Phraseological combinations: examples

Semantic fusion

Types of phraseological units according to the motivation of the meaning and

The criterion for selecting types of indecomposable combinations is, first of all, the degree of fusion of individual words in them. The stability and indecomposability of the elements of phraseological turnover is considered, as a rule, from two points of view. Firstly, from the point of view of their semantic cohesion and, secondly, from the point of view of the possibility of morphological changes in the words that make up this turnover.

At the same time, the fusion of turns in meaning is also reflected in their grammatical properties. Thus, the more clearly the semantic indecomposability of a phrase as a whole is expressed, the weaker the grammatical connections become, and sometimes they are completely lost (cf. uneven hour, joke to say, headlong and mislead- to mislead, rub glasses- rub glasses- vter glasses etc.).

According to the degree of lexical indivisibility and grammatical fusion of constituent parts, many researchers, following Acad. V.V. Vinogradov distinguish the following types of phraseological units: phraseological fusions, phraseological units, phraseological combinations.

AT special group it is necessary to single out some quotations, proverbs, sayings and a number of terminological phrases that acquire certain features of phraseological units proper, for example, reproducibility in the same composition and emerging metaphor. Such turns are called phraseologized, they gradually move into one or another group of phraseological units proper. (Note that N.M. Shansky calls them phraseological expressions and includes them in the general composition of phraseology).

Phraseological unions such lexically indivisible phrases are called, the meaning of which is not determined by the meaning of the individual words included in them.

For example, the meaning of turns beat the buckets- "to mess around" from the bay- "thoughtlessly" sodom and gomorrah- turmoil, noise slipshod- "carelessly" how to drink- “certainly” and others are not motivated by the meaning of the constituent components, since, firstly, in the lexical system modern language there are no self-existing words that are complete in meaning buckets, bays, flounders, sodom, gomorrah; second, the meaning of the words beat, lower (later), sleeves, give, drink turns out to be lexically weakened in the conditions of this phrase, even devastated (cf .: the main meanings beat- "strike" lower- "move from top to bottom", sleeves- "a piece of clothing covering the hand"; to give- "give" drink- absorb liquid.

Thus, the main feature of phraseological fusion is its lexical indivisibility, absolute semantic cohesion, in which the meaning of a whole phrase cannot be deduced from the meaning of its constituent words.

Semantically, fusion in most cases turns out to be the equivalent of a word (“a kind of syntactically compound word,” in the terminology of Academician V.V. Vinogradov). For example: inside out- "vice versa", hand on heart- frankly, candidly out of hand- "bad", coward(or coward) celebrate- “to be afraid, to be afraid”, etc.

The grammatical forms of the words that make up the phraseological fusion can sometimes change. For example, in sentences Prokhor also invited Protasov: he was universally educated and ate a dog in mining. Or: - As for fabrics, I am not an expert in them, ask Queen Mary about them. The women ate the dog on that- the relationship between the word is preserved ate and subject of action: he ate, they ate etc. However, on general meaning fusion, such a change in grammatical forms has no effect.

In some splices grammatical forms words and grammatical connections also cannot be explained, motivated from the point of view of the modern Russian language, i.e. they are perceived as a kind of grammatical archaisms. For example: from young to old, on bare feet, in broad daylight, so-so, no matter what, on your mind, to say a joke, to be amazed etc. Outdated grammatical forms of words (and sometimes the word as a whole) and unmotivated syntactic connections only support the lexical indivisibility of the phrase, its semantic unity.

Syntactically, phraseological fusions act as a single member of the sentence. For example, in a sentence: He reproached me all the way for the fact that we ... do nothing, we work carelessly - the highlighted phraseological fusion performs the function of the circumstance of the mode of action. In the offer: His speech puts you in a dead end- fusion is a predicate.

Phraseological turns are the scourge of everyone who studies a foreign language, because, faced with them, a person often cannot understand what in question. Often, in order to understand the meaning of a particular statement, one has to use a dictionary of phraseological combinations, which is far from always at hand. However, there is a way out - you can develop the ability to recognize phraseological units, then it will be easier to understand their meaning. True, for this you need to know what types of them are and how they differ. Special attention in this matter it is worth paying attention to phraseological combinations, since they (due to various ways their classifications) create the most problems. So what is it, what are their distinctive features And in what dictionaries can you find clues?

