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Classification of modern psychological theories of personality and its foundations. Theories of personality. Philosophical and literary theories of personality

3rd SEMESTER

MODULE 3

Lecture No. 2 (23)

Topic: “Theories of Personality”

Plan

1. The history of personality research.

2. Classification of modern personality theories.

3. Psychodynamic theories of personality.

4. Sociodynamic theories of personality.

5. Humanistic theories of personality.

Personality psychology became an experimental science in the first decades of the twentieth century. Its formation is associated with the names of such scientists as A. FLazursky, G. Allport, R. Cattell and others. However, theoretical research in the field of personality psychology was carried out long before this time, and at least three periods can be distinguished in the history of relevant research: philosophical and literary, clinical and actually experimental . The first originates from the works of ancient thinkers and continues until early XIX V.

In the first decades of the 19th century. Along with philosophers and writers, psychiatrists became interested in the problems of personality psychology. They were the first to conduct systematic observations of the patient's personality in a clinical setting, studying his life history in order to better understand his observed behavior. At the same time, not only professional conclusions were made related to the diagnosis and treatment of mental illness, but also general scientific conclusions about the nature human personality. This period was called clinical . Until the beginning of the 20th century. philosophical, literary and clinical approaches to personality were the only attempts to penetrate into its essence.

In the first decades of the twentieth century, the study of personality began to be carried out professional psychologists, who until that time paid attention mainly to the study of cognitive processes and human states. They tried to give the relevant research an experimental character by introducing mathematical and statistical data processing in order to accurately test hypotheses and obtain reliable facts, on the basis of which they could then build experimentally verified, rather than speculative theories of personality.

An important task experimental period in the study of personality was the development of reliable and valid test assessment methods normal personality.

The main problems of personality psychology in the philosophical and literary period of its study were questions about the moral and social nature of man, about his actions and behavior. First definitions of personality were wide enough. They included everything that is in a person and that he can call his own, personal: his biology, psychology, property, behavior, culture, etc. This understanding of personality has been partially preserved to this day.

This broad interpretation of personality has its grounds. Indeed, if we recognize that personality is a concept that characterizes a person and his actions as a whole, then everything that is done by a person, belongs to him, concerns him should be attributed to him. In artistic creativity, philosophy and other social sciences, such an understanding of personality is completely justified. However, in psychology, where there are many other concepts different from personality, filled with scientifically specific content, this definition seems too broad.

During the clinical period In the study of personality, the idea of it as a special phenomenon was narrowed in comparison with the philosophical and literary period. Psychiatrists have focused on personality traits that are usually found in a sick person. Later it was found that these features exist, but are moderately expressed in almost all healthy people, and in patients, as a rule, they are hypertrophied. This applies, for example, to extraversion and introversion, anxiety and rigidity, inhibition and excitability. Definitions of personality by psychiatrists were given in terms of such traits, using which one can describe a completely normal, pathological, and accentuated (as an extreme version of the norm) personality.

This definition in itself was correct for solving psychotherapeutic problems. Without those personality traits that were mentioned in it, any other psychological definition personality. What then was its insufficiency? The fact is that such a definition for a holistic description of the psychology of a normal personality was too narrow. It did not include those personality traits that, under any conditions, even if they are extremely pronounced, are always positive, “normal.” These are, for example, abilities, decency, conscience, honesty and a number of other personal qualities.

Experimental period in personality research began at a time when significant advances had already been made in the study of basic cognitive processes. It coincided with the general crisis psychological science, one of the reasons for which was the failure of the psychology of that time to explain holistic behavioral acts. The atomistic approach that dominated it required the decomposition of human psychology into separate processes and states. In the end, it led to the fact that a person turned out to be represented by a set of individual mental functions, from the sum of which it was difficult to add up his personality and understand the more or less complex forms of his social behavior. One of the pioneers of the experimental approach to the study of personality, the English psychologist R. Cattell compared the situation that had developed by that time in personality psychology with a production of Hamlet without the Prince of Denmark: it had everything except the main character - the personality.

At the same time, in atomistic, functional psychology, experiment and the apparatus of mathematical statistics were already widely used at that time. New area knowledge - personality psychology - under these conditions could not be built on an old, speculative basis or on the basis of unverified, isolated data collected in the clinic. What was needed was, firstly, a decisive turn from a sick personality to a healthy one, secondly, new, more accurate and reliable methods for studying it, thirdly, a scientific experiment that met the requirements accepted in the study of sensations, perception, memory and thinking.

Experimental studies of personality in Russia were started by A.F. Lazursky, and abroad by G. Eysenck and R. Cattell. A. FLazursky developed a technique and methodology for conducting systematic scientific observations of an individual, as well as a procedure for conducting natural experiment, in which it was possible to obtain and summarize data concerning the psychology and behavior of a healthy person. Gaysenko's merit was the development of methods and procedures for mathematical processing of observational data, surveys and analysis of documents collected about individuals from various sources. As a result of such processing, correlating (statistically related) facts were obtained, characterizing common, most common and individually stable traits.

G. Allport laid the foundations of a new personality theory, called “trait theory,” and R. Cattell, using G. Eysenck’s method, gave personality research conducted within the framework of trait theory an experimental character. He introduced the method of factor analysis into the procedure of experimental personality research, identified, described and defined a number of actually existing factors, or personality traits. He also laid the foundations of modern personality testing by developing one of the first personality tests, named after him (the 16-factor Cattell test).

Of all the definitions of personality proposed at the beginning of the experimental period of developing the problem of personality, the most successful turned out to be the one given by G. Allport: personality is an individually formed unique set of psychophysiological systems during life - personality traits that determine the thinking and behavior peculiar to a given person.

Classification of modern personality theories

At the end of the 30s of the last century, active differentiation of research areas began in personality psychology. As a result, by the second half of this century, many different approaches and theories of personality had emerged. To briefly consider them, we will use the generalizing diagram presented in Fig. 1.

Rice. 1. Classification scheme for modern personality theories

If we approach the definition of modern personality theories formally, then, in accordance with this scheme, there are at least 48 of their variants, and each of them can in turn be assessed according to five parameters specified in the diagram in the form of grounds for classification.

where B is behavior; F - sign of functional dependence; P - internal subjective psychological properties of the individual; E is the social environment, then psychodynamic theories in their symbolic representation will look like this:

This means that behavior here is actually derived from the internal psychological properties of the individual as a person and is fully explained only on their basis.

Sociodynamic are called theories in which the main role in determining behavior is assigned to the external situation and does not attach significant importance to the internal properties of the individual. Their meaning symbolically looks like this:

Interactionist are called theories based on the principle of interaction of internal and external factors in the management of actual human actions. Their semantic expression is the complete Levin formula:

Experimental are called personality theories built on the analysis and generalization of empirically collected factors. TO non-experimental include theories whose authors rely on life impressions, observations and experience and make theoretical generalizations on their basis, without resorting to experiment.

To the number structural include theories for which the main problem is to clarify the structure of personality and the system of concepts with the help of which it should be described. Dynamic are called theories whose main theme is transformation, change in personality development, i.e. its dynamics.

A number of personality theories characteristic of age and educational psychology, built on considering a limited age period in personality development usually from birth to graduation high school, i.e. from infancy to early adolescence. There are also theories whose authors set themselves the task of tracing the development of personality throughout a person’s life.

Finally, an essential basis for dividing personality theories into types is the fact that in them priority attention paid: internal properties, traits and qualities of a person or its external manifestations, such as behavior and actions.

Let us use this classification to take a closer look at a number of the most well-known personality theories abroad and in our country.

3. Psychodynamic theories of personality.

As already mentioned, G. Allport and R. Cattell began developing a theory called trait theories. It can be classified as psychodynamic, experimental, structural-dynamic, covering a person’s entire life and describing him as a person in terms that characterize internal, psychological properties. People, according to this theory, differ from each other in the set and degree of development of their individual, independent traits, and a description of a holistic personality can be obtained on the basis of a testological or other, less rigorous examination of it, based, for example, on a generalization of life observations of different people about a given personality .

A less rigorous way of identifying and assessing personality traits is based on studying the language, selecting words-concepts from it, with the help of which the personality is described from different sides. By reducing the list of selected words to the necessary and sufficient minimum (by excluding synonyms from their number), a full list various personality traits for their subsequent expert assessment for this person. This was the path G. Allport took to constructing a methodology for studying personality traits.

The second way to assess personality traits involves using factor analysis- complex method modern statistics, which makes it possible to reduce to the necessary and sufficient minimum many different indicators and personality assessments obtained as a result of introspection, surveys, and life observations of people. The result is a set of statistically independent factors that are considered individual personality traits of a person.

Using this method, R. Cattell was able to identify 16 different personality traits. Each of them received a double name, characterizing the degree of its development: strong and weak. Based on the experimentally identified set of traits, R. Cattell constructed the above-mentioned 16-factor personality questionnaire. Before giving examples of traits from this set (Table 1), we note that later the number of experimentally identified trait factors increased significantly. According to R. Maley, one of the proponents of the theory of personality traits, there are at least 33 such traits that are necessary and sufficient for a complete psychological description of personality. In general, in numerous studies carried out to date in line with the theory of traits, a description of about 200 such traits is given.

Table 1

Sampling of five trait factors, included in R. Cattell's 16-factor personality questionnaire

Currently, in psychological science there are many theoretical models that describe personalities, the need for comparison, comparison, including the integration of subsequent knowledge, and approaches to classification according to a number of criteria.

