History of Russia XVII century. Church schism of the 17th century in Russia and the Old Believers

Considering the 17th century, the events and the change of rulers, historians characterize this period as a "rebellious age", a century when an "unborn sovereign" could ascend the royal throne. It is in this century that the dynasty of the last emperor of Russia, the family, originates. The Russian economy is still based on agriculture, new territories are being developed in the Volga region, Siberia and on the southern borders. The first manufactory is born.

Trade, in a country that does not have access to the sea, develops poorly. There are changes in cultural life - the spread of secular knowledge, in painting, architecture and sculpture, there is a distance from the canons of the church. The church itself is weakened, it is subject to the state. Speaking of the 17th century, the events of the internal and external activities States, one should refer to several early period- the death and ascension to the reign of Boris Godunov.

Boris Godunov

Boris Fedorovich Godunov, after the death of his father, in 1569, was brought up by his uncle, the landowner Dmitry Godunov. He served as guardsman with Grigory (Malyuta) Skuratov, who headed the "oprichny detective" under Ivan IV, was married to his daughter. Having become a boyar in the autumn of 1580, Boris Fedorovich and his relatives, gaining influence, acquire a significant position among the nobility of Moscow. Clever, cautious, able to choose the right moment for action, Godunov possessed necessary qualities politics.

Boris Fedorovich, in the last years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, was close to the king, influenced his court. After the death of Ivan IV, Fedor, his son, was crowned on the throne. The king suffering from dementia needed an adviser, a country in control. A council of trustees was composed from among the boyars, and Godunov was among these boyars. Thanks to his skillful actions, the council fell apart, opponents of Boris Godunov were subjected to various repressions. The actual power in the state passed to Boris Fedorovich.

In 1581, when strange circumstances(from a stab wound), the young Tsarevich Dmitry dies, in 1589 - Fedor Ioannovich died. Under the cries of the crowd "Boris to the kingdom", Godunov was crowned the kingdom. Thus ended the Rurik dynasty. Strengthening the foundations of the state was the core of Boris Fedorovich's policy, which he pursued within the country. The introduction of the patriarchate in 1859 strengthened the position of the king. Thanks to the sustained line, the internal policy of the tsarist government was productive.

On the outskirts of Russia, fortifications and fortresses appear, urban construction is underway, and St. George's Day is being restored. Boris Fedorovich was the first to invite foreign specialists to work and send noble offspring abroad to study. In order to unify society, he stopped repressions against the boyars. Started to explore the Volga region. Godunov's foreign policy characterizes him as a skilled diplomat. He was able to conclude a successful peace treaty with Sweden, returning the captured Russian lands. The lean years of 1601 - 1603, the famine that began, caused massive discontent among the population and led to a riot led by Cotton in 1603 - the first mass uprising of the "mob", which was soon suppressed.

False Dmitry I

The year 1603 was marked not only by the rebellious performance of Cotton. This year, "Tsarevich Dmitry" appears - a runaway monk Otrepyev, known as. Desiring to receive the western Russian lands, the king of Poland and Grand Duke Lithuanian Sigismund III decides to use the impostor for his own purposes. The king gives the money necessary for the army and allows the gentry to participate in the campaign. The impostor promises to marry the daughter of Sambir headman Mnishek - Marina, to give western territories Poles and promote the introduction of Catholicism in Russia.

In the summer of 1604, a combined detachment of four thousand, led by False Dmitry I, landed near the Dnieper. The detachment is replenished with villagers and townspeople, False Dmitry acts on Moscow. In May 1605, fate presents a gift to the impostor - Tsar Boris Fedorovich suddenly died. Part of the government troops went over to his side and in June 1605, False Dmitry I occupied the capital, where he was crowned on the throne. Making concessions to the nobility, the impostor increases the search for runaway peasants, but he did not return the “Yuryev Day”, promised to the people. He quickly devastated the treasury of the state, endowing the gentry, however, he was in no hurry to spread Catholicism. The dissatisfied mood of the Moscow nobility and among the common people intensified after his wedding to M. Mnishek. On May 17, 1606, in Moscow, under the leadership of the Shuisky boyars, an uprising began - and False Dmitry I was killed.

Vasily Shuisky

In 1606, Zemsky Sobor elects Vasily Shuisky as tsar, who had previously distinguished himself in battles and campaigns. During his reign, an uprising breaks out under the leadership of a Polish mercenary with the goal of placing Tsar Dmitry on the throne. In October 1606, rebel troops even laid siege to Moscow. The uprising itself was crushed in October 1607, Bolotnikov was executed. In the same year, False Dmitry II appears with Marina Mnishek as his wife. The impostor's attempt to ascend the throne failed - he was killed in 1610. Dissatisfied with the rule of Shuisky, the nobles, led by Prokopy Lyapunov, overthrew him and in July 1610 handed him over to King Sigismund. Later, Shuisky was tonsured a monk.

"Seven Boyars" and the Polish intervention

The leadership of the state passes to a group of boyars (“seven boyars”), headed by Fyodor Mstislavsky. As a result of intrigues and disagreements about who should rule the state, a decision was made to “summon to the kingdom” Prince Vladislav, the son of King Sigismund III. Being a Catholic, Vladislav was not going to change his faith to the Orthodox - as tradition required. Agreeing to come to the "bride" in Moscow, where he arrived with the army. To defend the independence of the country, it was possible only with the help of the people. The first independent militia was assembled in Ryazan in the fall of 1611 by Prokopy Lyapunov - but he was killed when he came into conflict with the Cossacks.

Second militia. Minin and Pozharsky

The second militia was assembled at the end of 1611, in Nizhny Novgorod under the voivodeship of Prince Dmitry Pozharsky and with money raised by the merchant Kuzma Minin. The militia, commanded by Pozharsky, moved to Yaroslavl - where in the spring, in 1612, a new government was created. After staying in Yaroslavl for four months, having determined tactics and recruiting people, the militia begins active operations. The fighting on the outskirts of Moscow, and in the city itself, continued through the summer until October 26, 1612. The Poles fled.

