The formation of two camps in the international arena and the collapse of the single world market. USSR and countries of the socialist camp

Formation of the socialist camp. Eastern European socialism as a social model.

Results of the Second World War for European countries. Main development trends.

The countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe (Poland, East Germany, Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Albania), which in the post-war period began to be called simply Eastern Europe, went through dramatic trials.

During the war, some of them were occupied by German and Italian troops (Poland, Czech Republic, Yugoslavia, Albania), others turned out to be allies of Germany and Italy. Peace treaties were concluded with these countries (Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania).

The liberation of Europe from fascism opened the way to the establishment of a democratic system and anti-fascist reforms. The defeat of the Nazi troops by the Soviet Army on the territory of these countries had a decisive influence on the internal processes in the states of Eastern Europe. They found themselves in the orbit of influence of the Soviet Union.

The Slavic countries suffered the most from the Second World War, as they were direct participants in it. The Munich Agreement and the division of Czechoslovakia finally put an end to the Versailles peace system. The course of the entire war determined the results for the countries. Poland was particularly hard hit, and Czechoslovakia to a lesser extent. After the war, Czechoslovakia restored its borders, the Sudetenland was returned to it, and Transcarpathian Ukraine was transferred to Slovakia. In general, the restoration of borders took place under the control of the USSR.

With the defeat of fascism, coalition governments came to power in Eastern European countries, in which parties of an anti-fascist orientation (communists, social democrats, liberals, etc.) were represented. The first reforms were of a general democratic nature and were aimed at eradicating the remnants of fascism and restoring the war-ravaged economy. With the intensification of contradictions between the USSR and its allies in the anti-Hitler coalition, the USA and Great Britain, and the beginning of the Cold War in the countries of Eastern Europe, there was a polarization of political forces into supporters of pro-Western and pro-Soviet orientations. In 1947-1948 in these countries, most of which were home to Soviet troops, anyone who did not share communist views was forced out of government.

Formation of the socialist camp. Eastern European socialism as a social model.

In countries called people's democracies, remnants of a multi-party system have been preserved. Political parties in Poland, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, which recognized the leading role of the communists, were not dissolved; their representatives were given a quota in parliaments and governments. Otherwise, in Eastern Europe the Soviet model of a totalitarian regime with its inherent features was reproduced: the cult of the leader, mass repressions. Following the Soviet model, collectivization of agriculture (Poland was a partial exception) and industrialization were carried out.

Formally, the Eastern European countries were considered independent states. At the same time, with the creation of the Information Bureau of Communist and Workers' Parties (Informburo) in 1947, the actual leadership of the “fraternal countries” began to be exercised from Moscow. The fact that the USSR will not tolerate any amateur activity was shown by the extremely negative reaction of I.V. Stalin on the policies of the leaders of Bulgaria and Yugoslavia - G. Dimitrov and I. Tito. The Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Assistance between Bulgaria and Yugoslavia included a clause on countering “any aggression, no matter from which side it comes.” The leaders of these states came up with the idea of ​​​​creating a confederation of Eastern European countries, which would allow them to independently choose their development model. The USSR's response to attempts to demonstrate independence was to sever relations with Yugoslavia. The Information Bureau called on the Yugoslav communists to overthrow the Tito regime, which was accused of switching to the position of bourgeois nationalism. Across all countries of Eastern Europe in 1948-1949. There was a wave of reprisals against those who were suspected of sympathizing with the ideas of the leader of Yugoslavia. In Bulgaria, after the death of G. Dimitrov, a line of hostility towards Tito was also established.

Having completed the process of establishing autocracy, which was then called the period of people's democratic revolutions, communist parties Eastern European countries proclaimed the beginning of the construction of socialism. In Eastern European countries, as a rule, a one-party political system was established. The created popular fronts sometimes included political representatives of parties that had no political influence.

In the post-war period, in all countries of the region, the main attention was paid to the problems of industrialization, the development of primarily heavy industry, since, except for Czechoslovakia and the GDR, all other countries were agricultural. Industrialization was accelerated. It was based on the nationalization of industry, finance, and trade. Agrarian reforms ended with collectivization, but without the nationalization of land. The management system of all sectors of the economy was concentrated in the hands of the state. Market relations were reduced to a minimum, and the administrative distribution system triumphed.

The overstrain of finances and the budget reduced the possibilities for the development of the social sphere and the entire non-productive sphere - education, healthcare, science.

3. “Velvet revolutions” in Eastern European countries. The collapse of the “eastern bloc” and overcoming the bipolarity of the world.

