state maps according to unified regulatory documents. In 1923, a system of metric scales was established and the associated one system times graphics and sheet nomenclature based on the International Million Map.

A single projection has been developed - the Gauss-Kruger projection, used to process geodetic measurements and create topographic maps. In the 90s of the 20th century. research in the field of mathematical cartography continues successfully and the development of other theoretical issues has been started by F.N. Krasovsky (1878-1948), V.V. Kavraisky (1884-1954), N.A. Yu.M.Shokalsky (1856-1940), A.A.Borzov (1874-1939). The development of the higher cartographic school in the USSR is also connected with their names.

An important achievement of cartography in the Soviet period at the end of the 1930s was the publication of the Great Soviet Atlas of the World (BSAM), which has not lost its scientific and methodological significance to this day, as well as the publication of wall school maps with a circulation of 3 million copies.

In the mid-1930s, stereophotogrammetric surveying began to change, significantly reducing field work.

During the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945), the military topographic and state cartographic and geodetic service provided the troops with modern topographic and special maps. In total, more than 930 million copies were printed. various cards. By the beginning of 1942, the creation of a topographic map at a scale of 1:100,000 for the European part of the country (up to the Volga) was completed. It was at this time that the State Map of the USSR at a scale of 1:1000000 was made. It worked out methods of generalization and geographic editing of overview maps.

Foreign cartography in the pre-war and the period of World War II (1939-1945) worked mainly for military purposes: grids of rectangular coordinates were introduced on sheets of topographic maps, a transition was made within each country to a single projection of topographic maps. For vehicles, a topographic map at a scale of 1:200,000 was adapted, for aviation - maps at a scale of 1:500,000 - 1:1,000,000. In turn, the use of air and motor transport accelerated the production of filming. During this period, private enterprise cartography is rendered financial support big monopolies. During the war, topographic units were introduced into the armies, equipped with surveying map publishing equipment, which reduced the time for making maps.

The main content of the work of cartographic production in the mid-1950s was: the completion of the USSR mapping program at a scale of 1:100,000, the publication and complete revision and creation of the second edition of a topographic map at a scale of 1:1,000,000 (1952-1958) and the deployment of surveys in scales 1:25000 and 1:10000.

On the basis of the achievements of the country's topographic knowledge, at the end of the 1950s, the scientific and methodological foundations of small-scale general geographic mapping were developed. In 1954, a reference Atlas of the World was created, summarizing the topographic data of the earth's surface and hypsometrically conveying the relief of the land and the bottom of the oceans.

Second World War demanded the mobilization and introduction of new technology in cartographic production not only in the USSR, but also in foreign countries. For example, the US military mapping service has become a large manufacturing facility. Its purpose was to provide maps of territories that were of interest to the armed forces. With the formation of the NATO bloc (1949) in the countries included in the bloc, measures were taken to unify the geodetic and mathematical bases, conventional signs, and the borders of topographic maps.

In 50-70s. resumed work on the creation of comprehensive atlases of individual countries and regions.

In the 1960s, comprehensive atlases of the union republics began to appear in the USSR, which are now evaluated as national atlases of the republics.

The creation of complex thematic atlases belongs to this period: the Marine Atlas in 3 volumes, the Climatological Atlas of the USSR, the Atlas of Agriculture of the USSR.

The achievements of Soviet cartography are recognized by the cartographic community of the world, and the Faculty of Geography of Moscow State University becomes the scientific and cartographic center of the International Geographical Union.

A major achievement of domestic cartography of this period is the completion of work on the creation of a topographic map of the USSR at a scale of 1:25,000. Created and periodically updated state topographic maps serve as the basis for design engineering structures, when creating a variety of cartographic products for the general population. Private entrepreneurial cartography mainly produces mass products: educational, road, tourist maps and city plans that do not require large investments.

At the end of the last century, the theory and practice of using geospatial data, GIS, GIS technologies.

Development of new information technologies allows you to analyze spatial data, simulate the results of decisions made.

1.2.4. The main tasks of modern cartography.

The importance of cartographic products and cartographic information is constantly increasing. The value of the territorial binding of the area (point) is increasing in such activities as public services, entrepreneurship, environmental research, etc. At present, electronic technology makes it possible to produce cartographic products quickly and in large volumes. But traditional cartographic products on paper are no longer enough. With the development of new information technologies, the need of the population for cartographic information embedded in computer systems is increasing.