Mikhail Romanov

At the Zemsky Sobor, which took place at the beginning of 1613 with the representation of the general population, under pressure from the Cossacks, sixteen-year-old Mikhail Romanov was elected tsar. The Romanovs were related to Ivan IV through his first wife. Mikhail's father, Metropolitan Philaret, was a prisoner of the Poles, and his mother took monastic vows. Upon his return from captivity in 1619, father Michael, dual power sets in in the country - with the formal rule of Michael and practical guide the country of Filaret.

This situation continued until 1633 - until the death of Filaret. During the reign of Mikhail, taxes were reduced, the activities of foreign entrepreneurs who were allowed to build factories became more active, and the growth of the metallurgical and metalworking industries began. Foreign policy was balanced, with virtually no wars. Mikhail Romanov died in 1645.

Alexey Romanov

Upon the death of his father, his son Alexei ascends the throne. And during his reign, Alexei Mikhailovich, nicknamed "The Quietest", carried out a number of transformations and reforms, incl. church and city. In 1645, the Council Code was published. The Code consolidated the position of the inviolability of the power of the monarch, finally formalized serfdom and strengthened the role of the nobles. Thanks to the church reform, Alexei Mikhailovich was able to take control of the church. To this end, he legislated:

• the church is obliged to pay taxes to the treasury;
• the king was the judge of the church;
• deprived the monasteries of the right to acquire land.

Against the rise of secular power over the spiritual, Patriarch Nikon spoke out, who also dealt with the reformation of the church - the introduction of foreign experience into Russian Orthodoxy. caused opposition from supporters of the old church traditions, headed by Archpriest Avaakum. And the church split began. As a result:

• for opposition to the strengthening of the influence of the monarch, Patriarch Nikon was defrocked and imprisoned in a monastery prison;
• Archpriest Avaakum, for refusing to follow the official line of the church, was stripped and cursed at the cathedral.

The city reform established:

• recognizing free, the townspeople were attached to the place of residence;
• peasants could now sell their goods only in bulk, and the townspeople could conduct retail trade.

Sophia's reign

In 1676, after the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, his sick son Fyodor was crowned to the throne, power is practically in the hands of relatives along his mother's side. After his death, in 1682, the actual government of the state passes to Princess Sophia - due to the infancy of the princes Ivan and Peter, and continued until 1689. The results of her reign:

liberation of the townspeople from compulsory attachment to the city;

unsuccessful Crimean campaigns allow us to conclude that it is necessary to find a direct outlet to the sea.

Results

XVII century - a time of unrest and contradictions, in history Russian state. With the dominant position of the feudal structure in the country's economy, the emergence of the capitalist way of managing begins. There is a registration of serfdom, but in the general plight of the people, it was he who could help the pretender to the royal throne, ascend the throne.

In the 17th century, Russia, united by the Muscovite kingdom, entered in a difficult state. After the death of Ivan IV the Terrible, the weak Fedor Ivanovich began to rule the state. His authority was extremely low, so soon a struggle for power began in the country. Thanks to the aggressive policy of Ivan the Terrible, the state expanded enormously, and it was quite difficult to keep it. After Moscow's aggression during Livonian War relationship with Western countries became tense, the Commonwealth and Sweden were the main opponents of Moscow in the west. Wherein Crimean Tatars, under the auspices of the Ottoman Empire, continued to carry out devastating raids on Russia.

At the beginning of the 17th century, the so-called Time of Troubles began. At this time, many cities began to rebel against the central government, the Orthodox Church split. During the period from 1598 to 1613, six rulers changed in the country. At this time, the power of the Rurik dynasty ceased, the first prince, chosen at the Zemsky Sobor, was put on the reign. Under his rule, Moscow settled some disputes with Western countries, and expanded its territory to the east. However, during his reign, the crisis in the state lasted, they were dissatisfied with both the peasants, whose life was very difficult, and the nobility, which was deprived of all-round power over the serfs.

By the middle of the 17th century, a new military conflict was brewing with the Commonwealth, which united Poland and Lithuania. At that time, most of the territory of modern Ukraine was under the rule of the Poles, but the local population resisted Catholicism, and the revelry of the gentry eventually led to the uprising of one of the Cossack chieftains - Bohdan Khmelnitsky. He managed to raise the national liberation movement in 1648, as a result of which Ukraine of those times even achieved independence. The Cossacks inflicted several major defeats Polish troops. However, in 1654 Bogdan Khmelnitsky died, and the Moscow kingdom, pointing to an agreement between him and the Cossacks (the content of which was never established), accepted the new lands under its protectorate, and, together with the Cossacks, continued the war against Poland. By the end of the 17th century, Tsar Peter I came to power, who later called himself emperor, and his state - Russian Empire, or briefly - Russia.

Therefore, Russia in the 17th century can no longer be briefly characterized as an unification of Russian principalities and Slavic tribes - so much time has passed since the time of Kievan Rus that the Slavic peoples separated into three main groups - Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. The territory of modern Belarus during the war with Poland came under the rule of Moscow.

The religious and political movement of the 17th century, which resulted in a separation from the Russian Orthodox Church part of the believers who did not accept the reforms of Patriarch Nikon, was called a schism.

Also at the divine service, instead of singing "Alleluia" twice, it was ordered to sing three times. Instead of circumambulating the temple during baptism and weddings in the sun, circumambulation against the sun was introduced. Instead of seven prosphora, five prosphora were served at the liturgy. Instead of an eight-pointed cross, they began to use four-pointed and six-pointed. By analogy with the Greek texts, instead of the name of Christ, Jesus, the patriarch ordered Jesus to be written in newly printed books. In the eighth member of the Creed ("In the Holy Spirit of the true Lord") removed the word "true".

Innovations were approved by church councils of 1654-1655. During 1653-1656, corrected or newly translated liturgical books were published at the Printing Yard.