The crisis of the Soviet model of socialism in Eastern Europe began to develop almost immediately after its establishment. Death of I.V. Stalin in 1953, which raised hopes for change in the “socialist camp”, caused an uprising in the GDR.
The exposure of Stalin's cult of personality by the 20th Congress of the CPSU in 1956 led to a change in the leaders of the ruling parties nominated and supported by him in most Eastern European countries. The liquidation of the Information Bureau and the restoration of relations between the USSR and Yugoslavia, the recognition of the conflict as a misunderstanding gave rise to the hope that the Soviet leadership would give up strict control over the internal politics of the Eastern European countries. Under these conditions, new leaders, theorists of communist parties, including the ruling ones (M. Djilas in Yugoslavia, L. Kolakovsky in Poland, E. Bloch in the GDR, I. Nagy in Hungary), made attempts to comprehend new phenomena and trends in social -economic life of developed countries, interests of the labor movement. These attempts drew sharp condemnation from the CPSU, which acted as the main defender of the integrity of the established order in Eastern Europe.

In 1989, revolutions took place in many countries of the socialist camp, leading to changes social order and the political system, to the liquidation of the Warsaw Pact, CMEA and the “socialist camp” in general. The dynamics of events are as follows.

February 6. As part of the round table in Poland, negotiations began between government representatives, the official association of trade unions, the Solidarity trade union and other public groups.

June 4. Parliamentary elections in Poland, to which opposition parties are allowed. Elections to the lower house were held in accordance with the agreements of the “round table”, the ruling parties received 299 seats out of 460. In the Senate, elections to which were held freely, 99 seats out of 100 were won by the opposition and 1 seat by an independent candidate.

September 18. During the round table negotiations between the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party and the opposition, a decision was made to introduce a multi-party system in Hungary.

October 18. The head of the GDR and the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED), E. Honecker, resigned. Egon Krenz became the new General Secretary of the SED, Chairman of the People's Chamber of the GDR and Chairman of the National Defense Council of the country.

October 18. The Hungarian Parliament adopted about 100 constitutional amendments regulating the transition to parliamentary democracy.

October 23. In Budapest instead of Hungarian People's Republic The Hungarian Republic was proclaimed, defining itself as a free, democratic, independent, rule-of-law state.

10th of November. The head of the People's Republic of Bulgaria and the Bulgarian Communist Party, Todor Zhivkov, resigned from the post of General Secretary and member of the Politburo. Petr Mladenov was elected as the new General Secretary of the BCP.

November 24. Under pressure from the opposition and mass demonstrations, the leadership of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia resigned. Karel Urbanek was elected as the new general secretary of the party.

November 28. In Czechoslovakia, following a meeting between the government delegation and the ruling Popular Front with representatives of the opposition “Civil Forum”, a decision was made to create a new government and abolish the provision enshrined in the constitution on the leading role of the Communist Party.

December 10. Resignation of the President of Czechoslovakia G. Husak. A new government with a non-communist majority was formed. On December 29, Vaclav Havel was elected President of Czechoslovakia.

December 22. In Romania, the head of state and the Romanian Communist Party N. Ceausescu was overthrown. Shot together with his wife on December 25. The leader of the National Salvation Front, I. Iliescu, became the President of Romania.

“Velvet” revolutions are a special class of revolutions in which the leading role is played by elite groups that compete with that part of the elite that is adjacent to the government.

The “Velvet” revolutions in all Eastern European countries took place almost simultaneously, despite different level development of countries, different levels of social contradictions and, most importantly, different strengths of their leaders. They were carried out according to a similar scenario in the year when, in the course of active negotiations between Gorbachev and the United States, the fate of the USSR was, in principle, decided. Since the countries of Eastern Europe were economically and politically interconnected and formed a single bloc with the USSR, the USSR’s refusal to play the role of geopolitical leader automatically meant for these countries a transition under the auspices of another geopolitical center. The countries of Eastern Europe were “surrendered” by the Soviet leadership..

In the post-war period, the USSR needed allies among socialist countries, so it was very important to establish friendly relations with them. One of the most important results of the victory in the Second World War was the creation of a favorable environment for the struggle of the working masses for socialism. As a result of the successful implementation of revolutions in a number of countries in Europe and Asia, and subsequently in Cuba, a world socialist system arose. This became the largest event in history after the victory of October 1917. With the formation of the world system of socialism, the balance of political and class forces in the international arena changed radically in favor of peace, democracy and social progress.