Approaches to the classification of personality theories based on statements about human nature (L. Kjell, D. Ziegler).

The authors, having analyzed various theories, identified a number of parameters by which they can be compared in the form of scales on which a dot can indicate the position of a particular theory on a specific attribute (criterion).

· Freedom – determinism (human behavior is determined, caused by something);

· Rationalism – irrationalism (consciousness, mind – feelings, emotions, instincts);

· Holism – elementalism (personality as integrity – personality as elements);

· Constitutionalism – environmentalism (heredity – environment);

· Changeability – immutability (personality is amorphous, changeable – personality is more or less constant);

· Subjectivity - objectivity (studies the inner world of a person - objective indicators (behavior));

· Proactivity – reactivity (source of activity inside – source of activity outside);

· Cognizability – unknowability (personality is cognizable – personality is complex, cannot be cognized);

· Homeostasis – heterostasis (striving for balance (psychoanalysis) – striving for disequilibrium (humanists)).

Approaches to modeling the psychological image of a person in personality theories (V.V. Nurkova, N.B. Berezenskaya “Psychology”, state examination).

1. Interaction with the world:

§ Striving for homeostasis;

§ The desire for heterostasis.

2. Human nature:

§ A person is bad by nature (a person suffers, he is obsessed with complexes, and society does not accept him);

§ A person is naturally good (a person strives to develop, to be better, society cannot always support him);

§ A person is ambiguous by nature (he has both good qualities and bad ones, society tries to maintain good qualities and reduce bad qualities);

§ Man is neutral by nature (society is neutral, man is neutral, to be functionally adaptive).

Kinds psychological theories personalities:

Homeostatic

Conflict orientation (person is bad) à psychoanalysis.
Orientation towards consent (the person is neutral) à behavioral, cognitive.

Heterostatic

Conflict orientation (person – ambiguous) à activity approach (example – Elkonin’s concept (conflict – development)).
Orientation towards agreement (a person is good) à humanistic approach.

Thus, each theory gives its own understanding of the problem of personality, and therefore it is inadequate to distinguish between correct and incorrect theories - all are correct, but one-sided - the polyparadigmatic nature of psychology.

Thus, each theory examines the personality from only one position, identifying the corresponding patterns - a correct interpretation and a holistic interpretation of the personality is possible only by combining different views. Otherwise, the image will be inaccurate and fragmentary.

What is essential in personality is patterns and the basis of personality theory.

Nemov R.S. Psychology: In 3 books. Book 1. - M.: Vlados, 1999
Section III. PSYCHOLOGY OF PERSONALITY

Chapter 13. INTRODUCTION TO PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY (p. 335-367)

Summary

The concept of personality. Scientific definition of the concept of “personality”. The presence and coexistence of many different definitions of this concept is a consequence of the versatility and complexity of the personality phenomenon. The necessity and insufficiency of each of these definitions. Integration of scientific definitions is the way to obtain the most comprehensive personality characteristics, general idea about her. Individual, personality, individuality are concepts with the help of which a person is characterized as a whole, in the totality of many of his properties. Differences in the content and scope of these concepts.

History of personality research. Three main historical periods in the study of personality: philosophical and literary, clinical and experimental, their characteristics and influence on the current state of this field of knowledge. The need and essence of the experimental approach in the study of personality psychology. Contribution of A.F. Lazursky, G. Eysenck, G. Allport and R. Cattell to the development of personality problems.

Modern theories of personality. Differentiation of directions in personality research in the 30s of the 20th century. Classification of modern psychological theories of personality, its foundations. Three types of personality theories: psychodynamic, sociodynamic and interactionist. Features of experimental and non-experimental, structural and dynamic, and a number of other theories. Personality trait theory.

GENERAL VIEW OF PERSONALITY

To the question of what personality is, psychologists answer differently, and the variety of their answers, and partly the divergence of opinions on this matter, reveals the complexity of the personality phenomenon itself. Each of the definitions of personality available in the literature (if it is included in the developed theory and supported by research) deserves to be considered in the search for a global definition of personality.

Personality is most often defined as a person in the totality of his social, acquired qualities. This means that personal characteristics do not include such human characteristics that are genotypically or physiologically determined and do not in any way depend on life in society. Many definitions of personality emphasize that personal qualities do not include the psychological qualities of a person that characterize his cognitive processes or individual style of activity, with the exception of those that manifest themselves in relationships with people and in society. The concept of “personality” usually includes such properties that are more or less stable and indicate a person’s individuality, determining his actions that are significant for people.

So, what is personality, given these limitations? Personality is a person taken in the system of his psychological characteristics that are socially conditioned, manifest themselves in social connections and relationships by nature, are stable, determine the moral actions of a person that are of significant importance for himself and those around him.

Along with the concepts of “person” and “personality”, the terms “individual” and “individuality” are often used in science (Fig. 56). Their difference from the concept of “personality” is as follows.

Rice. 56. The relationship between the scope of the concepts “person”, “personality”, “individual” and “individuality”

If the concept of “person” includes the totality of all human qualities characteristic of people, regardless of whether they are present or absent in a given person, then the concept of “individual” characterizes him and additionally includes such psychological and biological properties, which, along with personal ones, are also inherent in him. In addition, the concept of “individual” includes both qualities that distinguish a given person from other people, as well as properties common to him and many other people.

Individuality is the narrowest concept of all discussed. It contains only those individual and personal properties of a person, such a combination of them that distinguishes this person from other people.

Let's consider the personality structure. It usually includes abilities, temperament, character, volitional qualities, emotions, motivation, and social attitudes. All these qualities will be discussed in detail in the relevant chapters, but here we will limit ourselves to only their general definitions.

Capabilities are understood as individually stable properties of a person that determine his success in various types of activities.
Temperament includes qualities on which a person’s reactions to other people and social circumstances depend.
Character contains qualities that determine a person’s actions towards other people.
Strong-willed qualities cover several special personal characteristics that influence a person’s desire to achieve his goals.
Emotions and motivation - these are, accordingly, experiences and motivations for activity, and social attitudes are the beliefs and attitudes of people.

HISTORY OF PERSONALITY STUDIES

Personality psychology became an experimental science in the first decades of our century. Its formation is associated with the names of such scientists as A. FLazursky, G. Allport, R. Cattell and others. However, theoretical research in the field of personality psychology was carried out long before this time, and at least three periods can be distinguished in the history of relevant research: philosophical-literary, clinical and actually experimental. The first originates from the works of ancient thinkers and continues until the beginning of the 19th century.

In the first decades of the 19th century. Along with philosophers and writers, psychiatrists became interested in the problems of personality psychology. They were the first to conduct systematic observations of the patient's personality in a clinical setting, studying his life history in order to better understand his observed behavior. At the same time, not only professional conclusions were made related to the diagnosis and treatment of mental illness, but also general scientific conclusions about the nature of the human personality. This period was called clinical. Until the beginning of the 20th century. philosophical, literary and clinical approaches to personality were the only attempts to penetrate into its essence.

In the first decades of the current century, professional psychologists also began to study personality, who until that time had paid attention mainly to the study of cognitive processes and human states. They tried to give the relevant research an experimental character by introducing mathematical and statistical data processing in order to accurately test hypotheses and obtain reliable facts, on the basis of which they could then build experimentally verified, rather than speculative theories of personality.

An important task of the experimental period in the study of personality was the development of reliable and valid test methods for assessing normal personality.

The main problems of personality psychology in the philosophical and literary period of its study were questions about the moral and social nature of man, about his actions and behavior. The first definitions of personality were quite broad. They included everything that is in a person and that he can call his own, personal: his biology, psychology, property, behavior, culture, etc. This understanding of personality has been partially preserved to this day.

During the clinical period of personality study the idea of it as a special phenomenon was narrowed in comparison with the philosophical and literary period. Psychiatrists have focused on personality traits that are usually found in a sick person. Later it was found that these features exist, but are moderately expressed in almost all healthy people, and in patients, as a rule, they are hypertrophied. This applies, for example, to extraversion and introversion, anxiety and rigidity, inhibition and excitability. Definitions of personality by psychiatrists were given in terms of such traits, using which one can describe a completely normal, pathological, and accentuated (as an extreme version of the norm) personality.

This definition in itself was correct for solving psychotherapeutic problems. Any other psychological definition of personality could not do without those personality qualities that were mentioned in it. What then was its insufficiency? The fact is that such a definition for a holistic description of the psychology of a normal personality was too narrow. It did not include those personality traits that, under any conditions, even if they are extremely pronounced, are always positive, “normal.” These are, for example, abilities, decency, conscience, honesty and a number of other personal qualities.

Experimental period in personality research began at a time when significant advances had already been made in the study of basic cognitive processes. It coincided in time with the general crisis of psychological science, one of the reasons for which was the inability of the psychology of that time to explain integral behavioral acts. The atomistic approach that dominated it required the decomposition of human psychology into separate processes and states. In the end, it led to the fact that a person turned out to be represented by a set of individual mental functions, from the sum of which it was difficult to add up his personality and understand the more or less complex forms of his social behavior. One of the pioneers of the experimental approach to the study of personality, the English psychologist R. Cattell compared the situation that had developed by that time in personality psychology with a production of Hamlet without the Prince of Denmark: it had everything except the main character - the personality.