Phraseology and the subject of its study

The science of phraseology, which specializes in the study of a variety of stable combinations, is relatively young. In Russian linguistics, it began to stand out as a separate section only in the 18th century, and even then at the end of this century, thanks to Mikhail Lomonosov.

Its most famous researchers are linguists Viktor Vinogradov and Nikolai Shansky, and in English language- A. McKay, W. Weinreich and L. P. Smith. By the way, it is worth noting that English-speaking linguists, unlike Slavic specialists, pay much less attention to phraseological units, and their stock in this language is inferior to Russian, Ukrainian or even Polish.

The main subject, on the study of which this discipline focuses its attention, is a phraseological unit or phraseological phrase. What is it? This is a combination of several words that is stable in structure and composition (it is not compiled anew each time, but is used in a ready-made form). For this reason, in syntactic parsing, a phraseological unit, regardless of its type and the length of its constituent words, always appears as a single member of the sentence.

Each language is a unique thing related to its history and culture. It cannot be fully translated without losing its meaning. Therefore, when translating, phraseological units already similar in meaning that exist in another language are most often selected.

For example, the well-known English phraseological combination: "Keep your fingers on the pulse", which literally means "keep your fingers on the pulse", but it makes sense to "keep abreast of events." However, since there is no one hundred percent analogue in Russian, it is replaced by a very similar one: "Keep your finger on the pulse."

Sometimes, due to the proximity of countries, in their languages ​​there are similar phraseological turns, and then there are no problems with the translation. So, Russian expression“to beat the buckets” (to mess around) has its twin brother in the Ukrainian language - “baidyky life”.

Often such expressions appear simultaneously in several languages ​​due to some important event such as Christianization. Despite belonging to different Christian denominations, in Ukrainian, French, Spanish, German, Slovak, Russian and Polish the phraseological unit “alpha and omega” is common, taken from the Bible and meaning “from beginning to end” (completely, thoroughly).

Types of phraseological turns

So far, linguists have not come to the same opinion on the classification of phraseological units. Some additionally include proverbs (“You can’t stay without the sun, you can’t live without a sweetheart”), sayings (“God will not give out - the pig will not eat”) and language stamps (“ hot support"," working environment "). But so far they are in the minority.

On the this moment The most popular in the East Slavic languages ​​is the classification of the linguist Viktor Vinogradov, who divided all set phrases into three key categories:

• Phraseological fusions.
• phraseological unity.
• phraseological combinations.

Many linguists correlate fusion and unity with the term "idiom" (by the way, this word has the same root as the noun "idiot"), which is actually a synonym for the noun "phraseologism". This is due to the fact that sometimes it is very difficult to draw a line between them. This name is worth remembering, since in English phraseological unions, unities, combinations are translated precisely with its help - idioms.

Question about phraseological expressions

Colleague Shansky insisted on the existence of a fourth type - expressions. In fact, he divided Vinogradov's phraseological combinations into two categories: combinations proper and expressions.

Although Shansky's classification leads to confusion in the practical distribution of set phrases, it allows us to consider this linguistic phenomenon more deeply.

What is the difference between phraseological fusions, phraseological units, phraseological combinations

First of all, it is worth understanding that these stable units were divided into these types according to the level of lexical independence of their components.

Turnovers that are absolutely inseparable, the meaning of which is not related to the meaning of their components, were called phraseological fusions. For example: “to sharpen folly” (to have a stupid conversation), to wear one "s heart on one" s sleeve (to be frank, literally means "to wear a heart on your sleeve"). By the way, figurativeness is characteristic of adhesions, most often they arise from folk speech, especially outdated expressions or from ancient books.

They are a more independent species, in relation to its components. Unlike splices, their semantics are determined by the meaning of their constituents. For this reason, puns are included here. For example: “small and daring” (a person who does something well, despite his unimpressive external data) or Ukrainian phraseological unit: “katyuzі on merit” (the guilty person received a punishment corresponding to his own misconduct). By the way, both examples illustrate unique trait unity: rhyming consonances. Perhaps that is why Viktor Vinogradov included sayings and proverbs among them, although their belonging to phraseological units is still disputed by many linguists.