Socialist camp, a term used after the Second World War 1939-1945. In the USSR, states that followed the path of building socialism were designated. It included the USSR and the states of Eastern Europe, in which the communists established themselves in power, China after the completion of civil war(1949), then North Korea and Northern Vietnam. The confrontation between the two camps (socialism and capitalism) was considered as the most important feature of world development. From the first years of its existence, the socialist camp faced serious problems. In 1948, the conflict between I.V. Stalin and I.B. Tito, who put forward his model of a socialist society, led to a severance of interstate and interparty ties between the USSR and Yugoslavia. In 1955 relations were restored; The leadership of the USSR recognized that a unique model of socialism had developed in Yugoslavia. Being one of the leaders of the Non-Aligned Movement, this country did not join the Soviet system of alliances, did not enter the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) and the Warsaw Pact Organization (WTO). The term "socialist camp" gradually fell out of use, especially after the deterioration of Soviet-Chinese and Soviet-Albanian relations (1960s). It was replaced by the terms “socialist commonwealth” and “world socialist system”. The socialist countries included: Bulgaria, Hungary, Vietnam, East Germany, Cuba, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia.

The new Soviet leadership paid important attention to issues of friendly relations with the countries of the socialist camp. Ties with China were strengthened. May 15, 1953 An agreement was signed to increase the supply of equipment for 141 enterprises being built in China with Soviet assistance and to build an additional 15 new enterprises. In the fall of 1954, during a visit to Beijing N.S. Khrushcheva, N.A. Bulganin and A.I. Mikoyan, an agreement was reached on the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Port Arthur and the transfer of this naval base to the full control of the PRC. The withdrawal of troops was completed in May 1955.

The process of settling relations with Yugoslavia was not easy. In May-June 1955, N.S. visited. Khrushcheva, N.A. Bulganin and A.I. Mikoyan to Belgrade. N.S. Khrushchev expressed “sincere regret” over the disagreements that took place, for which he blamed the convicted heads of state security agencies who fabricated materials against the Yugoslav leaders. During the negotiations N.S. Khrushchev supported I. Tito on all issues. On June 2, 1955, a joint declaration was signed, one of the most important provisions which was the recognition by the Soviet Union of Yugoslavia's right to choose one or another model of socialism, while remaining a neutral country and receiving significant Soviet economic assistance. The significance of the Belgrade Declaration cannot be overestimated. The USSR refused to impose the Soviet model of socialism in relation to Yugoslavia.

Trade and economic relations between Vietnam and the Soviet Union began to develop on July 18, 1955, when the first agreement between the governments was signed. With the technical assistance of the USSR, about 300 enterprises were built in Vietnam in such industries as mining, engineering, chemical, food industry, production of building materials, transport.

In the first years after the end of the war, relations between the USSR and Albania were characterized by unilateral assistance to Albania from the Soviet Union.

Even before the establishment of diplomatic relations between the parties, in the summer and autumn of 1945, several Albanian delegations visited Moscow to negotiate on various economic issues. During the negotiations, various types of assistance were discussed. The war-ravaged national economy required a lot of spare parts and equipment - for oil fields, industry and transport. There was an acute shortage of specialists in the oil and mining industries, agriculture, and finance. In the first post-war year, the threat of famine loomed over the country: there had been no rainfall since February.

The USSR government took a number of steps to provide assistance to Albania. Thus, despite the extremely difficult situation that had developed by that time in the Soviet Union, on September 22, 1945, the first official Soviet-Albanian agreement was signed in Moscow on the supply of grain and chemical fertilizers in September-December of this year on loan terms in the amount of 1.5 million US dollars. The loan was supposed to be repaid within two years with commodity supplies (tobacco, copper ore, raw hides).

A few days after the agreement was signed, the first ship with grain (15 thousand tons of wheat, 5 thousand tons of corn, etc.) from the Soviet Union arrived at the port of Durre. Later, speaking at the Moscow 1960 meeting of communist and workers' parties, E. Hoxha described this assistance from the fraternal country as follows: “In 1945, when our people were threatened by famine, Comrade I.V. Stalin changed the course of ships loaded with grain, which were intended for the Soviet people, who themselves were suffering at that time from food shortages, in order to send them immediately to the Albanian people.

The letter from the delegation of the Albanian government to the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs of the USSR dated July 21, 1945 contained a request to provide for the urgent needs of the Albanian army, economy, finance and cultural needs. The Soviet government responded to this request in July of the same year. In the resolution “On providing assistance to the government of Albania”, signed by the Chairman of the State Defense Committee I.V. Stalin sent specialists in oil, chromium, copper, iron, asphalt, finance, agriculture, and education to Albania. In higher educational institutions 20 places were allocated for Albanian citizens.