At the same time, in atomistic, functional psychology, experiment and the apparatus of mathematical statistics were already widely used at that time. A new area of knowledge - personality psychology - under these conditions could not be built on an old, speculative basis or on the basis of untested, isolated data collected in the clinic. What was needed was, firstly, a decisive turn from a sick personality to a healthy one, secondly, new, more accurate and reliable methods for studying it, thirdly, a scientific experiment that met the requirements accepted in the study of sensations, perception, memory and thinking.

Experimental studies of personality in Russia were started by A.F. Lazursky, and abroad by G. Eysenck and R. Cattell. A. FLazursky developed a technique and methodology for conducting systematic scientific observations of an individual, as well as a procedure for conducting a natural experiment in which it was possible to obtain and generalize data regarding the psychology and behavior of a healthy individual. The merit of G. Eysenck was the development of methods and procedures for mathematical processing of observational data, surveys and analysis of documents collected about individuals from various sources. As a result of such processing, correlating (statistically related) facts were obtained, characterizing common, most common and individually stable traits.

Of all the definitions of personality proposed at the beginning of the experimental period of developing the problem of personality, the most successful was the one given G. Allport: personality is an individually formed, individually unique set of psychophysiological systems - personality traits that determine the thinking and behavior unique to a given person.

MODERN THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

At the end of the 30s of our century, active differentiation of research areas began in personality psychology. As a result, by the second half of our century, many different approaches and theories of personality had developed. To briefly consider them, we will use the generalizing diagram presented in Fig. 57.

Rice. 57. Classification scheme for modern personality theories

To type psychodynamic These include theories that describe personality and explain its behavior based on its psychological, or internal, subjective characteristics. If we use the formula proposed by K. Levin to symbolically represent the types of theories, B = F(P,E), where B is behavior; F - sign of functional dependence; P - internal subjective psychological properties of the individual; E is the social environment, then psychodynamic theories in their symbolic representation will look like this: B = E(P). This means that behavior here is actually derived from the internal psychological properties of the individual as a person and is fully explained only on their basis.

Experimental are called personality theories built on the analysis and generalization of empirically collected factors. Non-experimental theories include those whose authors rely on life impressions, observations and experience and make theoretical generalizations without resorting to experiment.

To the number structural include theories for which the main problem is to clarify the structure of personality and the system of concepts with the help of which it should be described.

Dynamic are called theories whose main theme is transformation, change in personality development, i.e. its dynamics.

A number of personality theories, characteristic of developmental and educational psychology, are based on the consideration of a limited age period in personality development, as a rule, from birth to the end of high school, i.e. from infancy to early adolescence. There are also theories whose authors set themselves the task of tracing the development of personality throughout a person’s life.

Finally, an essential basis for dividing personality theories into types is what they focus on primarily: the internal properties, traits and qualities of a person or its external manifestations, for example, behavior and actions.

Let us use this classification to take a closer look at a number of the most well-known personality theories abroad and in our country.

As already mentioned, G. Allport and R. Cattell began developing a theory called the theory of traits. It can be classified as psychodynamic, experimental, structural-dynamic, covering a person’s entire life and describing him as a person in terms of internal, psychological properties. People, according to this theory, differ from each other in the set and degree of development of their individual, independent traits, and a description of a holistic personality can be obtained on the basis of a testological or other, less rigorous examination of it, based, for example, on a generalization of life observations of different people about a given personality .

A less rigorous way of identifying and assessing personality traits is based on studying the language, selecting words-concepts from it, with the help of which the personality is described from different sides. By reducing the list of selected words to the necessary and sufficient minimum (by excluding synonyms from them), a complete list of all possible personality traits is compiled for their subsequent expert assessment in a given person. This was the path G. Allport took to constructing a methodology for studying personality traits.

The second method of assessing personality traits involves the use of factor analysis - a complex method of modern statistics that allows one to reduce to the necessary and sufficient minimum many different indicators and personality assessments obtained as a result of self-analysis, surveys, and life observations of people. The result is a set of statistically independent factors that are considered individual personality traits of a person.

We note that subsequently the number of experimentally identified trait factors increased significantly. According to R. Maley, one of the proponents of the theory of personality traits, there are at least 33 such traits that are necessary and sufficient for a complete psychological description of personality. In general, in numerous studies carried out to date in line with the theory of traits, a description of about 200 such traits is given.

The Cattell questionnaire contains more than 100 questions that are asked to subjects; They answer them affirmatively or negatively. Then the answers are grouped in accordance with the “key” (the method of processing the results) and the severity of a particular factor is determined, indicating the development of the corresponding personality trait. Then the so-called “personal profile” of the subject is drawn, including his scores on each factor. An example of such a profile is shown in Fig. 58.

Rice. 58. A hypothetical example of a personality profile obtained based on the application of the 16-factor Cattell questionnaire. On the right and left are given the qualitative characteristics of the factors that make up (horizontally) pairs of adjectives characterizing the corresponding factor. On the left are marked in Latin letters symbols factors in the Cattell questionnaire

Let's consider a set of traits that, according to R. Meili1 (1MeiliR. Factor analysis of personality // Psychology of individual differences: Texts. - M., 1982.), characterize the personality quite fully:

1. Self-confidence - uncertainty.
2. Intellectuality (analyticity) - limitation (lack of developed imagination).
3. Maturity of mind - inconsistency, illogicality.
4. Prudence, restraint, steadfastness - vanity, susceptibility to influence.
5. Calmness (self-control) - neuroticism (nervousness).
6. Softness - callousness, cynicism.
7. Kindness, tolerance, unobtrusiveness - selfishness, self-will.
8. Friendliness, complaisance, flexibility - rigidity, tyranny, vindictiveness.
9. Kindness, gentleness - malice, callousness.
10. Realism - autism.
11. Willpower - lack of will.
12. Conscientiousness, decency - dishonesty, dishonesty.
13. Consistency, discipline of the mind - inconsistency, scatteredness.
14. Confidence - uncertainty.
15. Adulthood is infantilism.
16. Tactfulness - tactlessness.
17. Openness (contact) - closedness (privacy).
18. Cheerfulness - sadness.
19. Fascination - disappointment.
20. Sociability - unsociability.
21. Activity - passivity.
22. Independence - conformity.
23. Expressiveness - restraint.
24. Diversity of interests - narrowness of interests.
25. Sensitivity - coldness.
26. Seriousness - frivolity.
27. Honesty is deceit.
28. Aggression is kindness.
29. Cheerfulness - cheerfulness.
30. Optimism - pessimism.
31. Courage is cowardice.
32. Generosity is stinginess.
33. Independence - dependence.

Trait theory has some pretty serious flaws. Firstly, the identified set of personality traits significantly depends on the quality of the source material subjected to factor analysis. Using different initial data, researchers receive different lists of factors, and their opinions about the necessity and sufficiency of the identified set of personality traits also turn out to be very different. Some believe that for a complete psychological characterization of a person it is enough to have only 5 traits, others argue that 20 are not enough for this.

Secondly, based on knowledge of personality traits, it turned out to be almost impossible to accurately predict a person’s behavior even in those situations that are meaningfully related to the identified traits. As it turned out, human behavior, in addition to personality traits, also depends on many other conditions, in particular on the characteristics of the situation itself in which it is considered.

As an alternative to trait theory, a personality concept called social learning theory. According to the proposed classification, it can be classified as sociodynamic, experimental, structural-dynamic, which includes the entire human life in consideration and describes a person as an individual in behavioral terms. The main psychological characteristic of personality in this theory is an act or series of acts. A person’s behavior and his social actions are significantly influenced by other people, their support or condemnation of his actions.

Individual differences in behavior that are found in children and adults are, according to this theory, the result of their experience of long-term exposure to different living conditions, interactions and relationships with different people. The main mechanisms by which a person acquires new forms of behavior and, consequently, his development as an individual is conditioned reflex learning through observation of others (vicarious learning) and imitation.

The stability of a person as an individual is determined not by his own psychological characteristics, but by the frequency and constancy of the occurrence of the same “stimulus situations”, the sameness of the reinforcements and punishments associated with them, the identity of assessments of the individual’s behavior by other people, the success and frequency of repetition in the past of corresponding social actions.

An example of an interactionist theory of personality is the concept developed by the American scientist W.Mishel . According to this concept, personal factors that, together with the situation, determine a person’s behavior are divided into a number of groups:

1. Human abilities, i.e. what he is able to do independently and independently of the situation in a given environment.
2. Cognitive strategies - ways of perceiving and assessing a situation by a person, choosing forms of behavior in it.
3. Expectations - assessments of the likely consequences of performing certain actions in a given situation.
4. Values, i.e. what is of value to a given person has meaning and significance. A person in the current situation usually chooses a behavior that leads to the affirmation of his values.
5. Plans of behavior, methods of its subjective regulation. When faced with any situation, people usually prefer to act in their usual way, according to a plan that has already been proven by experience.