The third type: free phraseological combinations of words. They are quite noticeably different from the two above. The fact is that the value of their components directly affects the meaning of the entire turnover. For example: "unrestrained drunkenness", "raise the issue."

Phraseological combinations in Russian (as well as in Ukrainian and English) have a special property: their components can be replaced by synonyms without loss of meaning: “to hurt honor” - “to hurt pride”, “crimson ringing” - “melodic ringing”. As an example from the language of the proud British, the idiom to show one's teeth (show teeth), which can be adapted for any face: to show my (your, his, her, our) teeth.

Phraseological expressions and combinations: distinctive features

The classification of Viktor Vinogradov, in which only one analytical type (phraseological combinations) stood out in composition, was gradually supplemented by Nikolai Shansky. It was quite easy to distinguish between idioms and combinations (because of their difference in structure). But the new unit of Shansky - the expression (“to be afraid of wolves - do not go into the forest”) was more difficult to distinguish from combinations.

But, if you delve into the question, you can see a clear difference, which is based on the meaning of phraseological combinations. So, expressions consist of absolutely free words, fully possessing independent semantics (“not all is gold - what glitters”). However, they differ from ordinary phrases and sentences in that they are stable expressions that are not combined in a new way, but are used in finished form, as a template: “radish horseradish is not sweeter” (Ukrainian version “radish horseradish is not malted”).

Phraseological combinations (“to give a head to cut off” - “to give a hand to cut off”) always have several words with an unmotivated meaning in their composition, while all components of expressions are absolutely semantically independent (“Man - it sounds proud”). By the way, this feature of them makes some linguists doubt that expressions belong to phraseological units.

Which combination of words is not a phraseological phrase

Phraseologisms, from a lexical point of view, are a unique phenomenon: on the one hand, they have all the features of phrases, but at the same time they are closer in their properties to words. Knowing these features, one can easily learn to distinguish stable phraseological combinations, units, fusions or expressions from ordinary phrases.

• Phraseologisms, like phrases, consist of several interconnected lexemes, but most often their meaning is unable to go beyond the sum of the meanings of their components. For example: “lose your head” (stop thinking sensibly) and “lose your wallet”. The words that make up the phraseologism are most often used in a figurative sense.
• When used orally and writing the composition of phrases is formed anew each time. But unities and fusions are constantly reproduced in finished form(what they have in common with speech cliches). Phraseological combination of words and phraseological expression in this matter are sometimes confusing. For example: “hang your head” (to be sad), although it is a phraseological unit, each of its components is able to freely appear in ordinary phrases: “hang a coat” and “lower your head”.
• Phraseological turnover (due to the integrity of the meaning of its components) in most cases can be safely replaced with a synonymous word, which cannot be done with a phrase. For example: the expression "servant of Melpomene" can be easily changed to a simple word "artist" or "actor".
• Phraseologisms never act as names. For example, the hydronym "Dead Sea" and phraseological combinations " dead Season"(unpopular season)," lie dead weight "(lie unused load).

Classification of phraseological units by origin

Considering the question of the origin of phraseological combinations, expressions, units and unions, they can be divided into several groups.

Other classifications: Petr Dudik's version

• In addition to Vinogradov and Shansky, other linguists also tried to separate phraseological units, guided by their own principles. So, the linguist Dudik singled out not four, but as many as five types of phraseological units:
• Semantically inseparable idioms: “to be on a short footing” (to know someone closely).
• Phraseological units with a freer semantics of the constituent elements: “soap your neck” (punish someone).
• Phraseological expressions, consisting entirely of independent words, to the total value of which it is impossible to find a synonym. Dudik mainly refers to them sayings and proverbs: "A goose is not a comrade to a pig."
• Phraseological combinations are phrases based on a metaphorical meaning: “ blue blood", "Hawkeye".
• Phraseological phrases. They are characterized by the absence of metaphor and the syntactic unity of the components: “big swell”.

Classification by Igor Melchuk

Apart from all of the above is Melchuk's classification of phraseological units. According to it stands out significantly more species which fall into four categories.

• Degree: full, semi-phrase, quasi-phrase.
• The role of pragmatic factors in the process of phraseologism formation: semantic and pragmatems.
• Which one it refers to: lexeme, phrase, syntactic phrase.
• Component of a linguistic sign that has undergone phraseologization: sign syntactics, signifier and signified.