Today, when mentioning comprehensive Soviet assistance, two important points cannot be ignored.

Firstly, the Albanians (mostly young people) did not sit idly by. The country experienced a powerful patriotic upsurge. Every day people worked on restoration work. Thanks to these efforts, within just two years, factories and factories, mines and workshops that seemed dead just yesterday came to life. In a short period of time, the Kuke-s-Peshkopija highway was built by the youth, and structures were restored in sea ​​ports Durre and Vlora on the Adriatic and Sarando on the Ionian Sea.

Secondly, the Albanian people in those days expressed deep gratitude and sincerity to the Soviet people, and the leadership of the Albanian state acted as a single bloc with the USSR in the international arena. Thus, E. Hoxha was invited at the insistence of I.V. Stalin and V.M. Molotov to the Paris Peace Conference (July-October 1946), where he spoke in Russian and French with sharp condemnation of the policies of the Western powers and support of the USSR on all issues.

In 1945-1985.

209. The results of the Second World War for the countries of Eastern Europe, its impact on the dynamics of “catch-up development”. Party-political spectrum and social base of the main political forces in 1945-1947.

210. The first post-war transformations in the countries of Eastern Europe.

211. The growth of the political influence of the USSR. The transition to accelerated construction of the foundations of socialism.

212. Political crisis in Eastern Europe in the mid-50s. Dynamics of crisis phenomena in countries of industrial-agrarian and agrarian-industrial type of development.

213. Adjustment of the reform course in the late 50-60s. "Prague Spring".

214. Socio-economic and political development countries of Eastern Europe during the period of "stagnation".

Topics of reports

1. Soviet-Yugoslav conflict.

2. Lech Walesa: psychological and political portrait.

3. The national question in Eastern Europe.

4. “Albanian way” of building socialism.

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Guidelines

In preparation for seminar lesson it is necessary to pay attention not only to the general trends in the development of socialist countries in 1945-1985, but also to select material for all issues for each country separately.

Eastern Europe was the main theater of war during the Second World War, which affected the economies of Eastern European countries. The participation of the population in the Resistance movement contributed to their politicization and created the conditions for changing the state-political system. However, in the mass consciousness there was still a desire to see the state as a guarantor social stability, faith in a “steady hand” capable of solving the problems facing society.

After the Second World War, Eastern Europe found itself in the sphere of Soviet influence. Former enemies Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria and wartime allies Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia were placed on an equal footing. At the final stage of the war at the end of 1944-1945. coalition governments of the National Front were formed, which included both representatives of the communist and social democratic parties, and leaders of the pre-war bourgeois and peasant parties that retained the influence. (The exception was Yugoslavia, where the pro-communist People's Liberation Front retained complete dominance.) These political forces had different, in many ways opposing, ideas about the future nature and paths of development of their countries. Some stood for the restoration of pre-war regimes, others preferred the Western European model of a democratic state, and still others preferred the dictatorship of the proletariat. As the economic and social foundations of the post-war states were established, the struggle between these forces intensified.

At the first stage of post-war transformations, diverse political forces were united by common goals: the formation of the foundations of a new constitutional system, the elimination of authoritarian governance structures associated with previous regimes, and the holding of free elections. The monarchical system was abolished in all countries. The primary task was to restore the destroyed economy and solve social problems. Transformations 1945-1947 became known as the period of "people's democracy". Peasant parties primarily advocated for agrarian reform. Democratic parties, communists and social democrats were united in their orientation towards the model of “catch-up development”, the desire to ensure a breakthrough for their countries in industrial development. They pushed opponents out of power, which led to the nationalization of large industry and the banking system, the introduction of state control and elements of planning. However, the communists viewed these transformations only as the first stage of socialist construction.

1947-1948 became a turning point in the ongoing struggle. In a short time, power in most Eastern European countries passed into the hands of communist parties. This was a consequence of the offensive tactics of the communists and the support provided to them by the Soviet Union. The beginning of the Cold War also played a role. The USSR sought to eradicate the very possibility of a geopolitical reorientation of the countries of Eastern Europe. Trials were held against the leaders of opposition parties, and their parties were split or dissolved. By 1948-1949 In almost all countries of Eastern Europe, a course towards building the foundations of socialism was officially proclaimed.