The dissatisfaction of the population was caused by violent measures, with the help of which Patriarch Nikon introduced new books and rituals into use. Some members of the Circle of Zealots of Piety were the first to speak out for the "old faith", against the reforms and actions of the patriarch. Archpriests Avvakum and Daniil submitted a note to the tsar in defense of double-fingering and about prostrations during divine services and prayers. Then they began to argue that the introduction of corrections according to Greek models defiles the true faith, since the Greek Church has departed from the "ancient piety", and its books are printed in Catholic printing houses. Ivan Neronov spoke out against the strengthening of the power of the patriarch and for the democratization of church administration. The clash between Nikon and the defenders of the "old faith" took on sharp forms. Avvakum, Ivan Neronov and other opponents of the reforms were severely persecuted. The speeches of the defenders of the "old faith" received support in various strata of Russian society, ranging from individual representatives of the highest secular nobility to the peasants. Among the masses, a lively response was found by the sermons of the schismatics about the onset of the "end time", about the accession of the Antichrist, to whom the tsar, the patriarch and all the authorities allegedly already bowed down and carry out his will.

The Great Moscow Cathedral of 1667 anathematized (excommunicated) those who, after repeated exhortations, refused to accept new rites and newly printed books, and also continued to scold the church, accusing it of heresy. The cathedral also deprived Nikon of his patriarchal rank. The deposed patriarch was sent to prison - first to Ferapontov, and then to Kirillo Belozersky Monastery.

Fascinated by the preaching of schismatics, many townspeople, especially peasants, fled to the dense forests of the Volga region and the North, to the southern outskirts of the Russian state and abroad, founded their communities there.

From 1667 to 1676, the country was engulfed in riots in the capital and on the outskirts. Then, in 1682, the Streltsy riots began, in which the schismatics played an important role. The schismatics attacked monasteries, robbed monks, and seized churches.

A terrible consequence of the split was burning - mass self-immolation. The earliest report of them dates back to 1672, when 2,700 people set themselves on fire in the Paleostrovsky Monastery. From 1676 to 1685, according to documented information, about 20,000 people died. Self-immolations continued into the 18th century, and individual cases in late XIX century.

The main result of the split was a church division with the formation of a special branch of Orthodoxy - the Old Believers. By the end of the XVII - early XVIII century existed various currents Old Believers, which received the names of "talk" and "consent". The Old Believers were divided into clergy and non-priests. Popovtsy recognized the need for the clergy and all church sacraments, they were settled in the Kerzhensky forests (now the territory of the Nizhny Novgorod region), the regions of Starodubye (now the Chernihiv region, Ukraine), Kuban ( Krasnodar region), the Don River.

Bespopovtsy lived in the north of the state. After the death of the priests of the pre-schism ordination, they rejected the priests of the new appointment, therefore they began to be called priestless. The sacraments of baptism and repentance and all church services, except for the liturgy, were performed by elected laity.

Patriarch Nikon had nothing to do with the persecution of the Old Believers - from 1658 until his death in 1681, he was first in voluntary, and then in forced exile.

AT late XVIII centuries, the schismatics themselves began to make attempts to get closer to the church. On October 27, 1800, Edinoverie was established in Russia by decree of Emperor Paul as a form of reunification of the Old Believers with the Orthodox Church.

The Old Believers were allowed to serve according to the old books and observe the old rites, among which highest value it was given to two-fingered, but the service and the service were performed by Orthodox clergy.

In July 1856, by decree of Emperor Alexander II, the police sealed the altars of the Pokrovsky and Nativity Cathedrals of the Old Believer Rogozhsky cemetery in Moscow. The reason was denunciations that liturgies were solemnly celebrated in churches, "tempting" the faithful of the synodal church. Divine services were held in private prayer houses, in the houses of the capital's merchants and manufacturers.

On April 16, 1905, on the eve of Easter, a telegram from Nicholas II arrived in Moscow, allowing "to print the altars of the Old Believer chapels of the Rogozhsky cemetery." The next day, April 17, the imperial "Decree on Religious Tolerance" was promulgated, which guaranteed freedom of religion to the Old Believers.

In 1929, the Patriarchal Holy Synod formulated three resolutions:

- "On the recognition of the old Russian rites as saving, like the new rites, and equal to them";

- "On the rejection and imputation, as if not the former, of reprehensible expressions relating to the old rites, and especially to the two-finger";

- "On the abolition of the oaths of the Moscow Cathedral of 1656 and the Great Moscow Council of 1667, imposed by them on the old Russian rites and on Orthodox Christians adhering to them, and to consider these oaths as if they had not been."

The Local Council of 1971 approved three resolutions of the Synod of 1929.

On January 12, 2013, in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, with the blessing of His Holiness Patriarch Kirill, the first liturgy after the schism according to the ancient rite was performed.

The material was prepared on the basis of information from open sources in

("Quiet"), Fedor Alekseevich, princes Peter and Ivan under the regency of Princess Sophia.

Agriculture remained the main branch of the Russian economy, and the main agricultural crops were rye and oats. Due to the development of new lands in the Volga region, in Siberia, in the south of Russia, more agricultural products were produced than in the last century, although the methods of cultivating the land remained the same, with the help of a plow, a harrow; the plow moved slowly.

In the 17th century, the first manufactory was born, trade developed, but very poorly, because. Russia did not have access to the sea.

Russian culture of the 17th century was characterized by a gradual departure from church canons, the spread of secular knowledge, the secularization of architecture, painting, and sculpture. This happened because of the weakening of the influence of the church, its subordination to the state.

At the end of the 16th century, after his death, his son Fedor, who was weak-minded, and the young prince Dmitry remained after his death. Fedor could not rule, because. because of his dementia, he "could not keep facial expressions," so the boyars began to rule instead of him, among whom he stood out. He had great fame, tk. was a Tatar khan, brother-in-law of Fedor and son-in-law of Malyuta Skuratov, i.e. had rich family ties.

Boris Godunov did everything quietly, but "with meaning", therefore he received the nickname "Cunning Demon". In a few years, he destroyed all his opponents and became the sole ruler under Fedor. When Tsarevich Dmitry died in Uglich in 1591 (according to official version he himself ran into a knife), and in 1598 Tsar Fedor died, Boris Godunov was crowned king. The people believed him and shouted: "Boris to the kingdom!" With the accession of Boris to the throne, the Rurik dynasty came to an end.