Classification by Boris Larin

This linguist distributed according to the stages of their evolution, from ordinary phrases to phraseological units:

• Variable phrases (analogous to phraseological combinations and expressions): "velvet season".
• Those that have partially lost their primary meaning, but were able to acquire metaphor and stereotyping: "keep a stone in your bosom."
• Idioms that are completely devoid of the semantic independence of their components, as well as that have lost touch with their original lexical meaning and grammatical role (analogous to phraseological fusions and unity): "out of hand" (bad).

Common examples of phraseological combinations

Below are a few more well-known set phrases.

Although the classification of Vinogradov and Shansky does not apply to the language, however, it is possible to select stable phrases that can be classified as phraseological combinations.
Examples:

• Bosom friend - bosom buddy (bosom friend - bosom buddy).
• A Sisyfean labor (Sisyphean labor).
• A pitched battle - a fierce battle (a fierce battle - a fierce battle).

Phraseological dictionaries

Availability a large number classifications is due to the fact that none of them gives a 100% guarantee of the absence of errors. Therefore, it is still worth knowing in which dictionaries you can find a hint if you cannot accurately determine the type of phraseological unit. All dictionaries of this type are divided into monolingual and multilingual. The most famous books of this kind are translated below, in which examples can be found set expressions, the most common in the Russian language.

• Monolingual:"Educational Phraseological Dictionary" by E. Bystrova; "A burning verb - a dictionary of folk phraseology" by V. Kuzmich; "Phraseological dictionary of the Russian language" A. Fedoseev; “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Literary Language” by I. Fedoseev and “Big Explanatory Phraseological Dictionary” by M. Michelson.
• Multilingual:“Big English-Russian Phraseological Dictionary” (twenty thousand phraseological turns) by A. Kunin, “Big Polish-Russian, Russian-Polish Phraseological Dictionary” by Y. Lukshin and Random House Russian-English Dictionary of Idioms by Sofia Lubenskaya.

Perhaps, having learned that sometimes it is not easy to immediately distinguish what kind a particular phraseological unit belongs to, this topic may seem incredibly complicated. However, the devil is not as terrible as he is painted. main way to develop the ability to correctly find a phraseological combination of words among other phraseological units - to train regularly. And in the case of foreign languages- study the history of the emergence of such phrases and memorize them. This will not only help in the future not to get into awkward situations, but will also make the speech very beautiful and imaginative.

→ Phraseological unions, unity, combinations and expressions

Phraseological unions, unity, combinations and expressions

Phraseological turns in terms of merging their constituent parts

Phraseological turns existing in Russian literary language, are currently an extremely complex and diverse phenomenon. They differ from each other in their origin, stylistic and artistic and expressive qualities, and what they represent in terms of structure, lexical and grammatical composition and the fusion of their constituent parts into a single semantic whole.

From the point of view of merging the parts that make up phraseological turns, they can be divided into four groups:

The first two groups constitute semantically indivisible phrases. They are equivalent in terms of their meaning to one word. The third and fourth groups, i.e., phraseological combinations and phraseological expressions, are already semantically segmented turns. Their meaning is equivalent to the semantics of their constituent components.

Phraseological unions

Phraseological fusions are such semantically indivisible phraseological turns in which the integral meaning is completely inconsistent with the individual meanings of their constituent words. The meaning of this kind of phraseological turns is just as unmotivated and completely conditional as the semantics of words with a non-derivative basis.

For example, phraseological turns "" (to mess around) and "head over heels" (recklessly) are just as unmotivated and symbols phenomena of objective reality, such as compound words such as “imitate”, “peer”, “headstrong”, etc., where the derivativeness is not felt at all and the meaning of the word is absolutely inconsistent with the meanings of their constituent parts. Indeed, just as the meaning of the word "headlong" is not deduced from the meaning of the parts striving- down (cf.: rapids, impetuous etc.) and chapters(cf.: chief, head etc.), and the meaning of the expression "head over heels" is not deduced from the meaning of the words outline and head.

Thus, phraseological fusions are such designations of certain phenomena of reality that are similar to what we observe in words with a non-derivative stem, in words in which the sign underlying the name is no longer felt. The sign underlying the name, both in non-derivative words and in phraseological fusions, can be revealed only from a historical point of view.