In fact, there is an incredible variety of approaches to developing personality models.
According to the method of explaining behavior, all existing theories of personality are divided into:
- psychodynamic,
- sociodynamic,
- interactionist.
Psychodynamic theories describe personality and explain human behavior based on his psychological (internal) characteristics. Such theories focus more on the features inner life person. Sociodynamic theories describe personality through exposure to various kinds of external situations. Such theories focus more on a person's social self. Personality is considered as the social face of a person. Interactionist theories are based on the principle of interaction between internal and external factors in controlling actual human actions.
Another basis for the classification of personality theories is the method of obtaining data about personality:
- experimental theories,
- non-experimental theories.
Experimental theories are built on the analysis and generalization of experimentally collected data. Non-experimental - theories whose authors rely on impressions, their own observations and life experience, make theoretical generalizations without resorting to experiment. Non-experimental theories often suffer from subjectivity and are easily susceptible to speculation. Experimental theories can also be very different, and in any experimental theory one can discern the subjective position of the author.
Personality theories can also be structural or dynamic. The first describe the structure of personality, the focus is on a complex of key concepts and their relationships with each other. Dynamic theories consider personality in dynamics; such theories are usually not limited to a narrow range of concepts; the authors’ approach is rather descriptive.

There are many different approaches to the classification of theories and concepts of personality. The basis for classification may be, for example, a method of explaining behavior, a method of obtaining data about a personality, personality structure, different age periods in personality development, etc.

Let's consider in general outline some of the theories of personality that developed in the second half of the 20th century.

In accordance with behaviorist theory, personality is a set of behavioral reactions inherent in a given person. This or that behavioral reaction occurs to a certain stimulus or situation. By changing them, you can program a person to the required behavior. The founder of this theory, the American scientist D. Watson, saw the task of psychology as learning to “calculate” and program human behavior.

According to the theory of traits (G. Allport, R. Cattell), people differ from each other in the set and degree of development of their individual personality traits (or motives), which act at the moment and stimulate human behavior. A description of a person can be obtained on the basis, for example, of a testological examination or a generalization of observations of a given person. The results of the study allowed Cattell to create the sixteen-factor personality questionnaire (16PF), which has gained great popularity throughout the world.

According to the theory of social learning (A.L. Bandura and others), the main reason individual differences people is the condemnation or approval of a person’s actions by other people. Personality development occurs conditionally as a result of observing the behavior of others and imitating them.

One of the most common personality theories is psychoanalytic theory (S. Freud). Subsequently, on its basis, a whole series of theories arose, which can conventionally be called “theories of neo-Freudianism.” While working in the neuroses clinic of the famous French neurologist J. Charcot, Freud became acquainted with the therapy of neuroses. Subsequently, he moved away from hypnotic suggestion and moved on to the study and interpretation of dreams, associations, slips of the tongue, and slips of the tongue, which was the basis of the method of psychoanalysis. According to his theory, individual behavior is determined by needs. Revealing the nature of the interaction of these needs and the possibilities of their satisfaction, Freud identifies three components in the personality structure: eid("It"), ego("Me and superego(“Super-ego”).

“It” is the unconscious part of the psyche, the concentration of biologically innate, unconscious instincts. “It” obeys the principle of receiving pleasure and the principle of maintaining internal balance.

The “super-ego” is the bearer of the moral standards of society, its cultural norms, that part of the personality that plays the role of a person’s internal critic, a kind of “censor”, his conscience.

The “I” tries to establish harmony, balance between the “It” and the “Super-ego”, and submits to the norms and requirements of reality.

Cognitive theory (U. Neisser, A. Paivio) assigns the main role in explaining individual behavior to knowledge. According to this theory, a person is not a machine that blindly and mechanically reacts to external or internal factors. On the contrary, a person analyzes information, compares, makes decisions, and solves problems.

Humanistic theory (A. Maslow) is based on a holistic approach to personality analysis. According to Maslow, the basic human need is the desire for self-improvement and self-expression, or, as he called it, self-actualization, a process of constant development and practical realization of one’s capabilities. Maslow believes that self-actualization is an innate phenomenon; it is part of human nature. A person is born with the needs for goodness, morality, and benevolence. They form the core of a person, and he must be able to realize these needs. Therefore, self-actualization is one of the innate needs. The hierarchical system of needs created by Maslow (see Fig. 1) is a model of human motivation and meets following principles:

The higher the level of need, the less vital it is;

Until the lower level needs are satisfied, the higher ones remain relatively irrelevant;

As the level of need increases, human activity increases.

Theoretical research in the field of personality psychology began a very long time ago, and it has its own history. At least three periods of development of personality psychology can be distinguished: philosophical-literary, clinical and experimental.

The first period of research began with the works of ancient thinkers and continued until the beginning of the 19th century. The main problems of personality psychology in the philosophical and literary period were questions about the moral and social nature of man. The first definitions of personality were quite broad. They included everything that is in a person and that he can call his own, personal: his biology, psychology, property, behavior, culture, etc. This understanding of personality was partially preserved at a later time. For psychology, where there are many other concepts and scientific categories that are different from personality and filled with specific content, this definition is too broad.

In the first decades of the 19th century. Along with philosophers, psychiatrists began to study problems of personality psychology. They were the first to conduct systematic observations of the patient’s personality in a clinical setting and study his life history in order to better understand his behavior. At the same time, not only professional conclusions were made related to the diagnosis and treatment of mental illness, but also general scientific conclusions about the nature of the human personality. During the clinical period of studying personality, the idea of it as a special phenomenon was narrowed in comparison with the philosophical and literary period

house. Psychiatrists have focused on personality traits that are usually found in a sick person. Later it was found that many of the features they discovered are present in almost all healthy people, but in them these features are moderately expressed, and in patients, as a rule, they are hypertrophied. This applies, for example, to anxiety and rigidity, inhibition and excitability.

Definitions of personality by psychiatrists were given in terms of such traits that can be used to describe a completely normal, pathological, and accentuated (as an extreme version of the norm) personality. Nevertheless, this approach also seems imperfect from a psychological point of view. The fact is that such definitions for a holistic description of a normal personality were too narrow. This type of definition did not include personality traits that, under any conditions, even if they are extremely pronounced, are always positive, “normal.” These are, for example, abilities, moral qualities and a number of other personal properties.

It should be noted that until the beginning of the 20th century. philosophical, literary and clinical approaches to the study of personality were the only ones within which attempts were made to penetrate into the essence of this phenomenon. Only in the first decades of the 20th century. Personality began to be studied by psychologists, who until that time were mainly engaged in the study of cognitive processes and human states. Since the beginning of the 20th century. characterized by the rapid development of experimental research in psychology, an attempt was made to introduce mathematical and statistical data processing in order to accurately test hypotheses and obtain reliable facts. In this regard, the primary task for psychologists for many years was the development of reliable and valid test methods for studying normal personality.

Let's take a closer look at some of the most famous concepts and theories of personality, as well as their classification.

There are a variety of approaches to the classification of theories and concepts of personality. Moreover, we may encounter these differences not only in scientific works, but also in textbooks. Thus, R. S. Nemov counts at least 48 theories of personality, each of which can be assessed according to five parameters, which are the basis for classification.

According to the way they explain behavior, all existing theories of personality can be divided into psychodynamic, sociodynamic and interactionist.

Psychodynamic theories include theories that describe personality and explain human behavior based on its psychological, or internal, characteristics. From the point of view of sociodynamic theories, external situations play a major role in determining behavior. Therefore, theories of this type do not attach significant importance to the internal properties of the individual. Interactionist theories are based on the principle of interaction between internal and external factors in controlling actual human actions.

The next basis for dividing theories into types is the method of obtaining data about personality. From this point of view, all theories can be divided into experimental and non-experimental. Experimental theories of personality include theories built on the analysis and generalization of data collected by experienced

by data. In turn, to non-experimental include theories whose authors rely on life impressions, observations and experience and make theoretical generalizations without resorting to experiment.

Another basis for classifying the theory is the authors’ point of view on personality as a structural or dynamic formation. To the number structural include theories for which the main problem is to clarify the structure of personality and the system of concepts with which it should be described. Dynamic are called theories whose main theme is transformation, change in personality development, i.e. its dynamics.

There are also a number of personality theories that have emerged within the framework of developmental and educational psychology. The theories of this type are based on the consideration of a limited age period in personality development, as a rule, from birth to the end of high school, that is, from infancy to early adolescence. In addition, there are theories whose authors set themselves the task of tracing the development of personality throughout a person’s life.

Another basis for the classification of personality theories is what they focus on: internal properties, traits and qualities of a person or its external manifestations, for example behavior and actions. So, we can highlight trait theories According to the provisions of this group of theories, all people differ from each other in the set and degree of development of their individual, independent traits, and a description of personality can be obtained on the basis of a test-logical or other method of identifying and describing personality traits, for example, based on a generalization of life observations of different people behind a given person.

The second way to assess personality traits involves combining all people into typological groups. In this case, people belonging to the same typological group will have similar psychological characteristics, and therefore, they are very similar to each other in their behavior. However, the psychological characteristics characteristic of a particular typological group, in turn, make it unlike other typological groups.

It should be noted that, in addition to those considered by R. S. Nemov, there are other classifications of personality theories. Thus, B.V. Zeigarnik examines existing theories of personality in their content-semantic and historical aspects, depending on the conditions of their origin and development. At the same time, she highlights the following groups theories: personality theories of Freudianism and neo-Freudianism, humanistic theories of personality, personality theories of existential psychology, personality theories of the French sociological school, etc. Let us consider in general terms some of them.

One of the most widespread theories that still influences personality psychology is Freudianism. This theory arose during that period of personality research, which we defined as clinical. The creator of this theory is Z. Freud. Subsequently, on the basis of Freudianism, a whole series of theories arose that can be conditionally united into the group of theories of neo-Freudianism.