Many of the activities carried out during the period of his reign were reformatory and resembled a reign. The positive transformations of the king include the following:

1. He was the first to invite foreign specialists, and all foreigners began to be called Germans, not only because there were more Germans among them, but also because they did not speak Russian, i.e. were "dumb".
2. He tried to calm society by uniting the ruling class. To do this, he stopped persecuting the boyars and exalting the nobles, thereby stopping civil war in Russia.
3. Established the outside world at the negotiating table, tk. virtually no wars.
4. He sent several hundred young nobles to study abroad and tried to be the first to shave off the beards of the boyars (although only Peter I succeeded).
5. He began the development of the Volga region, in his reign the cities of Samara, Tsaritsyn, Saratov were built.

The tightening of serfdom was negative - he introduced a five-year term for the investigation of fugitive peasants. The difficult situation of the people was aggravated by the famine of 1601-1603, which began due to the fact that in 1601 it rained all summer, and frost hit early, and in 1602 a drought set in. This undermined the Russian economy, people were dying of hunger, and cannibalism began in Moscow.

Vasily Shuisky photo

Boris Godunov is trying to suppress the social explosion. He began distributing bread for free from state stocks and set fixed prices for bread. But these measures were not successful, because. bread distributors began to speculate on it, moreover, the stocks could not be enough for all the hungry, and the restriction of the price of bread led to the fact that they simply stopped selling it.

In Moscow, during the famine, about 127 thousand people died, not everyone had time to bury them, and the bodies of the dead remained on the streets for a long time. The people decide that hunger is the curse of the Lord, and Boris is Satan. Gradually, rumors spread that he ordered to kill Tsarevich Dmitry, then they remembered that the Tsar was a Tatar. This situation was favorable for further events that took place in.

In 1603, Grigory Otrepiev appears - a monk of the Savvino-Storozhevsky monastery, who declared that he was "miraculously saved" Tsarevich Dmitry. People believed him, Boris Godunov nicknamed him, but he could not prove anything. The Polish king Sigismund III helped to get to the Russian throne. False Dmitry made a deal with him, according to which Sigismund gives money and an army, and Grigory, after accession to the Russian throne, was to marry a Pole, Marina Mnishek. In addition, False Dmitry promised to give the Poles the western Russian lands with Smolensk and introduce Catholicism in Russia.

The campaign of False Dmitry to Moscow lasted two years, but in 1605 he was defeated near Dobrynichy. In June 1605, Boris Godunov dies, his 16-year-old son Fyodor was thrown out of the window of the fourth floor. The whole family of Boris Godunov was killed, only Boris's daughter, Ksenia, was left alive, but she was destined for the fate of False Dmitry's mistress.

Alexey Mikhailovich photo

Tsarevich False Dmitry was elected to the kingdom by all the people, and in June 1605 the tsar and Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich solemnly entered Moscow. False Dmitry was very independent, he was not going to fulfill the promises made to the Polish king (except for marrying Marina Mnishek). He tried to introduce etiquette in Russian canteens, a fork, and he himself used it very cleverly at dinner.

Watching this, his close associates decided that he was False Dmitry, because. Russian tsars did not know how to use a fork. In May 1606, during an uprising that broke out in Moscow, False Dmitry was killed.

At the Zemsky Sobor in 1606, a boyar was elected tsar. It was during his reign that a Polish mercenary appeared, who gathered an army of peasants and moved to Moscow. At the same time, he said that he was leading Dmitry to the throne. In 1607, the uprising was crushed, but soon a new impostor appeared in Starodub, posing as Tsarevich Dmitry. Marina Mnishek (for 3 thousand rubles) even "recognized" him as her husband, but he failed to ascend the throne, in 1610 he was killed in Kaluga.

Dissatisfaction with Shuisky grew in the country. The nobles, led by Prokopy Lyapunov, overthrew Shuisky, and he was tonsured a monk. Power passed to the oligarchy of the seven boyars, called "". The boyars, led by Fedor Mstislavsky, began to rule Russia, but they did not have the people's trust and could not decide which of them would rule.

Patriarch Nikon photo

As a result, the Polish prince Vladislav, the son of Sigismund III, was called to the throne. Vladislav needed to convert to Orthodoxy, but he was a Catholic and was not going to change his faith. The boyars begged him to come "look", but accompanied him Polish army that captured Moscow. It was possible to preserve the independence of the Russian state only by relying on the people. In the autumn of 1611, the first people's militia was formed in Ryazan, headed by Prokopiy Lyapunov. But he failed to negotiate with the Cossacks and he was killed in the Cossack circle.

At the end of 1611, Kuzma Minin donated money for the creation. It was headed by Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. In October 1612, the Polish garrison in Moscow fell.

At the beginning of 1613, a Zemsky Sobor was held, at which a tsar was to be elected. All social classes were represented on it, there were even Cossacks. He was elected to the kingdom with the filing of a loud cry of the Cossacks. The Cossacks thought that the king could be easily manipulated, because. he was only 16 years old and did not know a single letter. Mikhail's father, Metropolitan Philaret, was in Polish captivity, his mother was in a monastery. The first wife of Ivan the Terrible was Romanov, besides, the Romanovs were not "smeared" with oprichnina, which also played an important role in the election of Mikhail as Tsar.

After his accession to the throne, a struggle begins between the boyars. They decided who to marry the young monarch. However, when the bride was selected, she was dying. Mikhail married only 13 years later to Evdokia Streshneva, and the boyars were still able to gain influence over him.

In 1619, Mikhail's father returned from captivity, as a result, dual power was established in the country. Formally, Michael ruled, officially - Filaret, and this continued until the death of Filaret in 1633. Michael's reign was fair and wise. Taxes were lowered, the Russian people paid the so-called "fifth money" to the treasury, and kept 4/5 for themselves. Foreigners were granted the rights to build factories in Russia, and the development of the metallurgical and metalworking industries began.

Peter 1 photo

Mikhail Fedorovich almost did not wage wars, calm came in Russia. In 1645 he died quietly, and his son Alexei ascended the throne. For his kindness and gentleness, he was nicknamed "The Quietest". He had two wives, from the first, Maria Miloslavskaya, the son Fedor was born, from the second, Natalya Naryshkina, the sons Peter and Ivan, and the daughter Sophia.