The main goal The USSR wanted to bind all Eastern European countries to itself, except for inclusion in its composition. They were supposed to remain a buffer zone. At the same time, the formation of political associations between the satellite countries themselves was not allowed. The desire to pursue an independent line, as I. Broz Tito tried to do, was harshly suppressed, which led to the expulsion of Yugoslavia from the communist bloc. To support the correct political course of the young communist regimes of Eastern Europe, the Communist Information Bureau (Cominform) was organized.

The internal development of the countries of Eastern Europe took place under the control of the USSR. The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (1949) took over the functions of coordinating economic integration, the Warsaw Treaty Organization (1955) - military-political. A socialist camp was formed.

Three main tasks were put forward: industrialization, agricultural cooperation and the cultural revolution. In 1949-1952. a wave of political processes and repressions swept through, eliminating the “national” wing of the communist parties, which advocated the preservation state sovereignty their countries. As a result of reforms by the mid-50s. Eastern Europe has achieved unprecedented success in “catch-up development” and made a breakthrough in increasing its entire economic potential and modernizing its social structure. Throughout the region, the transition to an industrial-agrarian type of society was completed.

However, the rapid growth of production was accompanied by increasing sectoral imbalances. The created economic mechanism did not take into account regional and national specifics. Its social efficiency was low, social tension grew in society, and the standard of living decreased.

After the end of World War II, pro-Soviet regimes were established in Eastern Europe. Among the overwhelming majority of the population of the countries of this region, sympathies were on the side of the USSR as the state that saved them from fascism. In the elections held in the first years after the end of the war, the communist and socialist parties won. To confront the forces of the West, the countries of Eastern Europe united into a military-political bloc under the auspices of the USSR. This lesson is devoted to an overview of the relationships and development of Eastern European countries.

Background

By 1947-1948 In the countries of Central and Eastern Europe (Poland, East Germany, Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Albania), communist parties subordinate to Moscow came to power. All other parties were forced out political life. A regime of autocracy was established and a course was set for building socialism according to the USSR model.

The countries of the socialist camp were characterized by the following features.

• One-party system.
• Totalitarian socialism (totalitarianism).
• Nationalization of industry, trade and finance.
• State planning. Command and control distribution system.

Events

1947- the Information Bureau of Communist and Workers' Parties (Cominform) was created, through which Moscow led the countries of the socialist camp.

GDR

1953- uprising in the GDR due to declining living standards.

Establishment of pro-Soviet and socialist regimes in the territory of the Eastern, South-Eastern and parts Central Europe made it possible to include the countries located in these territories in the so-called. socialist camp. To the states caught in USSR orbit in Europe, include: Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Albania, Yugoslavia and German Democratic Republic(GDR). The establishment of Soviet-style political regimes entailed transformations and reforms copied from the USSR. So, in all of the above countries, in the late 1940s - early 1950s. agrarian reform was carried out, persecution began dissidents (i.e. people who do not agree with the political regime), almost all spheres of society were subordinated to the state. To strengthen relationships and maintain the economy, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) was founded in 1949, which included all states except Yugoslavia (Fig. 1). In 1955, in Warsaw, an agreement was signed between the USSR, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, East Germany, Romania and Bulgaria to create a military bloc, largely to confront NATO, created in 1949. This bloc of socialist countries was called the Warsaw Pact Organization.

Rice. 1. CMEA building in Moscow ()

The first cracks in the united socialist camp occurred in 1948 when the Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito, who wanted to conduct, in many respects, his own policy without coordination with Moscow, in Once again took a willful step, which served to aggravate Soviet-Yugoslav relations and their rupture. Before 1955 Yugoslavia fell out of the unified system and never returned there entirely. A unique model of socialism arose in this country - Titoism, based on the authority of the country's leader Tito. Under him, Yugoslavia turned into a country with a developed economy (in 1950-1970, production rates quadrupled), Tito’s authority cemented multinational Yugoslavia. The ideas of market socialism and self-government were the basis of Yugoslav prosperity.

After the death of Tito in 1980, centrifugal processes began in the state, which led the country to collapse in the early 1990s, the war in Croatia, and the mass genocide of Serbs in Croatia and Kosovo.

The second country that left the united socialist camp and never joined it again was Albania. The Albanian leader and convinced Stalinist - (Fig. 2) - did not agree with the decision of the 20th Congress of the CPSU to condemn Stalin's personality cult and broke off diplomatic relations with the USSR, leaving the CMEA. The further existence of Albania was tragic. Hoxha's one-man regime led the country to decline and massive poverty of the population. In the early 1990s. National conflicts began to break out between Serbs and Albanians, resulting in the mass extermination of Serbs and the occupation of primordially Serbian territories, which continues to this day.