For example, compilation of national interactive gazetteers and services related to cadastral works.

Fast and timely updating of cartographic products has always been an urgent task of cartography. Aerospace materials allow you to quickly update and expand the content of traditional maps. But updating a specific map is no longer enough at this time, and updating the databases will be required.

Currently, the costs of creating digital terrain models (DTM) are equal to the costs of preparing maps for publication or even exceed them. At the same time, the created DTMs are not flexible. They do not allow taking into account all possible combinations of properties of topographic objects and all combinations of topographic objects. This is due to the creative nature of obtaining and processing topographic information. Therefore, a clear formalization of knowledge about terrain objects and cartographic knowledge is one of the theoretical problems of cartography.

The map did not immediately become what we are used to seeing it at the present time; in its development it has come a long way from primitive images of terrain objects to a modern accurate drawing.

The simplest drawings of the area were known even in primitive society and were made on the bark of trees, clay tablets, and cave walls. Rock paintings found in Italy dating back to the 2nd millennium BC, which depict fields, streams and irrigation canals, have been preserved. Experts consider this plan to be one of the most ancient cadastral plans.

The merit of creating maps in the modern sense of the word belongs to the scientists of Ancient Greece. They established the spherical shape of the Earth, calculated its dimensions (Eratosthenes - I century BC), introduced parallels and meridians into scientific and practical use, and for the first time developed and applied cartographic projections.

Cartography of ancient times reached its highest development during the heyday of the Roman Empire in the works of the Greek mathematician, astronomer and cartographer Claudius Ptolemy (I-II centuries AD). He summed up everything that had been achieved before him in cartography and geography, described the vast expanses of the then known part of the Earth, and developed new cartographic projections.

The maps of this period were a schematic drawing. With the exception of the area immediately adjacent to mediterranean sea, the rest of the Earth looked rather fantastic on these maps. Ptolemy, for example, depicted the Caspian Sea as stretched from west to east, and considered the Indian Ocean to be a closed body of water. Nevertheless, his "Guide to Geography" was striking in the wealth of material and for many centuries gained fame as the most authoritative publication.

In the Middle Ages (V-XI centuries), the Byzantine Empire came to replace the fallen Roman Empire, and all science was entirely put at the service of christian church. Geographical science has declined. The main purpose of the maps was to illustrate theological writings. The maps change their orientation, and instead of heading north, they are oriented to the east, i.e. to the seat of Paradise (Oriens (lat.)- East).

The rise of cartography is associated with that progressive period, which was called the Renaissance (XI-XVI centuries). The development of trade contributed to the rise of navigation. Ships began to be built that could sail far on the high seas. Appear nautical charts are portolans characterized by a high degree of accuracy for that time.

In the XV century. book printing had a great influence on the development of cartography, which reduced their cost, increased accuracy and made wide distribution possible.

The first of the maps, covering most of the Russian state, was compiled in the 2nd half of the 16th century and was called the "Big Drawing". The 16th and 17th centuries for the countries of Western Europe and Russia in particular were marked by a number of remarkable geographical discoveries by Russian scientists and explorers. Ermak's campaign (1581) marked the beginning of the study of Siberia. Ivan Moskvitin (1639) gets to the shores of the Pacific Ocean, Semyon Dezhnev in 1648 bypasses the sea northeastern part Asia; Vladimir Atlasov passes Kamchatka, Erofei Khabarov in 1653 - the Amur region. The extensive materials of these and other expeditions allowed the Russian geographer Semyon Remizov to draw up his famous "Drawing Map of Siberia", i.e. the first Russian geographical atlas.

Particularly extensive cartographic work unfolded during the reign of Peter I. The development of the vast territories of Russia, the satisfaction of the needs of the young fleet, the construction of cities and fortresses on the lands recaptured from the enemy required the creation of new detailed maps for the entire territory of Russia.

A huge role in the development of Russian cartography was played by the great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov. Since 1758, heading the Geographic Department of the Academy of Sciences, he set the task of creating new maps, developed special instructions for the production of these works, and organized a number of large expeditions.