During his reign, Alexei Mikhailovich carried out moderate transformations, and also carried out church and urban reforms. An important act is the publication of the Council Code of 1649. It was a set of laws on all issues from the economy to state structure(autocracy).

The most important part was the articles "On the sovereign's honor." No one could encroach on the power of the king, but the king had to consult with the boyars. The punishment for attempted assassination of the sovereign "in word and deed" was the death penalty.

Chapters devoted to the peasant question - "The Court of the Peasants". Serfdom was formalized, the peasants were the property of the owner, they could be bought and sold. The serfs were judged by their landowner. The serf peasant had only one right to complain to the sovereign.

According to the chapter "On Estates", estates were allowed to be inherited, they could not deprive a nobleman of the estate, i.e. the role of the nobility increased.

Church reform

Before Alexei Mikhailovich, the church was independent of the state. The king subordinated the church to the state through the following measures:

• the church began to pay taxes to the state, i.e. was deprived of financial privileges;
• the king became the judge over the church;
• monasteries were deprived of the right to buy land.

He proposed his own reform: to be baptized not with two fingers, but with three; bow down in church. This caused discontent among the clergy and the secular nobility. There was a church split, a movement of Old Believers appeared, headed by Archpriest Avaakum.

Alexei Mikhailovich managed to break the church and subjugate it to himself. In 1666, Patriarch Nikon was deprived of his dignity and imprisoned in a monastery prison, and Archpriest Avaakum was stripped and cursed at a church council. After that, the brutal persecution of the Old Believers began.

Urban reform

The townspeople were recognized as a special, independent class, but they were attached to the cities. The rights of the townspeople to trade were protected: the peasant had to wholesale his products to the townspeople, and the townspeople could sell them at retail.

At the end of the 17th century, after the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, leapfrog began on the throne, because. he had three sons and a daughter. In 1676, his eldest son, 14-year-old Fyodor, ascended the throne, but he was ill, could not walk on his own, and power was in the hands of his relatives on his mother's side. In 1682, Fedor died, and under the juvenile Ivan and Peter, Princess Sophia began to rule. She ruled until 1689 and managed to do a lot of useful things:

• gave freedom to cities;
• realized the need to break through to the sea for the development of trade, for this two (though unsuccessful) Crimean campaigns were undertaken, in 1687 and 1689.

Sophia tried to seize all power, but the 17-year-old tsar was already ready to assume power.

Results

So, the 17th century in is not only "", a troubled age, but also a century of contradictions. In the Russian economy, the dominant position was occupied by the feudal structure, and at the same time, the capitalist structure of the economy was emerging. Despite the fact that the situation of the people was extremely difficult, serfdom was formalized, nevertheless, it was the people who could help one or another candidate for the Russian throne become king, believe him and follow him.

Causes of the Time of Troubles:

1. dynastic crisis. The end of the Rurik dynasty.
2. The emerging lag of Russia from the West leads to the emergence of a large number supporters of Western development. Poland is called as a role model, which by this time is turning into an aristocratic republic (“the Commonwealth” is “republic” in Polish). The Polish king is elected by the Sejm. Boris Godunov is also becoming a moderate "Westernizer".
3. Growing public dissatisfaction with the authorities.

The beginning of the Time of Troubles is considered to be the election of Boris Godunov as tsar in 1598. The new tsar prepared a project of reforms and pursued a rather successful foreign policy. The relatively calm course of events was interrupted by crop failures and a terrible famine in 1601-1603. Driven to despair, the population blamed the new king for all their troubles. It was believed that hunger was God's punishment for the murder of Tsarevich Dmitry by Godunov.

1602-1604 - Cotton uprising in Ukraine and southern Russia.

In 1602, False Dmitry I appeared in the Commonwealth - a runaway monk Grigory Otrepiev, who declared himself Tsarevich Dmitry. He was supported by the king of the Commonwealth Sigismund III, the Polish-Lithuanian magnates and the gentry. One of the magnates even betrothed his daughter Marina Mnishek to False Dmitry.

December 1604 Mr. False Dmitry, at the head of a small detachment, crossed the border of Russia and was defeated by the tsarist army near Dobrynich. However, he received massive support from the Russian population, who had long been waiting for the arrival of a legitimate sovereign. The triumphal campaign of False Dmitry to Moscow begins. In April 1605, Boris Godunov died suddenly. His 16-year-old son Fyodor became king. In June, a coup took place in Moscow - Fedor and his mother were killed and the impostor took the throne.

Having become king, False Dmitry was in no hurry to fulfill the promises made to the Poles - to introduce Catholicism in Russia, transfer Smolensk to Poland, etc. At the same time, with his Polish manners and unwillingness to restore St. George's Day, he also disappointed the Russian population. Fuels were added to the fire by rumors about the adoption by the king, for the sake of marriage with Marina Mnishek, Catholicism. May 17 1606 Mr. False Dmitry was killed. Vasily Shuisky, a supporter of the traditional Russian way of life, became king.

The struggle of various segments of the population against the boyar tsar began already in 1606. It was headed by Ivan Bolotnikov, a former military serf, posing as the governor of False Dmitry. Bolotnikov's army consisted of peasants, serfs, townspeople, Cossacks and nobles who were dissatisfied with the boyars. On the eve of the decisive battle near Moscow in December 1606, a significant part of the nobles, led by Prokopy Lyapunov, went over to the side of Shuisky, which ensured the tsar's victory. Bolotnikov's army retreated to Tula, was besieged there, and in October 1607 capitulated. One of the reasons for the king's victory was his promise to grant forgiveness to the rebel serfs. Bolotnikov and part of the rebels were executed.