Rice. 2. Enver Hoxha ()

Regarding other countries socialist camp a stricter policy was pursued. So, when in Polish workers' unrest broke out in 1956, protesting against intolerable living conditions, the columns were shot by troops, and the workers' leaders were found and killed. But in the light of the political transformations taking place at that time in the USSR, associated with de-Stalinization of society, in Moscow they agreed to put in charge of Poland someone who was repressed under Stalin Wladyslaw Gomulka. Later power will pass to General Wojciech Jaruzelski, who will fight against the gaining political weight movement "Solidarity", representing workers and independent trade unions. Leader of the movement - Lech Walesa- became a protest leader. Throughout the 1980s. The Solidarity movement was gaining increasing popularity, despite persecution by the authorities. In 1989, with the collapse of the socialist system, Solidarity came to power in Poland.

In 1956, an uprising broke out in Budapest. The reason was de-Stalinization and the demand by workers and intelligentsia for honest and open elections, reluctance to be dependent on Moscow. The uprising soon resulted in the persecution and arrests of Hungarian state security officers; part of the army went over to the side of the people. By Moscow's decision, Internal Affairs Troops were sent to Budapest. The leadership of the Hungarian Working People's Party, headed by a Stalinist Matthias Rakosi, was forced to appoint to the post of Prime Minister Imre Nagy. Soon Nagy announced Hungary’s withdrawal from the Department of Internal Affairs, which angered Moscow. Tanks were again brought into Budapest, and the uprising was brutally suppressed. The new leader was Janos Kadar, who repressed most of the rebels (Nagy was shot), but began to carry out economic reforms that contributed to the fact that Hungary turned into one of the most prosperous countries of the socialist camp. With the collapse of the socialist system, Hungary abandoned its previous ideals and a pro-Western leadership came to power.

In 1968 in Czechoslovakia a new communist government was elected, led by Alexander Dubcek, who wanted to bring about economic, social and political changes. Seeing a weakening in internal life, the whole of Czechoslovakia was covered in rallies. Seeing that the socialist state began to gravitate towards the world of capital, the leader of the USSR L.I. Brezhnev ordered the introduction of Internal Affairs troops into Czechoslovakia. The relationship of forces between the worlds of capital and socialism, unchangeable under any circumstances, after 1945 was called "Brezhnev Doctrine". In August 1968, troops were brought in, the entire leadership of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia was arrested, tanks opened fire on people on the streets of Prague (Fig. 3). Soon Dubcek will be replaced by the pro-Soviet Gustav Husak, which will adhere to the official line of Moscow.

Rice. 3. Riot in Prague ()

Throughout the entire period of the existence of the socialist camp, Bulgaria and Romania will remain faithful to Moscow in their political and economic transformations. The Bulgarian communists, led by Todor Zhivkov, will strictly conduct their internal and foreign policy, looking back at Moscow. Romanian leader Nikolai Ceausescu made the Soviet leadership nervous from time to time. He wanted to appear to be an independent politician, in the manner of Tito, but quickly showed his weakness. In 1989, after the coup and overthrow of the communist regime, Ceausescu and his wife were shot. With the collapse of the common system, pro-Western forces will come to power in these countries, which will be committed to European integration.

Thus, countries " people's democracy"or countries" real socialism“Over the past 60 years, they have experienced a transformation from a socialist system to a capitalist system led by the United States, finding themselves largely dependent on the influence of the new leader.

1. Aleksashkina L.N. General history. XX - early XXI centuries. - M.: Mnemosyne, 2011.

2. Zagladin N.V. General history. XX century Textbook for 11th grade. - M.: Russian word, 2009.

3. Plenkov O.Yu., Andreevskaya T.P., Shevchenko S.V. General history. 11th grade / Ed. Myasnikova V.S. - M., 2011.

2. Encyclopedia of world historical names, titles, events ().

1. Read Chapter 18 of the textbook by Aleksashkina L.N. General history. XX - early XXI centuries and give answers to questions 1-6 on p. 213.

2. How did the consolidation of the socialist countries manifest themselves in economics and politics?

3. Describe the “Brezhnev Doctrine”.

After the counter-revolution in the USSR and the Warsaw Pact countries, reactionaries around the world believed that in a short time North Korea and Cuba, followed by Vietnam, Laos and China, would also fall under the pressure of their subversive activities. They clearly underestimated the power of socialist ideas and overestimated their abilities and capabilities.