Freud worked for several years at the clinic of the famous French neurologist J. Charcot in Salpêtrière (Paris) and the Bernheim clinic in Nancy, where he

became acquainted with the therapy of neuroses. Since the beginning of the 90s. 3. Freud worked together with J. Breuer, using the method of hypnotic catharsis. Subsequently, Freud moved away from the practice of hypnotic suggestion and moved on to the study and interpretation of dreams, freely arising associations, slips of the tongue, and forgetting. Freud called the interpretation of this material the method of psychoanalysis. In it he saw a new method, a new technique of psychotherapy.

The method of psychoanalysis is that through long conversations with the patient, the true cause of his illness is brought to his consciousness; he begins to become aware of what has been repressed. What happens, according to Freud, is catharsis. Subsequently, Freud extended his concept to the psyche of a healthy person. Within the framework of this theory, Freud dwelt in great detail on the mechanisms of human behavior.

Considering the problem of behavior, Freud identifies two needs that determine human mental activity: libidinal and aggressive. But since the satisfaction of these needs encounters obstacles from the outside world, they are repressed, forming the region of the unconscious. But still, sometimes they break through, bypassing the “censorship” of consciousness, and appear in the form of symbols. Revealing the nature of the interaction of these needs and the possibility of their satisfaction, Freud identifies three main components in the personality structure: id (“It”), ego (“I”) and superego (“Super-ego”). The id is precisely the arena where instincts repressed into the unconscious dominate. The ego, on the one hand, follows unconscious instincts, and on the other, obeys the standards and requirements of reality. The superego is the totality of the moral principles of society; it plays the role of a “censor”. Thus, the ego is in conflict, because the demands of the id and the superego are incompatible. Therefore the ego constantly resorts to defense mechanisms- repression, sublimation. The repression itself occurs unconsciously. At the same time, motives, experiences, feelings that “move” into the area of the unconscious continue to act in the form of symbols, in the form of activity that is acceptable to the “censor”.

According to Freud, to carry out various functions and forms of activity, there is a whole system of special mechanisms (sublimation, projection, transference, repression, regression, etc.). At the same time, Freud considers the body as a complex energy system governed by the law of conservation of energy. Therefore, if the libido is arrested in one of its manifestations, it must inevitably produce some other effects. The superego ensures the social acceptability of these effects. However, if he fails to do this, the conflict between the id and the superego becomes aggravated, and the normal functioning of the system is disrupted; blocked libido finds expression in various painful symptoms.

This personality construct, created by Freud, contains the assumption of the complexity, multifaceted structures of human behavior, and all these components are subject mainly to biological laws. In Freud's theory, a person's real actions act as a symbol of a need “primed” by consciousness. Therefore, characterizing the theory of psychoanalysis, the famous Russian psychologist F.V. Bassin noted that the essence of Freud's teaching is the recognition of the fatal antagonism between repressed experience and consciousness, which leads to antagonism between a person and the social environment.

Jung Carl Gustav (1875-1961) - Swiss psychologist and psychiatrist. In 1906-1913. worked with Z. Freud, later moved away from classical psychoanalysis and created his own analytical psychology. He developed one of the methods of associative experiment and introduced the concept of “complex”. As a result of many years of clinical research, I came to the conclusion that in the human psyche, not only the individual, but also the collective unconscious plays a significant role, the content of which is represented by archetypes inherited from ancestors. He developed a complex (little known at present) personality structure, including “I”, “shadow” (the set of ideas about oneself repressed by a person), “self” (self-knowledge of the meaning of life), “anima” (the source of affection and attractions), “animus” "(source of indisputable judgments). He proposed a typology of characters based on two characteristics: according to the orientation of the attitude (extraversion-introversion) and according to the dominant function (thinking, feeling, sensing or intuition).

K. Jung was one of the first students of Freud to dissociate himself from his teacher. The main reason for the disagreement between them was Freud's idea of pansexualism. But Jung fought against Freud not from a materialistic, but from an idealistic position. Jung called his system “analytical psychology.”

According to Jung, the human psyche includes three levels: consciousness, the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious. The decisive role in the structure of a person’s personality is played by the collective unconscious, formed from traces of memory left by the entire past of humanity. The collective unconscious is universal. It influences a person’s personality and predetermines his behavior from the moment of birth. In turn, the collective unconscious also consists of different levels. It is determined by national, racial and universal heritage. The deepest level consists of traces of the pre-human past, that is, from the experience of human animal ancestors. Thus, according to Jung's definition, the collective unconscious is the mind of our ancient ancestors, the way they thought and felt, the way they comprehended life and the world, gods and human beings.

The collective unconscious manifests itself in individuals in the form of archetypes, which are found not only in dreams, but also in real creativity. Archetypes are inherent to individuals, but they reflect the collective unconscious. These are certain general forms of mental representations, including a significant element of emotionality and even perceptual images. For example, the mother archetype is the universal idea of a mother with the sensual and figurative content of her own mother. The child receives this archetype ready-made by inheritance and, on its basis, creates a specific image of his real mother.

In addition to the collective unconscious, there is, according to Jung, a personal unconscious, but it is not separated from consciousness. The personal unconscious consists of experiences that were once conscious and then forgotten or repressed from consciousness. Under certain conditions they become conscious.

Alfred Adler (1870-1937) - Austrian psychologist, one of the leading figures in the psychoanalytic field. In 1895 he defended his doctoral dissertation in medicine in Vienna. From 1902 to 1911 he was a member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, and in 1911 he began to create his own scientific school, called “individual psychology”. In his teaching, Adler defended the principle of internal unity of the mental life of the individual. He believed that there is no hard boundary between the conscious and the unconscious. Through his activities, he had a significant impact on humanistic psychology, research in the field of child and clinical psychology and defectology.

The structural units of the personal unconscious are constellations of feelings, thoughts and memories. Jung called these constellations complexes (for example, a person’s desire to have great power is called a power complex by Jung).

Jung also introduced the concept of "I". Behind this concept lies a person’s desire for integrity and unity. Thanks to him, a balance is achieved between the conscious and unconscious. “I” can manifest itself in different ways. Depending on its manifestation, people can be divided into certain types.

Jung based his classification of personality types on whether a person is focused on himself or on an object. Accordingly, all people can be divided into extroverts and introverts. In addition to these basic types, Jung also speaks of the existence of additional types - intuitive, mental, emotional. Moreover, the personality type is determined by the ratio of various functions, most of which are innate. Therefore, personality types, according to Jung, are innate types that are not related to the conditions of social life.

Another, no less famous student of Freud, who departed from his teacher, was A. Adler, the founder of the so-called individual psychology. He sharply opposed Freud's biologizing theory. Adler emphasized that the main thing in a person is not his natural instincts, but a social feeling, which he called the “sense of community.” This feeling is innate, but it must be socially developed. He opposed Freud's view that man is from birth aggressive, that his development is determined by biological needs.

In addition, Adler opposed the division of personality into three levels, which Freud spoke about. In his opinion, the personality structure is uniform, and the determinant in personality development is a person’s desire for superiority. However, this desire cannot always be realized. Thus, due to a defect in the development of bodily organs, a person begins to experience a feeling of inferiority; it can also arise in childhood due to unfavorable social conditions. A person strives to find ways to overcome feelings of inferiority and resorts to different types compensation.

Adler examines different forms of compensation (adequate, inadequate) and talks about its possible levels. For example, he talks about the possibility of developing overcompensation. This is a special form of reaction to one’s inferiority. The ability to develop overcompensation leads to the fact that physically weak and weak-willed people begin to perform courageous actions. Moreover, in overcompensation Adler sees a mechanism of creativity and activity. As an example, he liked to refer to the personality of Napoleon and believed that Napoleon's special abilities as a commander were explained in part by the fact that he had a heightened sense of inferiority due to his short stature.

Adler identified three main forms of manifestation of compensation:

1. Successful compensation for feelings of inferiority as a result of the coincidence of the desire for superiority with social interest.

2. Overcompensation, which means a one-sided adaptation to life as a result of the excessive development of any one trait or ability.

3. Departure from illness. In this case, the person cannot free himself from the feeling of inferiority; cannot achieve compensation in “normal” ways and “creates” symptoms of illness to justify his failure. Neurosis arises.

Thus, Adler made an attempt to socialize Freud's theoretical views, although, as we see, the feeling of inferiority is innate in nature, so he was not able to completely avoid biologization.

Karen Horney was at first a devoted student of Freud. In 1939, already in the USA, she published the book “The Neurotic Personality of Our Time,” in which she warmly thanks her teacher. However, she soon began to sharply criticize Freud for his attempt to reduce the mechanisms of human behavior to two tendencies - libidinal and aggressive, as well as for pansexualism.

Horney sees the basis of human essence in an innate sense of anxiety. A baby is born with this feeling, and from the first days of his life he begins to feel restless. This feeling colors his entire future life, is fixed and becomes an internal property of mental activity. What causes this feeling? According to Horney, a person constantly experiences a feeling of hostility in the world, and the desire to get rid of it gives rise to anxiety. Everything a person does is to transform the feeling of anxiety. It is the main motivation for his actions. Horney calls it a feeling of fundamental anxiety, which determines a person’s actions. Fundamental anxiety makes a person strive for safety.