In the 19th century, the journey of Kruzenshtern and Lisovsky (Sev. Arctic Ocean, 1803), Nevelsky (Sakhalin, 1849), Belinghausin and Lazarev (Antarctica, 1819) entered new page in the book of great geographical discoveries. From the very beginning of the 19th century. in Russia, a number of high-quality geographical maps are being created. In 1865 a special ten-verst map of European Russia was created. It was so well made that it did not lose its practical value until the 1920s.

Cartographic production in Russia received further development after 1917. The creation of the State Cartographic and Geodetic Service (now Roskartografiya) was initiated by the signing on March 15, 1919 of a decree establishing the Higher Geodetic Administration.

In 1937, the first volume of the Great Soviet World Atlas (BSAM) was created, which was the first atlas in the history of Soviet cartography. At the World Industrial Exhibition in Paris, BSAM was awarded the Grand Prize.

The Great Patriotic War, of course, left its mark on the development of cartographic science. The main task of modern cartography was to provide maps for the troops who fought in the vast territories of our country, and then Western Europe. After the victory in the Great Patriotic War, cartographers began to complete work on creating topographic maps at a scale of 1:1,000,000 for the entire territory of the country.

In 1954, the Reference Atlas of the World was published, which won universal recognition and was republished in 1967. Among the outstanding cartographic works of the 60s, one can also single out the physical and geographical atlas of the world and the atlas of the peoples of the world.

At present, major new cartographic works are produced almost every year. More and more space among them is occupied by thematic or complex maps and atlases created using the latest technologies with the involvement of the latest achievements of science and technology.

Everything greater value acquire technologies for creating maps using geographic information systems (GIS) and computer graphics. A new industry appears and develops - operational cartography, which allows as soon as possible to create magnificent in design and state-of-the-art cartographic works.

1.4 Map elements, other cartographic
works

We have repeated the word map many times, but so far we have not considered a map as a graphic document, we have not studied the elements of a map, its properties, we have not even given a clearly formulated definition. As is commonly believed, the term "map" comes from Greek word"hartes" - (papyrus paper) and came into use around the 15th century.

The Cartographic Terms Standard defines:

“A map is a reduced, built in a cartographic projection, generalized image of the surface of the Earth, the surface of another celestial body or extraterrestrial space, showing the objects located on them in a certain system of conventional signs.

This definition, which may not be entirely perfect, highlights three features of maps that are very important for understanding the features that distinguish a map from other images of the earth's surface, such as an aerial photograph or a landscape. This:

— mathematically defined construction;

— use of cartographic symbols (codes);

— selection and generalization of depicted phenomena.

The mathematically defined construction of maps provides for the establishment of a strict functional relationship between geographical and rectangular coordinates points of the same name on the terrain and on the map. Such a construction, as it were, includes two actions for the transition from the physical surface of the Earth to its image on a plane. One of them consists in projecting the earth's surface onto the mathematical surface of the earth - the geoid. This projection is carried out orthogonally, by plumb lines perpendicular to the mathematical surface. But due to its complexity, the geoid in cartography is replaced by a surface of an ellipsoid of revolution, which is very similar in shape, i.e. a figure obtained by rotating an ellipse around its minor axis (Fig. 1.1).

Rice. 1.1

It is with respect to this ellipsoid that all geodetic calculations are performed and map projections are calculated.

Another action is to depict the surface of the ellipsoid on a plane. It is impossible to expand the surface of an ellipsoid on a plane without folds and breaks; various kinds of deformations will take place, which in cartography are called distortions. The transition from an ellipsoid to a plane is carried out using cartographic projections that express the relationship between the coordinates of points on the earth's surface and the coordinates of the same points on the plane (map sheet).

When such a dependence is known, it is possible to take into account the distortions of a flat image and, therefore, to determine the actual distances, areas, angles on the map with the necessary accuracy, that is, to obtain the correct data on the location, size and shape of the depicted objects from the maps.