Today, the five countries that have established the power of the working class and are building a socialist society are home to almost 1.5 billion people, that is, a quarter of the total population of the Earth. Due to the counter-revolution in Russia, the 90s were extremely difficult for them. However, they all survived, repelled the onslaught of imperialism and continued their socio-economic development. Obviously, the memories of the bloody crimes of the American aggressors are too fresh in the memory of the people of these countries to succumb to false spells about the delights of bourgeois democracy and the free market. Tragic fate Yugoslavia, Afghanistan and Iraq only strengthened their determination to defend their freedom and independence to the end. The role of the avant-garde, which previously belonged to the Soviet Union, was taken over by the People's Republic of China.

People's Republic of China

The history of the development of modern China can be divided into 2 periods: Mao Zedong (1949-1978) and Deng Xiaoping (1979 - present).

Relying on the assistance of the USSR in building socialism, the PRC successfully completed the first five-year plan (1953-1957). Grain production increased from 105 to 185 million tons, and the economic growth rate was 12% annually. The share of industrial products in GDP rose from 17% to 40%. The Eighth Congress of the CPC in 1956 wrote in its resolution that in China “the socialist revolution was basically victorious.” The second five-year plan was supposed to build on the successes achieved. However, the attempt to make a “big leap” led to a decline in production of 48.6% over 3 years.

Healthy forces in the leadership of the CPC (which for some reason we still call right-wing) achieved condemnation of “leftist excesses” and agreement to pursue the course of Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping: “first create, and then destroy.” After criticism, Mao Zedong was forced to retire to the second line of leadership and study theory. To reasonable measures in the spirit of Lenin's new economic policy, stimulating everyone's interest in the results of their labor, the economy again responded with rapid growth. Over four years, industrial production increased by 61.3%, and agricultural production by 42.3%.

Unfortunately, since 1966, during the so-called “cultural revolution,” the country again plunged into economic chaos for 12 years and experienced acute social upheaval. The way out of the crisis was facilitated by Deng Xiaoping, who deeply studied the works of the classics of Marxism-Leninism and developed the Chinese way of building socialism. Its essence: development in accordance with the Leninist concept of the NEP of Stalin's centralized planning and management. Since the PRC, unlike the USSR, did not have to fear external aggression, the transition period was declared to be 50 years long. The Third Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPC of the 11th convocation (December 1978) proclaimed a course towards a socialist economy with a combination of two systems: planning-distribution and market with the massive attraction of foreign investment, greater economic independence of enterprises, the introduction of family contracting in rural areas, reduction of the public sector in the economy , opening of free economic zones, development of science and technology.

And again, the emerging socialist system showed its undeniable advantage. The Chinese “economic miracle” significantly surpassed similar “miracles” in post-war Germany and Japan and came close to the Soviet one in the Stalin era. In order to limit the series of figures characterizing the successes of the People's Republic of China at the stage of socialist construction, we will present only some of them, the most general ones.

1. The Great Leap Forward (now without quotes) in agricultural development made it possible to feed 1 billion people.

2. Volume industrial production doubled every 10 years.

3. In 2005, China's GDP was $6.5 trillion, second only to the United States.

4. Average annual per capita income in China is 1,740 US dollars (data World Bank). The average life expectancy for men is 70 years, and for women - 73 years.

5. At the end of 2005, China again surpassed the United States in mutual trade by $200 billion. And this despite the fact that the henchmen of “free trade” from Washington have repeatedly introduced restrictions on Chinese goods. The structure of China's foreign trade is like that of an economically developed country: up to 80% of exports are textiles, shoes, toys, machine tools, machinery, instruments and electronics.

6. China's gold and foreign exchange reserves surpassed Japan's and became the largest in the world - $900 billion.

To avoid the impression that in China, which is in transition from capitalism to socialism, there is peace, quiet and God's grace all around, let us name the main problems that the new leader of the country, Hu Jintao, aimed at solving in the Eleventh Five-Year Plan. The strategic goal of this five-year plan is “building a harmonious society” and mitigating social inequality that has already become dangerous. To achieve this, significant funds have been allocated to improve health care and education in rural areas(in 2006 - $48 billion) with an increase in the military budget (in 2006 - an increase of 14%, to $35.5 billion). When Hu Jintao took office in 2004, he declared the war against corruption his priority and declared that the future of socialism was at stake. He rejected Western-style political reforms. Fearing that the epidemic of "tulip counter-revolutions" could be transferred to China, the government began large-scale efforts to tighten controls and limit foreign influence within the country.