There are essentially no words with their independent meanings in phraseological fusions. The words included in them do not have any separate meanings. The meaning of the whole is not derived here and does not follow from the meaning of its constituent components.

The expression “uneven hour”, which is a phraseological fusion, is equal in meaning to “what if” (for example, uneven hour he will notice it). In its semantics, it is completely inconsistent with the meanings that are characteristic of the words "uneven" and "hour".

Such a turnover as “and no nails” is equal in meaning to the words “basta”, “enough”, “nothing more”. Its integral meaning is phraseological unit not made up of word meanings and no nails and does not follow from those individual meanings that are inherent in these words in their free use.

If the elements that make up the phraseological fusion have words that sound the same with them, then this ratio is purely homonymous.

So, for example, the combination of the words “wash the bones” on the one hand, can appear before us as a phraseological fusion, the meaning of which does not follow from the real meanings of the individual words “wash” and “bones” (gossip), but on the other hand, it can be the free use of these words in their direct, nominative meaning.

Thus, phraseological fusions are the equivalents of words, subsumed under certain grammatical categories as single, absolutely indecomposable semantic units. As examples one can cite such phraseological fusions as “get into a mess”, “sharpen balusters”, “beat the bucks”, where there are obsolete, obsolete words: slippage(machine for twisting ropes), balusters(turned railing posts), buckets(chocks for making small wood chips).

Secondly, due to the presence of grammatical archaisms within the phraseological fusion.

As examples, we can point out the phraseological fusions “sloppy”, “headlong”, in which the archaic form will be the gerunds “later”, “breaking” (in modern Russian, gerunds of the perfect form are formed, therefore it should have been “lowering”, “ breaking”, and not “later”, “breaking”; the phrase “now you let go” (cf. letting go), “dark is the water in the clouds” (cf. in the clouds) and etc.

Thirdly, due to the absence within its boundaries of a living syntactic connection between its constituent words, the presence of syntactic disorder and indivisibility. Compare, for example, phraseological fusions “than light”, “how to drink”, “tell a joke”, there was no”, “at least where”, “on your mind”, in which there are clear and distinct syntactic links between words, motivated from the point of view of modern grammatical rules, does not exist.

Phraseological units

The second group of phraseological turns are phraseological units. They are such phraseological units that, like phraseological fusions, are semantically indivisible and integral, but in them, unlike phraseological fusions, their integral semantics is already motivated by the individual meanings of their constituent words. The indecomposable meaning of phraseological units arises as a result of the merging of the meanings of their individual parts in a single generalized figurative semantics of the whole.

The semantic indivisibility of such phraseological turns brings them closer to phraseological fusions, and their semantic derivative, the conditionality of their meaning by the meaning of individual words, distinguishes them from phraseological fusions.

If we take phraseological units as examples: “”, “pull the strap”, “bury talent in the ground”, “seven Fridays in the week”, “floats shallowly”, “suck it out of your finger”, “the first pancake is lumpy”, “put your teeth on shelf, etc., - then their meanings, in contrast to phraseological fusions, are derivative, motivated and arising from the semantics of the words that form them. In this respect, they are similar to words with a derived stem, i.e., a stem divided into morphological parts. However, it should be noted that this motivation, the derivativeness of the considered phraseological units is not direct, but indirect. All very numerous phraseological units in the Russian language are figurative expressions, constituent units, the understanding of which is necessarily connected with the understanding of the inner figurative core on which they are built.

The property of real-life figurativeness is the main property of phraseological units. This is what distinguishes them from homonymous free combinations of words.

Such combinations of words as: “soap your head”, “take it in your own hands”, “plug it in your belt”, “ride it on blacks”, etc., are equally possible as phraseological units (then these will be figurative expressions) and as ordinary free combinations of words (then these words will be used in their direct, nominative, meanings).

Unlike phraseological fusions, phraseological units do not represent a completely frozen mass: their constituent parts can be separated from each other by insertions of other words. This property of phraseological units sharply separates them not only from phraseological fusions, but also from most phraseological combinations and phraseological expressions.