The use of cartographic conventions becomes obviously beneficial when comparing a map with an aerial photograph of the same area. The initial impression may be unfavorable for the card. Indeed, an aerial photograph allows you to see the true picture of the earth's surface, but on the map it is replaced by a system of signs that, as it were, erase many personality traits terrain objects and thereby impoverish the image. However, it can be noted that the use of cartographic signs allows you to perform the following actions:

1) greatly reduce the image in order to cover a significant part of the earth's surface or the entire planet at a glance, while reproducing those objects that, due to reduction, are not expressed on the scale of the map. On aerial photographs, as the scale decreases, the details are difficult to distinguish, and then are completely lost;

2) show the terrain on the map, for example, using contour lines;

3) show not only the appearance of the object, but also indicate its internal properties, for example, give qualitative characteristics to agricultural land, show the temperature and salinity of water, the height and species of trees in forest areas and much more;

4) show the distribution of phenomena that are not perceived by our senses, such as magnetic declination, distortion values, etc.;

5) exclude insignificant aspects of objects and highlight their common and essential features. At the same time, the process of selection and generalization of the depicted phenomena is very important, a process that is called cartographic generalization. Generalization saves on the map only those phenomena that are important in a practical or theoretical sense, it focuses on the transfer of the most significant features of the displayed phenomenon, primarily based on their purpose of the map. It allows you to distinguish the main from the secondary on the maps, to find common patterns in single properties.

Geography Grade 11 Lesson No. Date 09/17/2015

Topic: Cartography. The value of cartography in modern society.

Types of geoimages.

Target: to give students an idea of cartography as a science, to determine its tasks at the present stage. To reveal the importance of cartography in modern society. Familiarize yourself with the types of geographic images. Improve note taking skills.

Lesson type: lesson- lecture

Equipment: various types of maps, textbook, atlases

Lesson structure:

Plan

1. Cartography as a branch of geography.

2. The main stages in the development of cartography.

3. Significance of cartography in modern society.

4. Types of geoimages.

During the classes

Learning new material.

Cartography as a science, its place in the system of geographical sciences.

Cartography occupies a special place in the system of geographical sciences. This is the science that studies the methods of creating and using maps. It is closely related to both physical and economic geography. Cartography methods are widely used in such sciences as geology, oceanology, history and others. Today, cartographic production uses a lot of materials from space photography, the achievements of automation and computer technology. Widespread use of maps in scientific research, national economy, military affairs, the development of transport and many other areas of activity turns this scientific and technical direction into an important branch of economic activity. However, at first cartography was based on the development of topography and geodesy.

The main stages in the development of cartography

The study of the history of cartographic science, based primarily on the research of K.A. Salishchev, made it possible to identify the main milestones in the development of cartography. The very first cartographic works appeared in primitive society. Evidence of this can serve as the simplest cartographic images among the peoples of Siberia and the Far East; American Indians and Eskimos; Micronesians of Oceania. To this day, drawings relating to the third and second millennium BC have been preserved. Ancient cartographic drawings are known among the peoples of the Ancient East and Egypt. The first scientific cartographic developments appeared in ancient Greece - the Greeks established the sphericity of the Earth and calculated its dimensions, they own the first cartographic projections and the introduction of meridians and parallels into scientific use. The creator of the first image of the Earth was Anaximander of Miletus (610 - 546 BC). Greek thinkers originally imagined the Earth as a disk floating on the surface of the ocean, but already in the fifth century BC, Parmenides suggested that the Earth was spherical. A great contribution to the development of cartographic science was made by the head of the Library of Alexandria - Eratosthenes (276 - 194 BC). It was he who made the determination of the length of the earth's meridian closest to reality. In his work "Geography", Eratosthenes considered the question of the figure of the Earth, the size and shape of its inhabited land - ecumene, showing the latter on the map.

Hipparchus (190 -126 BC) later proposed to build maps on a grid of meridians and parallels, determining the position of points on the earth's surface in latitude and longitude. A detailed presentation of the goals of geographical science as regional studies, as well as a general description of the state of geographical and cartographic knowledge, was given by Strabo (about 63 BC -23 AD) in his "Geography" in 17 books. In this work, he summarized and systematized a large factual material known by that time.

The theoretical foundations of cartography were laid by Claudius Ptolemy. In his work "Guide to Geography" in eight books, he predetermined the development of cartographic science for almost fourteen centuries. Ptolemy, developing the regional direction in the development of geography, represented his main task in the cartographic image of the Earth. Criticizing the cylindrical projection, Ptolemy proposed conic and pseudoconic projections, which are still used in an improved form today. Despite the fact that Ptolemy considered the land to be predominant in area over the sea, and considered the Indian Ocean as a closed basin, Ptolemy's work was recognized by cartographers and gained authority for a long time, thanks to the wealth of factual material, the thoughtfulness and rigor of its systematization.