Horney argues that man is governed by two tendencies: the desire for security and the desire to satisfy his desires. Both of these aspirations often contradict each other, and then a neurotic conflict arises, which the person himself seeks to suppress by developing certain methods (“strategies”) of behavior. Horney identified four types of behavior. The first is expressed in the “neurotic desire for love” as a means of ensuring security

Horney Karen Clementine (1885-1952) - American psychologist, representative of neo-Freudianism. Until 1932 she was engaged in clinical work in Germany, then emigrated to the USA. She believed that the development of neuroses, the essence of which lies in the experience of fundamental anxiety, is due to the contradictions of interpersonal communication, especially the relationship between parents and children. If life situations (bullying, lack of love, overprotection) force a child to often experience fundamental anxiety, then persistent character traits may arise, such as lack of self-confidence and a fearful attitude towards others. In her opinion, every person can and wants to improve his personal potential, but when this natural desire is blocked by external social influence, a neurotic conflict arises.

in life; the second is manifested in a “neurotic desire for power,” which is explained not by any objective reasons, but by fear and hostility towards people; the third type of behavior strategy is expressed in the desire to isolate oneself from people; the fourth type manifests itself in the recognition of one’s helplessness (“neurotic submission”).

Horney tried to increase the number of strategies, but eventually settled on three types: 1) people-oriented; 2) the desire to move away from people, the desire for independence; 3) the desire to act against people (aggression).

According to these three types of relationships, three types of neurotic personality are distinguished: 1) stable, 2) eliminated, 3) aggressive. These types of behavior are characteristic of healthy people.

The difference between a healthy person and someone suffering from neurosis comes down only to the fact that the contradiction between conflicting tendencies in a healthy person is much less than in a neurotic person. According to Horney, a healthy person, under the influence of temporary external circumstances, develops “situational neuroses.” “Character neuroses,” on the other hand, are a genuine illness, since they are based on a persistent “primordial conflict.”

Although Horney sharply criticized the biologizing essence of Freud's teaching, in her main position about “primordial anxiety” and “root anxiety” she essentially repeats Freud. In Horney's theory, the main provisions of Freudianism remain: the antagonism of the natural and the social (the principle of the pursuit of security is incompatible with the satisfaction of human desires), the fatality of the innate mechanism of “root anxiety”.

Another prominent representative of neo-Freudianism is G. S. Sullivan (1892-1949). He began his scientific career as a psychotherapist, but later acted as a psychologist. Sullivan declared that the object psychological research should become not a separate subject, but a personality as a product of joint activity of subjects. Personality, according to Sullivan, is a relatively stable pattern of recurring interpersonal situations that characterize human life.

Rogers Carl Ransom (1902-1987) - American psychologist, one of the founders of humanistic psychology. Author of the book Client-Centered Therapy (1954). As the core of personality, he considered the “Self-concept”, represented by the dynamics of the relationship between the “Real Self” and the “Ideal Self.” According to his ideas, two instances coexist in the individual, which must work in harmony - the real “I”, which is a system of ideas and assessments of oneself, depending on individual experience and current assessments of others, and the ideal “I”, which is the way a person wants to be. Developed non-directive client-centered psychotherapy, which is based on the rule not to give advice to the client and avoid judging his behavior, but to actualize it Creative skills required for independent decision his problems.

A child is born with the need to communicate with people, with the need for tenderness and with the need to avoid anxiety. At birth, the world does not greet the child very “gently” - the child is cold, he experiences discomfort at the moment of birth. As a reaction to this discomfort, the child develops anxiety.

Thus, Sullivan considers the main mechanisms of personality development to be: 1) the need for tenderness, affection and 2) the desire to avoid anxiety.

Sullivan believes that the need for security, the desire to avoid anxiety, is social, but this sociality is included from birth in organic needs. Satisfaction of such purely organic needs as the need for food and warmth requires the interested and tender participation and assistance of another person, if we're talking about about the child. For Sullivan, the social appears as a system of interpersonal relations, but the interpersonal relations themselves are not formed, but exist from the moment of birth. The formation of personality, according to Sullivan, occurs fatally, inevitably.

Both mechanisms coexist from the moment the child is born, and together they are a mechanism of personality development. But a person lives in the outside world, which constantly gives him displeasure and reasons for anxiety. And in the fight against this outside world, or rather, in the fight against anxiety, his personality is formed, which Sullivan calls the “I-system.” Sullivan argues that the "I-system", i.e. personality, is formed, firstly, in the struggle with inevitable anxiety at the unconscious level and, secondly, in finding various means to avoid this anxiety. The “I-system” forces a child, a teenager, and later an adult to resort to help, first from the mother, and then from other people, for example, their work colleagues. Thus, Sullivan uses interpersonal relationships as a mechanism that shapes personality.

It should be noted that in addition to these concepts within the framework of the psychoanalytic approach, there are others, for example, the concepts of E. Erikson, E. Fromm, etc.

In addition to the psychoanalytic direction, there are no less interesting scientific movements that we need to get acquainted with. One of these areas is humanistic psychology. The essence of these theories, existing within the framework of this direction, is that personality is considered as a kind of psychological formation that arises in the process of human life in society, as a product of the development of human experience, assimilation social forms behavior. For psychologists of the humanistic direction, personality is a kind of psychological formation that relates not only to the surrounding reality, but also to oneself.

This trend began to develop in the 30s. XX century and got it greatest development in the 50-60s. It had big influence on the development of social psychology. Psychologists have become increasingly interested in personality as the “empirical self” and the internal structure of personality.

Humanistic psychology was initially opposed to neo-Freudian concepts. Representatives of this school of thought sharply objected to the idea that human behavior is determined either by the desire for pleasure, or by a tendency to aggression, or to protection from society. They rejected the position according to which natural impulses are necessarily hostile to society. On the contrary, they proposed to consider innate altruistic motives as the source of behavior.

One of the leading representatives of this trend is K. Rogers.

He called his method of therapy non-directive, i.e. focused on the patient. According to this method, the doctor should not put pressure on the patient. Contact between doctor and patient should be based on respect for each other; Moreover, both of them are full participants in the conversation or contact. The function of the therapist is to create a situation where the doctor acts as the second “I” of the client and treats him with understanding. inner world. Deep respect for the individual position of the individual is the only rule of therapy. The client in such a situation feels that all his internal experiences and sensations are perceived with interest and approval, this helps to discover new aspects of his experience, sometimes for the first time to realize the meaning of certain of his experiences.

The therapy method developed by Rogers corresponds to his ideas about the formation of personality and the mechanisms of its development. Subsequently, Rogers' idea of non-directive therapy grew into a psychological theory of non-directive behavior. According to this theory, communication between healthy people should also be non-directive.

The central link in Rogers' theory of personality is the category self-esteem. As a result of a child's interaction with adults and other children, he develops an idea of himself.

However, the formation of self-esteem does not occur without conflict. Often the assessment of others does not correspond to self-esteem. A person is faced with a dilemma whether to accept the assessment of others or remain with his own, in other words, devalue himself or others. A complex process of “weighing” occurs, which

Rogers calls it an “organic evaluative process”, since the source of evaluations initially lies, as it were, inside the child’s body, that is, here we again encounter the concept of innate qualities.

Thus, in Rogers, as in neo-Freudianism, personality development is determined by an innate tendency. Social environment plays the role of only an external pressure factor alien to human nature.

Another equally famous representative humanistic psychology is G. Allport, who developed a psychological theory of personality, called trait theory. According to this theory, people differ from each other in the set and degree of development of their individual, independent traits, and a description of a personality can be obtained on the basis of a testological or other, less rigorous examination of it, based, for example, on a generalization of life observations of different people about a given personality . In essence, Allport proposed a methodology for studying personality, which has become widespread within the framework of experimental personality psychology. Therefore, we will look at his approach in more detail in the next section of this chapter.

A bright representative humanistic direction in psychology is A. Maslow. According to him, the basic human need is self-actualization, the desire for self-improvement and self-expression. To the main question of his theory - What is self-actualization? - Maslow answers: “Self-actualizing people, without exception, are involved in some kind of work... They are devoted to this work, it is something very valuable to them - it is a kind of calling.” All people of this type strive for the realization of higher values, which, as a rule, cannot be reduced to something even higher. These values (among them - goodness, truth, decency, beauty, justice, perfection, etc.) act as vital needs for them. Existence for a self-actualizing personality appears as a process of constant choice, as a constant solution to Hamlet’s problem “to be or not to be.” At every moment of life, an individual has a choice: moving forward, overcoming obstacles that inevitably arise on the path to a high goal, or retreat, giving up the fight and giving up positions.

A self-actualizing person always chooses to move forward and overcome obstacles. Self-actualization is a process of constant development and practical realization of one’s capabilities. This is “work in order to do well what a person wants to do.” This is “renunciation of illusions, getting rid of misconceptions About Me".

According to Maslow, self-actualization is an innate phenomenon; it is part of human nature. A person is born with the needs for goodness, morality, and benevolence. They form the core of man. And a person must be able to realize these needs. Therefore, self-actualization is one of the innate needs. In addition to this need, Maslow identifies several more basic ones in the personality structure: the need to procreate; need for food; need for security; need for protection; the need for truth, goodness, etc.

Speaking about various theories of personality, we cannot help but say a few words about the French psychological school and about its most outstanding representative P. Jean.

Janet expressed the opinion that various mental processes are phenomena that prepare actions. Feelings and thinking are processes that regulate actions. The basis for the development of personality is the doctrine of behavior. But Janet does not use the concept of behavior in the behaviorist sense. It is considered as including not only the externally observable activity of the individual, but also the internal mental content, which becomes an integral part of behavior, its regulating link.