Phraseological fusions and phraseological units as equivalents of words are often combined into one group. In such cases they are usually called idioms or idiomatic expressions. Phraseological fusions and phraseological units (“I ate a dog”; “in all Ivanovo”, “break into open door»; "neither to the village, nor to the city"; "rubbed to powder"; “Siamese twins”, etc.) are opposed by phraseological combinations and phraseological expressions that are not semantically indivisible equivalents of words, but are semantically segmented phrases, the meaning of which fully corresponds to the meaning of the words that form them (“frown your eyebrows”; “sworn enemy”; "verification of execution"; "struggle for peace", etc.).

Phraseological combinations

Phraseological combinations are stable combinations of words in which there are words both with free use and with associated ones.

Consider the turnover "bosom friend". Before us is a phraseological combination made up of two words. Of these, the word "friend" has free use. It can be combined not only with the word "bosom", but also with a number of other words, very different in their lexical meaning, expressive-stylistic coloring, etc. As for the word "bosom", it is, as it were, attached to the word “friend” and can only be used in speech with him.

Another example: phraseological combinations "delicious question", "delicious situation" - combinations of the word "delicate" with the words "question" and "position".

The word "delicious" in the appropriate sense appears only in combination with these two words, that is, it has a related use. As for the word "question" and "position". then they have free use and can be combined with a variety of words.

Let us give some other examples of phraseological combinations: “break your nose”, “fragile boat”, “pitch hell”, “pitch darkness”, “sudden death”, “grin your teeth”, “biting frost”, “frown your eyebrows”, “hang your nose " etc.

Therefore, phraseological combinations are called such kind of turnovers that are stable in their composition, which are formed from words with a free and phraseologically related meaning.

Phraseological combinations have almost no homonymous free phrases. their peculiarity is that their constituent words with phraseologically related meanings can be replaced by synonymous ones ( sudden death - sudden death, bloody nose - break the nose etc.). The wider the range of words with which a member of a phraseological combination that has a non-free meaning can link, the closer this phraseological combination is to the category of phraseological expressions.

Phraseological expressions

Phraseological expressions one should name such phraseological units that are stable in their composition and use, which are not only semantically articulated, but also consist entirely of words with free meanings (“all ages are submissive to love”, “wholesale and retail”, “seriously and for a long time”, “ to be afraid of wolves - do not go into the forest", "socialist competition", "not all that glitters is gold", etc.).

They differ from phraseological combinations in that they do not contain a single word with a phraseologically related meaning. The words that make them up cannot have synonymous substitutions that are possible for words with a non-free meaning in the group of phraseological combinations (For example, open one's mouth open one's mouth).

By the nature of the connections of the words that make them up and by their general meaning, they do not differ in any way from free phrases.

main specific trait, delimiting them from free combinations of words, lies in the fact that in the process of communication they are not formed by the speaker, as the latter, but are reproduced as ready-made units with a constant composition and meaning.

The use of the phraseological expression “All ages are submissive to love” differs from the use, for example, of the sentence “Poems conquered readers with their sincerity and freshness” in that they are taken from memory as a whole, just like a single word or phraseological units equivalent to a word, while the sentence “The poems conquered the reader with their sincerity and freshness” is created by the speaker according to the laws of Russian grammar from individual words in the very process of communication.

Among phraseological expressions, there are both predicative phrases equal to a sentence, and combinations that are part of a sentence: “and Vaska listens and eats; “good impulses are destined for us”, “man - this sounds proud”; "work successes"; "on the this stage»; "catch up and overtake"; “Without difficulty, you can’t even pull a fish out of a pond”; “Looks at a book, but sees a fig”; “radish horseradish is not sweeter”, etc.

The classification of phraseological units, as a rule, is often limited to considering them only from the point of view of the degree of merging of their constituent parts. However, phraseological turns do not represent uniformity in their structure and lexical and grammatical composition.

Phraseologisms are already difficult in themselves: besides their characteristic features we need to remember them meaning which, by the way, is not always "derived" from the meanings of component words. It is by the "fusion" of meanings that phraseological units are divided into phraseological fusions, phraseological units, phraseological combinations and phraseological expressions.

Phraseological unions, or idioms, are such lexical indivisible phrases, the meaning of which is not determined by the meaning of the individual words included in the bottom.Phraseological fusions, thus are a prime example maximum "solidity" of the components of the phraseological unit. As the most characteristic signs of adhesions, we note the following: lexical indivisibility, semantic solidarity, one member of the sentence. In general, phraseological fusions most clearly demonstrate the concept of "phraseologism".