In the IX - X centuries. in the countries of the Arab Caliphate, the so-called "Arab maps" appeared. The execution of these cards was subject to the dogmas of the Koran, which forbade the depiction of people and animals, so the cards were drawn as diagrams that abstract reality as much as possible, using a compass and a ruler in the form of straight lines and arcs of circles.

The further rise of cartography is associated with the onset of the Renaissance. At this time, the development of trade contributed to the rise of navigation, which required grants to help sailors navigate near the coast and on the high seas. So the compass and navigational charts - portolans (XIV-XVI centuries) came into use. Typical portolans did not take into account the sphericity of the Earth, instead of meridians and parallels, portolans covered compass lines showing the direction of the cardinal points of intermediate points. The development of cartography was greatly influenced by the invention of printing in the 15th century, followed by engraving and book printing. In the 16th century, favorable conditions were created in Western Europe, conducive to the development of cartographic science and production. Of great importance for the mapping of open lands were the enterprises for the exploitation of the colonies - the Spanish "Chamber for Trade with India", the Dutch and English "East India Companies". These enterprises had special cartographic institutions in which extensive geographical and cartographic material was collected and processed, and geographical maps were also prepared for their own ships. The stable demand for geographical maps contributed to the emergence of a large number of private cartographic enterprises. Gerard Mercator (1512 - 1594) became the most famous among the cartographers of that era, mainly due to his three outstanding works - the map of Europe in 1554, the large map of the world "for navigators" in 1569 and the capital atlas of 1595. Mercator first used conformal cylindrical projection for a map of the world, explained its significance, convenience and methods of application for navigation, laying the foundation for the development of scientific methods for using maps. Mercator used projections in accordance with the shape and position of the mapped territories, as well as the purpose of the map.

Cartography also developed in Russia; in this regard, one can note the outstanding work of Russian cartographers of the 16th century. - “The Big Drawing of the entire Moscow State”, as well as the works of S. Remezov, in which extensive geographical material is collected and systematized (“Drawing Book of Siberia” (1701), “Chorographic Drawing Book” (1697-1711), “ Service drawing book "(1702-1730), etc.).

In the second half of the XVII - early XVIII century. cartographic works have taken a prominent place in the activities of the largest academies of sciences in Paris, Berlin and St. Petersburg. A major contribution to science was made by the astronomical and geodetic work of French scientists to determine the shape and size of the Earth. In England, in 1675, in order to facilitate the determination of longitudes at sea, the Greenwich Observatory was established, whose employees made a significant contribution to the development of cartography.

Since the beginning of the XIX century. for the armies, detailed and accurate maps of the area turned out to be necessary, the care of creating which was taken over by the military topographic services. At the same time, other, new areas of cartographic activity began to appear, brought to life by the development of the natural sciences; geology, meteorology and soil science, as well as economics and statistics. It is with them that many innovations in cartography are associated; isotherms (A. Humboldt, 1817), pseudo-isolines (N. Ravn, 1856), point method, tapes of cargo and passenger flows, etc.

The value of cartography in modern society.

Maps allow a one-time overview of space in any range - from a small area to the surface of the Earth as a whole. They create a visual overview of the shape, size and mutual position objects, allow you to find their spatial dimensions: coordinates, lengths, areas, heights and volumes. Maps contain the necessary quantitative and qualitative characteristics of these objects and, finally, show the links existing between them: spatial and some others. These properties explain the meaning and value of the cards for practice.

Maps serve as a reliable guide on land and ocean, in the movement of troops and in hiking trips, for flight in an airship and for walking route.

In military affairs, they are the main source of information about the terrain and an indispensable tool for commanding troops and organizing their interaction.

In industrial, energy and transport construction, maps are used as a basis for surveys, design and transfer to nature of an engineering project. Now the best routes railways, highways and pipelines are not found in the field, but are outlined according to topographic maps in the offices of design organizations.

Maps are widely used in agriculture for land management, land reclamation, measures to improve soil fertility, to combat erosion, and in general for accounting and the most correct, effective use all land funds.