Janet's position that the structure mental processes the regulation process is included is extremely important. Essentially, the thought that has found its way is already anticipated here. further development in the works of Russian psychologists L. S. Vygotsky, S. L. Rubinstein, A. N. Leontiev, L. I. Bozhovich and others, namely, the transformation of an individual into a person is determined by the fact that the possibility of regulation and self-regulation appears.

Janet says that the human psyche develops in cooperation with other people. First, a person cooperates with others and only then, on the basis of this, can he regulate his own behavior.

The structure of the behavioral act proposed by Janet seems interesting. In accordance with it, three stages are distinguished in a behavioral act: internal preparation for action, execution of action and completion of action. As we see, this description of the behavioral act already includes an idea of the purpose of the action.

Subsequently, Janet identifies different levels of human behavior (seven levels). He classifies reflex acts as the first level. This is the lowest level of behavior.

He attributes delayed perceptual actions to the second level. At this level, behavior has a two-phase structure, and it is distinguished by preparation and completion of action.

The third level of behavior includes elementary social acts, such as acts of imitation.

Janet classifies elementary intellectual acts as the fourth level.

At the fifth level, manipulation of real objects leads, according to Janet, to the formation of so-called intellectual objects.

The sixth level of behavior is the level of mental activity, thinking, which Janet considered to be derived from practical action. Thus, having identified this level, Janet expressed an opinion about the internalization of action and raised the question of the genetic connection between thinking and action. These ideas were continued in domestic psychology and were developed in the works of L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev, P. Ya. Galperin, S. L. Rubinstein and others.

Janet names the creative, labor activity of a person as the highest - seventh - level of behavior. Janet insists that it is labor activity that forms the arbitrariness of attention and volitional effort.

The position on self-regulation, which became the cornerstone of personality analysis among other representatives of the French sociological school, echoes Janet’s position on the presence of psychological tension and psychological strength. Psychological strength means a certain personality property, manifested in the speed and duration of individual actions. Psychological tension means the ability to concentrate and distribute force. Thus, both of these characteristics are interrelated and represent energy, dynamic side regulated behavior. It is the state of psychological tension, which in terms modern psychology could be described as a conscious mental activity that allows a person to regulate his behavior. Janet himself defines this state as the activation of higher needs.

Thus, Janet’s theoretical views seem quite modern. The ideas expressed by this scientist were subsequently developed in the works of domestic psychologists.

In Russian psychology, the most famous research in the field of personality is associated with the theoretical works of representatives of the school of L. S. Vygotsky. A. N. Leontiev and L. I. Bozhovich made a significant contribution to solving the problem of personality.

Based on the concepts of leading activity and the social situation of development introduced by L. S. Vygotsky, L. I. Bozhovich showed how in the complex dynamics of the interaction of activity and interpersonal communication of a child in different periods his life, a certain view of the world is formed, called an internal position. This position is one of the main characteristics of a personality, a prerequisite for its development, which is understood as a set of leading motives for activity.

A. N. Leontyev presented his concept of the structure and development of personality. In this concept, the central place is given to the concept of activity. Like Bozhovich, the main internal characteristic of a personality in Leontiev’s concept is the motivational sphere of the personality. Another important concept in his theory is personal meaning. It expresses the relationship between the goals of human activity, i.e., what it is currently directly aimed at, and its motives, i.e., what motivates it. The wider and more diverse the types of activities in which a person is involved, the more developed and ordered they are, the richer the person himself.

Janet Pierre Marie Fely (1859-1947) - French psychologist and psychiatrist. He studied neuroses, psychasthenia, psychasthenic character, and mental automatisms. In the 1920s Based on the category of action, he created a general psychological concept in which, unlike behaviorists, he considered the mental as a result of the internalization of external, practical actions of a socially significant nature. Janet's ideas significantly influenced French psychology in the 20th century. (J. Piaget, A. Vallon) and on the cultural and historical concept of L. S. Vygotsky.

It should be noted that personality research is still being actively conducted. The main feature of modern research is that theoretical views are formed on the basis of experimental research. Let us consider in more detail some methodological approaches to experimental research of personality.

21.2. Methodology of experimental personality research

Currently, it is customary to distinguish three main ways of collecting information about a person, and the data obtained by these methods is often called L-, Q- and T-data.

Data obtained by recording real human behavior in everyday life is usually called L-data (life record data). If we briefly characterize this method of collecting information, it should be noted that it is based on external observation and recording of specific actions or achievements of an individual. Very often, L-data is used as an external criterion against which the validity of the results of another method is measured. It should be noted that this method has a number of disadvantages. First of all, its main disadvantages include excessive subjectivity.

The other most common method of collecting personality information is through the use of questionnaires and other self-report techniques. The results of such studies in experimental personality psychology are usually called Q-data (questionnaire data). Due to the simplicity of instrumental designs and ease of obtaining information, this

The method occupies a central place in personality research. It should be noted that this method is also not without its drawbacks. Since it is based on self-reports, the survey results may be distorted. These distortions can be caused by: the low intellectual and cultural level of the subjects; the nature of the subjects’ motivation, due to which the results may be biased towards social desirability or emphasizing their defects; using incorrect standards. In addition, distortions may be due to an erroneous theoretical point of view underlying the test design.

There is another way to collect personal data. Its difference lies in the fact that it is based on the registration of objective data. Data obtained using such methods is called T-data (objective test data). This method also has a number of disadvantages. For example, quite high labor intensity, difficulty in formalizing results, etc.

Thus, all of the above methods of data collection are not without drawbacks. However greatest distribution received a method of using questionnaires. This is due not only to its simplicity, but also to the ability to create various personal constructs, since questionnaires are based on the authors’ ideas about a particular personal characteristic. Another reason for the popularity of questionnaires is the possibility of using mathematical techniques to develop new methods.

There are two main directions of personality research using questionnaires: the extraction approach personality traits And typological approach. The first assumes the existence of a finite set of basic qualities, and personality differences are determined by the degree of their expression. The typological approach proceeds from the postulate that a personality type is a holistic entity that cannot be reduced to a combination of individual personal factors. Moreover, both approaches are intended to form a conceptual apparatus that systematizes information about individual differences.

Let's look at what is the essence of these approaches? Thus, traits are combined into groups of closely related characteristics (psychological characteristics) and act as some integral characteristics that generalize the information contained in a given group of traits. The number of traits determines the dimension of personal space. Types unite groups of similar subjects and constitute a different set of explanatory concepts, where the name of the concept is the name of the corresponding type, and the content is revealed by a description of a typical (or average) representative.

Thus, the trait-based approach requires grouping personal characteristics, and the type based approach is groupings subjects. To solve each of these two problems, there are special mathematical methods and models. Most often, factor analysis methods are used to group features, and automatic classification methods are used to group subjects. These methods are two ways of forming generalizations from an experimental data set. They allow you to “compress” information by identifying inhomogeneities in the structure of connections between features or subjects. As a result, the experimental data array is divided into some subarrays, which are generalizations of the data set.

This presentation of data allows for at least two ways of constructing generalizations: 1) by columns (personality traits) and 2) by rows of the data matrix (groupings of subjects).

Generalizing data by grouping features (by columns) consists of identifying groups of closely related features using factor analysis methods. Factor analysis is a system of models and methods for transforming the original set of characteristics into a simpler and more meaningful form. It is based on the assumption that the observed behavior of the subject can be explained using a small number of hidden characteristics called factors. In Fig. 21.1. The principle of highlighting features is schematically illustrated. Let's assume that we have a certain data matrix (A-B), which takes into account all the subjects and all the psychological characteristics we are studying. Using factor analysis, we divide this matrix into submatrices by columns. As a result, we obtain a certain set of vertical stripes (b). Each of these strips, or submatrices, contains information on all subjects, but not on all characteristics, but only on a group of closely correlated (interrelated) characteristics. These interrelated characteristics contain information about some more generalized characteristic. Therefore, all characteristics included in one vertical stripe or column can be replaced by an integral feature for them - a factor. As a result, we can “compress” or streamline the data matrix we have by replacing similar characteristics with generalized characteristics. What does this mean for experimental research?

We can convey all information about the human psyche in the form of verbal characteristics, for example “good”, “evil”, “cheerful”, “sad”, etc. The richer the language, the more features we can name individuals. It is likely that many characteristics are close to each other. Therefore, using factor analysis, we systematize the semantic space and obtain a certain experimental personality structure.

and according to the principle of proximity of subjects (Fig. 21.2). There are two main options for posing the task of grouping subjects: 1) grouping subjects into unspecified groups; 2) grouping subjects into given groups.

1. The task of grouping subjects into unspecified groups. This version of the problem is formulated as follows: there is a multidimensional psychological description of a sample of subjects and it is required to divide them into homogeneous groups, that is, such a division in which the selected groups would include subjects with similar psychological characteristics. This formulation of the problem corresponds to intuitive ideas about personality type.

2. The task of grouping subjects into given groups. When solving this problem, it is assumed that there are results of a multidimensional psychological examination of several groups of subjects and it is known in advance about each subject which group he belongs to. For example, in a professional selection task these could be groups of good and bad specialists, in the study of sexual dimorphism, these are subjects of different sexes; in pedagogical research, these are groups of schoolchildren who differ in educational success, discipline, social activity, age, etc.