In 1607, a new False Dmitry, False Dmitry II, appeared on the southwestern outskirts of Russia. He pretended to be the survivor (for the second time) Dmitry. His words were confirmed by Marina Mnishek, who recognized False Dmitry as her spouse. False Dmitry II did not receive such mass support of the population as False Dmitry I, therefore, he failed to gather significant forces. In 1608 he approached Moscow and camped in Tushino(hence the nickname Tushinsky thief). A confrontation began between the boyar tsar, sitting on the throne in Moscow, and the Tushino impostor. In fact, the country was divided into two parts. Both have tsars, orders, Boyar Dumas and even patriarchs: in Moscow - Hermogenes, in Tushino - Filaret.

Being unable to cope with the Tyshinsky thief, Shuisky in February 1609 concluded an agreement with Sweden. He gave the Karelian volost to the Swedes, receiving military assistance in return. However, the Swedes were in no hurry to help Shuisky. At the same time, the king of the Commonwealth, Sigismund III, who was constantly at enmity with Sweden, regarded this treaty as a welcome pretext for open intervention against Russia. In September 1609 Sigismund laid siege to Smolensk. In 1610, False Dmitry, whom Sigismund no longer needed, was killed by the Poles. Initially, the fight against Polish aggression was relatively successful. A talented young commander, the tsar's nephew, M.V. Skopin-Shuisky was able to win a number of victories. However, his glory as a winner caused Vasily Shuisky to be frightened. Skopin-Shuisky was poisoned. AT 1610 The Polish hetman Khodkevich defeated Shuisky's army in a pitched battle near the village of Klushino (west of Mozhaisk).

July 17th 1610 The boyars and nobles, led by Hermogenes, overthrew Shuisky, who had lost all authority. Power in Moscow, before the election of a new tsar, passed into the hands of a government of 7 boyars - Seven Boyars. The boyar F. Mstislavsky headed the Seven Boyars.

At the initiative of Filaret, in order to stop the intervention, Sigismund's son Vladislav was invited to the throne. At the same time, conditions were set: Vladislav had to promise to preserve the Moscow order and accept Orthodoxy. Although Sigismund did not agree to the last condition, the treaty was nevertheless concluded. In 1610, the Polish army entered Moscow, headed by the governor Gonsevsky, who, as the governor of Vladislav, was supposed to rule the country. However, the Polish intervention continues. Sweden, which perceived the overthrow of Shuisky as a release from all obligations, occupied a significant part of the north of Russia and began the siege of Novgorod.

Under these conditions, in Ryazan in 1611, a First militia, the purpose of which was to liberate the country from the invaders and elevate the Russian Tsar to the throne. A significant part of the Tushino nobles and Cossacks, as well as a few boyars who supported the impostor, joined him. The leader of the militia was the Ryazan governor Prokopy Lyapunov, who headed council of all the earth (governing body militia). The militia besieged Moscow and after the battle on March 19, 1611 captured most of the city; however, Kitai-Gorod remained with the Poles. A long siege of Moscow began, complicated by contradictions between the leaders of the besiegers. They were most clearly manifested in the relationship between the leaders of the nobles and the Cossacks - Prokopy Lyapunov and the Cossack chieftain Ivan Zarutsky. The desire of the nobles to restore a despotic state and serfdom did not satisfy the Cossacks. Constant clashes ended in the summer of 1611 with the murder of Lyapunov, after which most of the nobles left the militia.

In June 1611 Smolensk fell, the defense of which was led by the boyar Mikhail Borisovich Shein. A month later, the Swedes captured Novgorod. In the conditions when the independent existence of the Russian people was under threat, in the east of the country, in Nizhny Novgorod, in the autumn of 1611. Second militia. The merchant Kuzma Minin became its main organizer, and Prince D.I., a member of the first militia, was elected its leader. Pozharsky. Having gathered large forces, the militia entered Moscow in May 1612, merging with the remnants of the first militia, and completely blocked the Kremlin. October 26 (November 4) 1612 The Polish garrison in the Kremlin capitulated.

In January 1613 3msky Cathedral met in Moscow, at which 16-year-old Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, the son of Patriarch Filaret (in the world, the former guardsman of the boyar Fyodor Nikitich Romanov), was elected the new Tsar of Russia. This event is considered to be the date of the end of the Time of Troubles, although foreign intervention was still ongoing. AT 1617 Stolbovsky peace was concluded with the Swedes: Russia returned Novgorod, but lost the entire coast of the Gulf of Finland. AT 1618 In the village of Deulino, a truce was concluded with the Commonwealth: Russia ceded Smolensk and a number of cities and lands located along the western border.

Socio-economic and political development of Russia in the XVII century.

After the Time of Troubles, a restoration process was going on in Russia for almost three decades. Only from the middle of the XVII century. new, progressive trends are beginning to appear in the economy:

1. There is a process zoning- economic specialization different regions. In the northwest, in the Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk lands, flax, hemp (hemp) and others are cultivated. industrial crops. The northeast - Yaroslavl, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod lands - begins to specialize in cattle breeding. Chernozem regions (their development begins in the 17th century) and the Volga region grow wheat. The Moscow region (including Tula) becomes the center of metallurgy.
2. Peasant trades: in the northwest - weaving, in the northeast - leather. In the Tula region, the original Filimonovsky craft (Filimonovskaya toy) appears.
3. The increasing exchange of agricultural and industrial products led to the emergence of centers of commodity exchange - fairs. There were about 80 of them in total, three of which were central: Makaryevskaya (Nizhny Novgorod), Irbitskaya ( Southern Urals) and Svenskaya (near Bryansk).
4. Production acquires small-scale character (oriented to the sale).
5. A new phenomenon in the economy is manufactories – large productions division of labor, mostly manual. The number of manufactories in Russia in the 17th century. was insignificant. The only industry in which they arose was metallurgy.
6. Improved the monetary system. Under Mikhail Fedorovich, the silver ruble, consisting of one hundred kopecks, became the national coin.

The presence of these trends, new for Russia, testifies to the formation of single all-Russian market, i.e. global nationwide system of commodity exchange.

AT social relations the nobility becomes more and more significant power. While continuing to give land to servicemen for their service, the government avoided taking them away. Increasingly, estates are inherited, i.e. are becoming more and more like estates and the state, interested in strengthening the nobility, contributes to this process.