Perfectly illustrates the category of phraseological fusion phraseologism "beat the buckets". Beat the thumbs- means, to idle, to idle. This expression is understandable to everyone, but its “literal” meaning has little to do with the meaning of “final”: buckwheat called logs, respectively, beat the buckets - cut the logs, process them in a special way(it was from this wood that spoons were later made). In other words, beating the bucks was not such an easy thing to do. As you can see, the value of the entire expression is not derived from the value of its individual components, hence - voila! - in front of us really phraseological fusion.

Among other examples of idioms, we note the most significant units for us:

out of the blue, sodom and gomorrah, topsy-turvy, hand on heart, out of hand, coward to celebrate, from young to old, on bare feet, mediumin broad daylight, without hesitation, so-so, wherever it went, on your mind, to say a joke, to be amazed and etc.

Phraseological units- This lexically indivisible phrases, the general meaning of which is already motivated to some extent figurative meaning the words that make up this turn. hallmarks phraseological units are the ability to "understand" the meaning both in the literal and figurative sense, as well as possibility of insertionbetween components of a phraseological unit of other words.

Consider the expression "pouring water on the mill", What means " by their actions, behavior indirectly help someone". This expression goes well with direct value (i.e. literally pour water on the mill- to a water mill that rotates under the influence of water power), and with the value portable with which we are already familiar. In addition, this expression often occurs with inserts from pronouns and adjectives: pour water on St. oyu mill, pour water on mine mill, pour water on his mill, pour water on someone else's mill and under.

Vivid examples of phraseological units are expressions: throw dust in your eyes, keep a stone in your bosom, go with the flow, go into your shell, suck blood with milk from your finger; first violin, freezing point, inclined plane, center of gravity, specific gravity and etc.

Phraseological combinations- This stable revolutions, the value of which depends entirely on the value of their constituent components. In other words, such phraseological units retain relative semantic independence , showing its significance in extremely closed circle of words . As a rule, in such phraseological units we can distinguish permanent member, which does not change, is a kind of basis of expression, and variable member, i.e. able to change, vary. For example, the expression "tearfully ask" may look like "tearfully beg" and others. So, “tearfully” is a constant component, and “beg”, “ask” and other interpretations are variable components. Similarly: burn down can from shame, from shame, from shame, from love, impatience, envy and etc.; take maybe melancholy, meditation, annoyance, anger, fear, horror, envy, hunting, laughter etc. Despite the variety of variants of the variable component, phraseological combinations require only a certain set of words - a rather closed one: for example, one cannot say “ takes loneliness" or " takes the disease". As a rule, such expressions are "friendly" with their synonyms: touch the sense of honor = touch the sense of honor.

Phraseological expressions- This combinations of words that are reproduced as ready-made speech units. The lexical composition and meaning of such phraseological units is constant. The meaning of phraseological expressions depends on the meaning of the words included in their composition. becoming Traditional phraseological units of this type do not contain words with a limited meaning. Also in phraseological expressions components cannot be replaced. Phraseological expressions include proverbs, sayings, quotes, sayings, which acquired the features of generalization, figurative typification, those. turned into metaphors.

These are lexical units known to many: if the enemy does not surrender, he is destroyed; you need to eat to live, not live to eat; the dog barks - the wind carries; a rolling stone gathers no moss; like a dog in the hay: she does not eat herself and does not give to cattle; you can't see the forest for the trees; that's where the dog is buried; man in a case; trishkin caftan; wise gudgeon; and the chest just opened; to be or not to be: that is the question; No matter how you feed the wolf, you still look at the vles and etc.

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Phraseological unions such lexically indivisible phrases are called, the meaning of which is not determined by the meaning of the individual words included in them. For example, the meaning of turns to beat the buckets is “to mess around”, from the bay-floundering is “rashly”, Sodom and Gomorrah is “bustle, noise”, carelessly, how to give drink is “certainly” and others are not motivated by the meaning of the components components, since, firstly, in the lexical system of the modern language there are no independently existing words that are full in meaning buckets, bays, flounders, sodom, gomorrah; second, the meaning of the words beat, lower (later), sleeves, give, drink under the conditions of this phrase, it turns out to be lexically weakened, even devastated (cf .: the main meanings are to beat - “to strike”, to lower - “to move from top to bottom”, sleeves - “part of clothing covering the arm”; give - “hand over”, drink - “ absorb liquid).