The task is to find a rule for dividing subjects into given groups according to psychological characteristics.

There is another way to group data - these are methods for simultaneous selection of features and types. Most psychological research develops one approach—trait-based or typological. However, it seems promising to combine them. Combining these two approaches involves simultaneously identifying traits and types. For this purpose, methods of “linguistic analysis” of data can be used, based on the use of combinations of factor analysis models and automatic classification.

Within the framework of this approach, two types of combinations of joint use of factor analysis and automatic classification have been developed: direct and reverse combinations. With a direct combination of factor analysis methods, the characteristics are first grouped, and then, using automatic classification methods, each selected group of parameters is

Allport Gordon Willard (1897-1967) - American psychologist. Initiator of the development of a systematic approach to the study of personality. He developed a theory of personality based on the concepts of “I” and “self-actualization.” The latter denotes the individual’s desire to achieve something meaningful and significant in life. He showed that motives that have their source in biological needs, when satisfied, can acquire a character quite independent of the biological basis (the principle of functional autonomy of motives).

grouping of subjects. With direct combination, we obtain information about the factors and the characteristics of the distribution of subjects for each factor.

With reverse combination, automatic classification methods are first used, and only after that the characteristics are grouped using factor analysis methods in each selected type separately. Conventionally, the inverse combination can be depicted as first partitioning the data matrix into rows, and then partitioning each of the submatrices into columns. As a result of using an inverse combination of factor analysis and automatic classification methods, we obtain information about the types and the characteristics of the grouping of features in each type.

Works devoted to the development of questionnaires are quite numerous. This research was started by G. W. Allport and H. S. Odbert. They carried out work to compile a dictionary of terms to describe personality. To this end, they analyzed 18,000 words, from which they selected 4,500 words that clearly denoted personality traits, as well as important and stable behavioral characteristics.

R. B. Cattell carried out further analysis of these 4500 personality characteristics and divided them into synonymous groups. From each synonymous group he selected one word that, in his opinion, expressed the main semantic content of the corresponding synonymous group. Thus, he reduced the list of personality traits from 4,500 to 171. To further reduce R. B. Cattell, he used a large group of experts who assessed the degree of their familiarity with each of the 171 personality characteristics. He decided that the judges would be better able to select the most significant characteristics personality.

To determine the group opinion of judges, R. B. Cattell examined the mutual correlation of assessments and identified 36 correlation galaxies, within which there were highly correlated characteristics that apparently expressed the same judgments. As expected, all galaxies contained pairs of members with high negative correlations, for example: talkative-silent, trusting-suspicious, flexible-rigid, cheerful-sad

etc. These polar characteristics were selected for further research. Cattell thus obtained a set of 36 bipolar names, which he then slightly expanded to total number 46 pairs by including specific terms taken from the work of other researchers.

Working definitions were then developed for each bipolar pair of characteristics. This was necessary to train experts and form a unified opinion among them. Subsequently, a number of consistent studies using bipolar adjectives showed that the entire L-data space can be “collapsed” into 12-15 factors.

The results of the study of the semantic space describing the psychological characteristics of a person allowed Cattell to create a personality questionnaire. This questionnaire has gained great popularity all over the world and is known as 16PF(sixteen-factor personality questionnaire). Many textbooks describe this questionnaire as a classic use of mathematical methods in personality research.

Another classic example of creating questionnaires, but based on identifying types, is the questionnaire MMPI. The authors of this questionnaire are American psychologists S. Hathway and J. McKinley. They managed to most consistently apply the typological approach to personality descriptions. As part of this approach, they developed a multidisciplinary personality test known as the Minnesota Multifactorial Personality Inventory (MMPI). When designing scales MMPI S. Hathway and J. McKinley used clinical ideas about the types of psychopathy or, more precisely, about syndromes of disharmonious personality development. Each scale MMPI essentially represents a “dividing rule” for differential diagnosis of healthy subjects from one of ten variants of pathological personality development, and an individual score on the test scale is an indicator of the subject’s “closeness” to the corresponding variant of disharmonious personality development, i.e. the decisive rule for diagnosing the type personality.

The classic version uses 13 scales MMPI containing 566 questions. IN MMPI There are three rating scales. They are intended to identify the subject’s attitudes towards testing. The remaining ten scales are basic for diagnostics.

In terms of content, close to MMPI is the X. Smische questionnaire, designed to diagnose the type of personality accentuation. The questionnaire of H. Smishek is based on the concept of “accentuated personalities” by K. Leonhard. According to this concept, personality traits can be divided into a group main and group additional crap. There are significantly fewer main traits, but they are the core of personality and determine its development, adaptation and mental health. When the main traits are highly expressed, they leave an imprint on the personality as a whole and, under unfavorable social conditions, can destroy the structure of the personality.

Individuals whose main traits are highly expressed are named by Leonhard accentuated. Accented personalities are not pathological. “With a different interpretation, we would be forced to come to the conclusion that only the average person should be considered normal, and anything from

deviation from such a mean (average norm) should be recognized as a pathology. This would force us to take beyond the norm those individuals who, with their originality, clearly stand out from the background of the average level. However, this group would also include that category of people about whom they speak of “personality” in a positive sense, emphasizing that they have a pronounced original mental make-up. If a person does not exhibit manifestations of those properties that in “large doses” give a paranoid, anankastic, hysterical, hypomanic or subdepressive picture, then such an average person can be unconditionally considered normal.”* In total, Leongard identifies ten main types of accentuations, mainly corresponding to the taxonomy of psychopathy in psychiatry.

In Soviet psychology, a typological approach to describing a person’s personality was used by A. E. Lichko and his colleagues when developing the pathocharacterological diagnostic questionnaire (PDC). PDO is intended for diagnosing the type of psychopathy and character accentuations in adolescents aged 14 to 18 years. The questionnaire is based on the clinical typology of psychopathy and personal accentuations, as well as the concept of the psychology of relationships developed by A.F. Lazursky and V.N. Myasishchev. When operationalizing these concepts, the authors compiled a set of phrases reflecting the attitudes of different pathocharacterological types to a number of life problems, friends, parents, the future, others, etc. These phrases were selected from clinical descriptions of psychopathy in the manuals and monographs of E. Kraepelin, E. Kretschmer, K. Schneider, P. B. Ganushkin, G. E. Sukhareva and K. Leongard.

Using a relationship questionnaire compiled in this way, A. E. Lichko’s employees examined large group teenagers with a total number of 2235 people, of which 1675 are healthy socially adapted teenage students and 650 teenagers with psychopathy and personality accentuations of various types. The results of this study revealed 11 types of psychopathy and character accentuations in adolescence: hyperthymic, cycloid, labile, astheno-neurotic, sensitive, psychasthenic, schizoid, epileptoid, hysterical, unstable and conformal. This questionnaire has been widely used in research mental characteristics personality of a teenager in order to assess their compliance with the generally accepted norm.

It should be noted that attempts have been made to develop questionnaires based on the simultaneous use of both approaches. For example, such an attempt was made by V. M. Melnikov and L. T. Yampolsky. It provides an example of the use of mathematical and statistical methods for developing questionnaires. These researchers conducted a factor analysis of the full space of test scales MMPI and 16PF. As a result, they identified personality characteristics that are common to all people.

We also developed a personality questionnaire based on the simultaneous identification of psychological traits and psychological types. At the same time, the task of assessing the adaptive capabilities of the individual was solved. Naturally, the adaptive characteristics of an individual are largely determined by compliance personal characteristics mental norm. Therefore, test questions were used to develop the test MMPI. Issues were identified

In conclusion, it should be noted that modern computer tools greatly facilitate the use of mathematical modeling methods in solving applied psychological problems, which provides psychologists with ample opportunities for developing new experimental approaches to personality research.

Control questions

1. Tell us about the main stages in the history of research into the problem of personality.

2. Describe the experimental theories of personality known to you.

3. Tell us about the theories of personality developed within the framework of Freudianism and neo-Freudianism.

4. How is the problem of personality studied in humanistic psychology?

5. Reveal the essence of P. Janet’s concept of personality.

6. What do you know about methods for collecting experimental information about personality?

7. Describe the essence of the factorial approach to assessing personality traits.

8. What is the essence of the typological approach?

1. Asmolov A. G. Personality psychology: Principles of general psychology. analysis: Proc. for universities for special purposes "Psychology". - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1990. - 367 p.

2. Burns R.V. Development of self-concept and education: Trans. from English / General ed. V. Ya. Pilipovsky. - M.: Progress, 1986.

3. Bodalev A. A. Psychology about personality. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1988.

4.Zeigarnik B.V. Theories of personality in foreign psychology: Textbook. manual for universities. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1982.

5. Melnikov V. M., Yampolsky L. T. Introduction to experimental psychology of personality: Textbook. aid for listeners. And PC, teacher, ped. disciplines of universities and peds. Inst. - M.: Education, 1985.

6.Merlin B.C. Personality as a subject of psychological research. - Perm, 1988.

7.Petrovsky A.V. Personality. Activity. Team. - M., 1982

8. Rubinshtein S. L. Fundamentals of general psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 1999.

9. Freud 3. Psychology of the unconscious: Sat. Works / Comp., scientific. ed.
M. G. Yaroshevsky. - M.: Education, 1989.

10. Yaroshevsky M. G. Psychology in the 20th century: Theoretical problems of the development of psychological science. - Ed. 2nd, add. - M.: Politizdat, 1974.

End of work -

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