AT 1649 G. Cathedral Code serfdom was finally formalized: the search for fugitives became indefinite. This enslavement was still formal in nature - the state did not have the strength to really attach the peasantry to the land. In addition, the Cathedral Code brought the estate and patrimony even closer.

The authorities took measures to maintain the merchant class. In 1653 was adopted Trade charter that imposed high protectionist duties.

Zemsky Sobors under the son of Mikhail Fedorovich Alexei Mikhailovich ( 1645-1676 gg.) cease to convene. The last full-fledged council was convened in December 1653 and decided to join Ukraine to Russia. The tsarist government takes control of the boyar duma, introducing into it duma clerks and nobles (up to 30% of the composition), who unconditionally supported the tsar. Thus, in Russia, the transition to absolutism, i.e. unlimited power of the monarch.

Evidence of the increased strength of tsarist power and the weakening of the boyars was the abolition of 1682 city ​​of locality. Thus, the boyars were deprived of class privileges when they were appointed to a position and, in this sense, were equalized in rights with the nobles.

The command bureaucracy, which served as a support for the tsar, is being strengthened and expanded. The order system becomes cumbersome and clumsy: by the end of the 17th century. there were more than 70 orders, some of them were of a functional nature - Ambassadorial, Local, Streletsky, etc., and part of the territorial - Siberian, Kazan, Little Russian, etc. An attempt to control it with the help of the order of Secret Affairs was unsuccessful.

Locally in the 17th century elective governing bodies are finally obsolete. All power passes into the hands of governors assigned from the center.

In the second half of the XVII century. appear in Russia new build shelves(infantry) and Reiter regiments(cavalry), in which "eager people" - volunteers - served for a salary. At the same time on the Volga was built "Eagle"- the first ship capable of withstanding sea navigation.

One of the main problems during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich Tishaishy ( 1645-76 gg.) becomes the question of overcoming the voluntary international isolation of Russia. The king creates an island of European life on Lake Kukuy - German settlement- a colony for emigrants from Europe. Opened at his command Slavic-Greek-Latin School(later, from 1687 - the academy), which trains translators and diplomats. However, the expansion of ties with the West is hindered by the church, which, moreover, claims to control the state. This trend arose under Mikhail Fedorovich, since his father, Patriarch Filaret, actually ruled the country.

Alexey Mikhailovich, seeking to undermine the economic power of the church, creates a Monastic order to manage its property.

To weaken the influence of the church on public life and expand ties with the West, Alexei Mikhailovich begins in 1654 d. church reform. Patriarch Nikon became the main ideologist of the reform. The reason for the reform is the need to correct church books (translations from the Greek of the beginning of the 11th century), in which a lot of errors have accumulated over the centuries. Greek originals became a model for correction, which in itself meant that the church recognized the possibility of cultural borrowing from Europe. In addition, church rites were slightly changed: three fingers were introduced, a Catholic cross was allowed along with an Orthodox one, etc.

The reform had a colossal meaning:

1. The age-old spiritual isolation of Russian society began to crumble. Conditions have been created for future global transformations of society.
2. The state, having become the initiator of the reform, confirmed its priority right to manage society. This was confirmed by the Great Moscow Cathedral of 1666-1667. The same cathedral, at the insistence of Alexei, dismissed Nikon, who tried to strengthen his power.
3. The reform led to split- the division of society into supporters and opponents of the reform (schismatics), led by Archpriest Avvakum. As a sign of protest, the schismatics go to sparsely populated places or commit burning- self-immolation. The fight against schismatics would reach its zenith under Peter I and would continue almost until the middle of the 19th century. >

Foreign policy of Russia in the XVII century.

Russia's top priority in foreign policy was the return of Smolensk - the most important fortress on the western border, captured during the Time of Troubles by the Commonwealth.

AT 1632-1634 gg. Russia led Smolensk war, which ended with the victory of Poland. The Polyanovsky Peace of 1634 left Smolensk to the Poles. However, the war had positive value- King of the Commonwealth Vladislav IV renounced claims to the Russian throne.

In 1648, an uprising broke out in Ukraine, led by Bogdan Khmelnitsky. The uprising began with the victories of the Cossacks over the troops of the Commonwealth. However, from 1651 the Ukrainian army began to suffer defeat. Khmelnytsky turned to Russia for support. In 1653 Zemsky Sobor in Moscow, and then, in 1654 G., Pereyaslav Rada in Ukraine they spoke in favor of the reunification of Ukraine and Russia. After that, another Russian-Polish war began.

The first actions of the Russian troops were successful: in 1654, they returned Smolensk and captured a significant part of Belarus that had rebelled against the Poles. However, without bringing this war to an end, in 1656 Russia began new war with Sweden, trying to break through to the Baltic Sea. A protracted struggle on two fronts went on with varying success. In the end, Russia has achieved much less than desired. According to the Treaty of Cardis with Sweden (1661), Russia returned to her all the Baltic territories captured during the war. Failed to achieve complete success and in the war with the Commonwealth: by Andrusovo truce (1667 d.) Russia received Smolensk, Left-Bank (Eastern) Ukraine and part of Right-Bank Ukraine with Kyiv and the Zaporizhzhya Sich. A.L. signed the Andrusovo truce on the part of Russia. Ordin-Nashchekin.

After these wars, relations between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, which claims the territory of the Left-Bank Ukraine, sharply worsened. In 1677, the united Ottoman-Crimean army laid siege to Chigirin, a Russian fortress in Ukraine. In 1678, it was captured, but the siege of Chigirin weakened the Ottomans and they no longer had the strength for other military operations. AT 1681 in Bakhchisarai, an agreement was signed according to which the Turks recognized Russia's right to its Ukrainian territories. In these events, for the first time, Prince V.V. became famous as a commander. Golitsyn.

AT 1686 Russia concluded an eternal peace with the Commonwealth, according to which Eastern Ukraine was forever assigned to our country. Under the same treaty, Russia became a member of the Holy League - the union of Austria, the Commonwealth and Venice, created to fight the Ottoman Empire.

Popular movements in the 17th century.

Contemporaries called the 17th century rebellious. Characteristic this time - uprisings in the cities and on the outskirts of the state.