Maps are an indispensable tool for school and out-of-school education. They are not only a repository of accumulated geographical knowledge, but also an effective means for their dissemination, the rise of a common culture. It is no exaggeration to say that cards are used to some extent in all spheres of human activity.

Great importance maps were acquired as a means of scientific research, especially geographical ones. Each geographic study, one way or another, proceeds from existing maps, provides materials for their implementation and improvement.

Geographic maps, fixing the position, state and spatial connections specific objects (phenomena) allow not only to economically and expressively express knowledge about the placement of phenomena, but also to find the patterns of this placement. In some branches of knowledge, maps are used as the main means of research.

Scope of using cards as a means scientific research expands rapidly as the pace of scientific progress generally increases. In particular, this expansion is facilitated by advances in the development of informatics and in the development of modeling theory.

The study by computer science of the general problems of collecting, storing and transferring knowledge makes it possible to fully appreciate the advantages of geographical maps as a special form of processing, presentation and analysis of spatial information.

In geography, it is very important to be able to read maps.

The type of the map can be determined by its name, the content of the map can be understood from the application.

On the map, first of all, color tones attract attention. Flowers represent different things.

Hills are indicated by colors on the physical-geographical map. You can draw a colored scale that would indicate the depths of the oceans and seas, and a scale that indicates the lowlands and elevations of the continents.

On the thematic maps, different phenomena are indicated by colors. For example, states, climate, vegetation, soil, etc.

In addition to colors, other conventional signs are also applied to general geographical maps.

The map of geographical zones shows areas where the same plants and animals grow. Geographical zones differ from each other in humidity, heat and seasons. There are 11 of them in total: arctic deserts, tundra and forest tundra, taiga, mixed and deciduous forests, forest-steppes and steppes, semi-deserts and deserts, savannahs, evergreen forests and shrubs, temperate monsoon forests, rain forests, mountain belt.

When getting to know a map, it is especially important to know how to show and delineate features. Rivers should be shown in the direction of flow, cities should be indicated with dots, Gulfs and peninsulas should be limited on three sides.

The cartographic image consists of a series geographical elements, determined by the theme and purpose of the card. For example, the content elements of detailed maps of the area (topographic maps) are: water and the relief of the earth's surface, vegetation cover and soils, settlements, communication routes and means of communication, state and administrative borders and centers, as well as some objects of industry, agriculture and culture . On the fields geographical map and on places free from the cartographic image, auxiliary graphics and texts are placed to facilitate the use of the map: the legend of the map (a set of cartographic symbols used on the map, with the necessary explanations); graphs for measuring distances, angles, areas, coordinates of individual points, steepness of slopes, etc. on a map; background information about the time the map was compiled, about the sources used, etc. Sometimes profiles, diagrams, tables and textual data are also placed on the margins of the map, explaining and supplementing the actual cartographic image.

General geographic maps are very common, on which the main subject of the image is the earth's surface itself with the objects located on it. Other cards are called thematic. They convey with greater completeness and thoroughness any element (or elements) included in the content of a general geographical map (for example, the relief of the earth's surface), or show phenomena that are absent on general geographical maps, for example, the geological structure of the area, climatic conditions etc., in connection with which there are types of thematic maps - geological, climatic, etc.

The concept of geoimages. Classes and types of geoimages

The whole set of maps, photographs, and other similar models can be denoted general term- geoimaging.

Geoimaging- any space-time, large-scale, generalized model of terrestrial (planetary) objects or processes, presented in a graphic figurative form.

In this formulation, the main properties inherent in all geoimages (scale, generalization, the presence of graphic images) are noted, and their specificity is indicated - these are images of the Earth and planets.

Geo-images represent the interior of the Earth and its surface, oceans and atmosphere, pedosphere, socio-economic sphere and areas of their interaction

Types of geoimages

Geoimages are divided into three classes:

flat or two-dimensional - maps, plans, anamorphoses, photographs, photographic plans, television, scanner, radar and other remote images;

three-dimensional, or three-dimensional, - anaglyphs, relief and physiographic maps, stereoscopic, block, holographic models;

dynamic three- and four-dimensional - animations, cartographic, stereo-cartographic films, film atlases, virtual images, etc.

Within each view there are dozens of varieties: maps of various subjects, images in different ranges, block diagrams in any projections and angles. But, in addition, there are many more combined geoimages that combine the properties of different models. Such, for example, are combinations of maps and images: photo maps, orthophoto maps, space maps.