Thus, the main feature of phraseological fusion is its lexical indivisibility, absolute semantic cohesion, in which the meaning of a whole phrase cannot be deduced from the meaning of its constituent words.

Semantically, fusion in most cases turns out to be the equivalent of a word (“a kind of syntactically compound word,” in the terminology of Academician V.V. Vinogradov). For example: inside out- "vice versa", hand on heart- “frankly, sincerely”, out of hand - “badly”, coward (or coward) celebrate- “to be afraid, to be afraid”, etc.

The grammatical forms of the words that make up the phraseological fusion can sometimes change. For example, in sentences Prokhor also invited Protasov: he was universally educated and ate a dog in mining(Shishk.) or: - As for fabrics, I am not an expert in them, ask Queen Mary about them. The women ate the dog on that(A.K.T.) - the relationship between the word ate and the subject of the action is preserved: he ate, they ate etc. However, such a change in grammatical forms does not affect the general meaning of the fusion.

In some fusions, the grammatical forms of words and grammatical connections can no longer be explained, motivated from the point of view of the modern Russian language, i.e. they are perceived as a kind of grammatical archaisms. For example: from young to old, on bare feet, in broad daylight, without hesitation(or hesitating) so-so, no matter what, on your mind, tell a joke, wonder etc. Outdated grammatical forms of words (and sometimes the word as a whole) and unmotivated syntactic connections only support the lexical indivisibility of the phrase, its semantic unity.

Syntactically, phraseological fusions act as a single member of the sentence. For example, in a sentence He reproached me all the way for the fact that we ... do nothing, we work carelessly(S. Antonov) the highlighted phraseological fusion performs the function of the circumstance of the mode of action. In a sentence By his speech confuses you(Vyazemsky) fusion is a predicate.

Note. Phraseological fusions are called idioms in a different way (gr. idiōma - characteristic only given language indecomposable phrase, from the Greek. idios - peculiar).

Phraseological combinations such stable turns are called, the general meaning of which depends entirely on the meaning of the constituent words. Words in a phraseological combination retain relative semantic independence, however, they are not free and show their meaning only in conjunction with a certain, closed circle of words, for example: the word is tearfully combined only with words ask, beg. Consequently, one of the members of the phraseological combination turns out to be more stable and even constant, the other - variable. The presence of permanent and variable members in combination noticeably distinguishes them from adhesions and unities. The meaning of constant members (components) is phraseologically related. For example, in combinations burn with shame and longing takes constant will burn and takes, since it is these words that will turn out to be the main (core) elements in other phraseological combinations: to burn - from shame, from shame, from shame; burn - from love; burn - from impatience, envy; takes - longing, meditation; takes - annoyance, anger; takes - fear, horror; takes - envy; beret - hunting; beret - laughter. The use of other components is impossible (cf.: “burn with joy”, “takes a smile”), this is due to the existing semantic relationships within the language system. The meanings of such words are phraseologically related in the system of these revolutions (see § 2), i.e. are implemented only with a certain range of words.

Phraseological combinations differ from phraseological unions and unities in that they are not absolutely lexically indivisible. Despite the phraseological isolation of this type of phrases, even lexically non-free components can be replaced by a synonym without prejudice to the general phraseological meaning (cf.: bow your head - lower your head; sit in a puddle - sit in a galosh; furrow eyebrows - furrow eyebrows etc.). This creates favorable conditions for the emergence of variants of phraseological units, and often synonyms.

The syntactic connections of words in such phrases correspond to existing norms, according to which free phrases are also created. However, unlike the latter, these connections are stable, indecomposable and always reproduced in the same form, semantically inherent in one or another phraseological unit.

Trishkin's caftan, a man in a case, from a ship to a ball, an idealist carp, etc. The same can be said about proverbs that have lost their instructive part, for example: hunger is not an aunt (the continuation is already forgotten - the pie will not slip), a dog in the manger (the second part is omitted: she does not eat herself and does not give to others) etc. Sayings are mostly included in different groups phraseological turns.

Of the complex terms, phraseologized expressions include those that have acquired a new meaning, for example: absolute zero - about the low significance of a person, etc.