Reasons for popular uprisings:

1. The growth of military spending, which forces the government of Alexei Mikhailovich to introduce new forms of taxes.
2. General strengthening of state control over society. Enslavement of the peasants.
3. Church reform. Many popular uprisings became part of the schismatic movement.

In the middle of the 1640s. a high duty on salt was introduced, which, because of this, rose sharply in price. In 1647 the government abandoned the salt duty; nevertheless, in 1648 g. broke out "Salt Riot", directed against the initiators of its introduction: the boyar Morozov, the mayor of Shaklovity, the Duma deacon Chisty, guest(a merchant engaged in foreign trade) Vasily Shorin and others. The rebellion was supported by the archers, who also suffered from the increase in salt prices and had not received a salary for a long time. Taken by surprise, the government extradited or executed most of the figures hated by the crowd.

In 1650, an uprising began in Pskov. It was suppressed by one of the associates of Alexei Mikhailovich, the boyar A.L. Ordin-Nashchekin.

In 1662, the government, which experienced an acute shortage of precious metals, tried to replace the silver coin with a copper one. It conducted all its payments in copper money, and collected taxes in silver. This policy has caused "Copper Riot" In July 1662 An excited crowd broke into the village of Kolomenskoye, the summer residence of Alexei Mikhailovich, the archers barely coped with the rebels. The authorities temporarily refused to issue a copper coin.

From the middle of the 17th century, in connection with the search for fugitive peasants in the southern regions, relations between the government and the Don Cossacks became more complicated. Constant conflicts between them led to the Cossack uprising of Stepan Razin.

At the first stage of the uprising (1669-1670 - the so-called. Zipun hike) - Razin makes predatory campaigns in Persia and attacks trade caravans. Having plundered the western coast of the Caspian Sea, Razin returned to Astrakhan with great booty and the glory of an invincible leader.

In the spring of 1670, the second stage of the uprising began. Razin openly opposed the tsarist government. The participation of peasants in his army gave the campaign an anti-serf character, so it can be called a peasant war with reservations. Having captured Tsaritsyn in April, Razin returned to Astrakhan in June and proclaimed his power here. In the summer of 1670, Saratov and Samara went over to the side of Razin, peasant unrest, thus, covered a vast territory. Only near Simbirsk a large but poorly trained and armed peasant army was defeated. Razin fled to the Don, where he was captured and handed over to the authorities by the rich ( homely) Cossacks. In 1671 Stepan Razin was executed in Moscow.

Another popular performance was Solovetsky uprising 1667-1676 - one of the brightest pages in the history of the Schism. Having a purely anti-reform character, the uprising was suppressed only after the betrayal of one of the defenders of the Solovetsky Monastery.

Culture of the 17th century

The main trend in the development of culture of this period was secularization manifested in all areas of culture.

17th century characterized by a noticeable increase in literacy among various segments of the population. Teaching aids are widely distributed. Was especially popular "Primer" Vasily Burtsev (1633).

There were secondary schools where they studied foreign languages and other subjects (1640s - a private school of the boyar F. Rtishchev for young nobles; 1650s - a school in the Miracle Monastery; 1660s - a state school for clerks). In 1687, the Slavic-Greek-Latin School acquired the status of an academy and became the first institution of higher education in Russia.

At the royal court, a handwritten newspaper called Chimes was distributed.

The works of social thought at the beginning of the century were created under the fresh impression of the Time of Troubles, the turbulent events of which were considered in them from various points of view. Dyak Ivan Timofeev "Vremennik"(1620s) condemned the Terrible and Godunov, who exterminated the boyars and, in his opinion, weakened the royal power. Abraham Palitsyn in his "Tales" blamed the Russian people for forgetting religion and morality.

In the middle and second half of the XVII century. the works of Simeon of Polotsk appear (the first monuments of poetry and dramaturgy), "Politics" Yuri Krizhanich, which substantiates the usefulness of autocracy for the development of the country. Simeon Polotsky became the educator of the older children of Alexei Mikhailovich.

Among works containing sharp criticism state power and the official church stands out "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum" is a kind of autobiography written by the spiritual leader of the Schism.

The process of secularization in literature is most clearly manifested in the growing popularity of works of such genres as everyday stories and satire.

Everyday stories were devoted to the themes of the collision of the younger and older generations, moral choice heroes, their personal experiences ( "The Tale of Woe-Misfortune"- middle of the 17th century; "The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn"- 1660s; "The Tale of Frol Skobeev"- 1680s). The main characters are merchants and poor nobles, as a rule, adventurous people who easily reject patriarchal foundations and moral standards of the past.

Social conflicts of the 17th century. gave birth to another genre - satire, which parodied the lives ( "A word about a hawker"), legal proceedings ( "Shemyakin Court", "The Tale of Ersh Ershovich"), ridiculed the life of monks ( "Kalyazinskaya petition").

Dominant style church architecture finally becomes a tent style. However, already in the second half of the XVII century. he is gradually losing his position. Churches of the middle of the 17th century, as a rule, violated cross-domed patterns, were distinguished by asymmetry and extremely rich decorative ornament facades (Moscow churches of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putinki, Trinity in Nikitniki; Yaroslavl churches of Elijah the Prophet, John Chrysostom). This style of architecture is called "Naryshkinskoe"(or Moscow, or northern) baroque. Of the civil buildings, the most remarkable were the Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin and the wooden palace of Alexei Mikhailovich in Kolomenskoye (which has not survived to this day).

The Kremlin Armory exercised control over the activities of the painters. In the iconography of the first half of the XVII century. the "Stroganov school" continued to dominate, the masters of which (Prokopiy Chirin) devoted all their art to the careful and technically perfect execution of the canons. In the second half of the XVII century. a noticeable phenomenon is the painting of Simon Ushakov, in which realistic tendencies are already manifesting: he paints icons taking into account anatomical structure faces using chiaroscuro and perspective. ( "Savior Not Made by Hands"). New features of pictorial art appeared in parsing- portraits of real persons (Tsars Alexei Mikhailovich and Fedor Alekseevich, young Peter I), made in an icon-painting manner.