Fig.1

Fig 2

Consolidation of the studied

-What is the importance of cartography for modern society?

- What are the main stages in the development of cartography.

III . Lesson summary

IV .Homework: write an essay "Cards are .."

ABOUT MAP "Geography only emerges from its infancy when topography serves as its basis..." Aleksey Andreevich Tillo

ABOUT MAP "The map is that marvelous instrument of learning the globe which alone can give a person the gift of providence. Julius Mikhailovich Shokalsky (1856 - 1940) - cartographer, oceanographer

ABOUT MAP "The map is the alpha and omega of geography, the beginning and end of any geographical research» . "The map is an incentive to fill empty spaces". “Geographical thinking is thinking that puts its judgments on a map…” . The map is the "second language of geography". Nikolai Nikolaevich Baransky (1881 - 1963) economic geographer "The map is one of the criteria for geography".

THE OLDEST IMAGES OF THE WHOLE WORLD BABYLON MAP OF THE WORLD. 5th century BC e. The map is kept in London at the British Museum

EARTH PARAMETERS 5 c. before. n. e. Pythagoras - the hypothesis of the sphericity of the Earth 4th century. BC e. Aristotle - theoretical evidence of the sphericity of the Earth 1 c. BC e. Eratosthenes - instrumental and computational evidence of the sphericity of the Earth

CARTOGRAPHIC GRID 3 c. before. n. e. Dicaearchus of Messina - drew a diaphragm and a perpendicular to it 1 c. BC e. Strabo - mapped 7 parallel lines at intervals of half an hour and 9 perpendiculars to them 1 c. BC e. Hipparchus - proposed to borrow the division of the circle into 360 * in relation to the cartographic grid; introduced the terms "longitude" and "latitude"

EXTRATERRESTRIAL CARTOGRAPHY Starry Sky on the Globe's Inner Surface Northern Hemisphere ADAM OLEARIA'S GOTHORP GLOBE Southern Hemisphere

EXTRATERRESTRIAL CARTOGRAPHY Globe of Mars Vertical scale exaggerated 20 times Globe of Venus Vertical scale exaggerated 150 times

THE BEGINNING OF MODERN CARTOGRAPHY Fragment of the map of the world by Claudius Ptolemy, unedited, 2nd century BC. n. e. “Geography is a linear image of the entire now known part of the Earth with everything that relates to it in general ... It depicts positions and outlines using only lines and conventional signs ... All this, with the help of mathematics, makes it possible for us to survey the entire Earth in one picture, just as we can view the vault of heaven in its rotation above our head. » Claudius Ptolemy

NAVIGATIONAL CHARTS Map on 12 parchment sheets, the scroll is 6.7 m long and 34 cm wide. Compiled in the 4th century. , copy made in 1264.

MAPS - THE RESULT OF FIELD STUDIES Drawing of the land of Irkutsk city ATLAS S.U. REMEZOVA 1701 Drawing of the city of Tobolsk - maps covering enough large area and called "Drawing again the Great Permian and Pomeranian Pechersk and Dvina countries to the Solovetsky Straits with surrounding dwellings" - a composite sheet "Drawing of the land of the entire waterless and impassable stone steppe» .

MAP IS THE RESULT OF FIELD STUDIES Title page of the runoff atl Vladivo District Atlas published by the Resettlement Administration of Land Management

MAPS FOR SCIENCE DISCOVERY OF NATURAL ZONING Map "Soil zones of the Northern Hemisphere". Compiled by V.V. Dokuchaev in 1899. Soil zones are located concentrically: Boreal Forest Steppe Chernozem Aerial (semi-desert) Lateritic

OUTLINES OF CONTINENTS MAP FOR SCIENCE Maps from the work of A.P. Karpinsky (1888) “On the correctness in the outlines, distribution and structure of continents” Similarities in the outlines of continents Distribution of the largest mountain ranges

MAP FOR SCIENCE MAP V. YU. VIZE (1924) Drift of the schooner “St. Anna "under the command of Lieutenant G. L. Brusilov Map by V. Yu. Vize, compiled in 1924, which shows the vectors of convective currents in the Kara Sea (in miles per day) and the predicted position of the unknown Earth Island V. Yu. Vize on modern map