Experience socialist development China attracts the attention of many in the modern world and, above all, its immediate neighbors.

Socialist Republic of Vietnam

The cooling of relations between the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV) and the USSR began during Gorbachev’s perestroika. Moscow's curtailment of mutually beneficial cooperation was regarded as adherence to American economic sanctions against Vietnam. The CPV condemned the departure of the CPSU from the fundamental principles of socialism and refused to copy the Soviet experience, taking a step towards taking into account the Chinese, in particular, in the field of agricultural production. The return to reasonable incentives for highly productive labor, while maintaining government control over large enterprises and infrastructure, quickly produced positive results. Within five years, Vietnam not only stopped buying rice abroad, but also sold two million tons of its surplus.

Today Vietnam is one of the most dynamically developing countries in Southeast Asia. Some experts predict that he will play the role of another Asian “tiger” in the near future. The impressive successes of Vietnam are directly reflected in relations with the United States. Step by step, the Americans were forced to restore full normal relations:

1994 - economic sanctions were lifted from Vietnam;

1996 - US Embassy opened in Hanoi;

2000 - trade agreement signed.

In the fall of the same 2000, he arrived in Vietnam on a visit ex-president USA B. Clinton - for the first time since the shameful flight of American aggressors from South Vietnam on April 30, 1975.

According to the declaration of strategic partnership signed by the Russian Federation and Vietnam, Russia began supplies modern weapons and spare parts for the old one Soviet technology. However, the main sections of this document concern economics. Although almost all well-known oil companies in the world are present in Vietnam and invest in offshore oil and gas production, it is believed that the most effective cooperation in this area is with Russia, within the framework of the 50:50 joint venture Vietsovpetro. It produces 80% of Vietnamese oil (over one hundred million tons per year) and annually the Russian budget receives more than $0.5 billion from the joint venture. An agreement was reached to modernize and expand the activities of this enterprise. The second largest project is an agreement on the joint creation of Vietnam's first oil refinery with an authorized capital of $800 million and a capacity of 6.5 million tons per year. Thus, a closed national cycle will be created from oil exploration to its complete processing.

Democratic People's Republic of Korea

The thorny path to socialism befell the Korean people. Under the leadership of the Workers' Party of Korea, he passed it most successfully and confidently. From the beginning of the 20th century, Japan occupied the country and established a brutal regime of robbery and violence for 40 years. It was led by communists for 12 years guerrilla warfare, which ended in 1945 with complete victory and the liberation of Korea from the Japanese colonialists. However, new American occupiers captured the south of the country, disrupted the unification agreement and split it. In 1950, when normal life began to improve in the DPRK, the United States started a new war. Over the course of 3 years, a wave of fire swept across the territory of North Korea twice - first from south to north, then back, and the front froze at the 38th parallel. Thousands of the best sons and daughters of the Korean people died on the battlefields, millions of civilians died at the hands of American punitive forces. North Korea was in ruins. In an effort to slow down its restoration, Washington maintained a state of war and constantly organized armed incidents and imposed economic, political and diplomatic sanctions.

Once again, the advantages of socialism, multiplied by the strength of spirit of the Korean people, appeared. The national economy destroyed by the war was restored in the shortest possible time. By 1958, socialist transformations in the city and countryside were completed. The DPRK has become a modern state with developed industry and agriculture, high level of culture. Further development led to the fact that they were completely resolved social problems employment, food and housing. Free healthcare and education are available to everyone. There is practically no crime and drug addiction, homeless old people and street children, no beggars and no super-rich.

Thus, the DPRK is a country of victorious socialism, which evokes the fierce hatred of the American imperialists and the desire to deal with the rebellious people by any means necessary.

The need to resist an aggressor equipped with nuclear missile weapons, the treacherous betrayal of the Kremlin in the early 90s forced the DPRK to create on its own rocket weapons. Having launched your artificial satellite Earth, she entered the club of space powers. And last year a successful test nuclear device brought closer North Korea to create a weapon of deterrence that is irresistible to the aggressor. Only a free people, confident in the rightness of their cause, is capable of accomplishing this.

Socialist Cuba

If it were customary to award Stars to entire countries, the Republic of Cuba would be a Twice Hero today. The first time was for the rapid defeat of the American mercenaries in the Bay of Cochinos. The second - for courage and perseverance during the “special period” in the early 90s, when it seemed that the severance of economic ties from the outside former USSR and the countries of the socialist community (80% of Cuba's trade turnover) will bring the Island of Freedom to its knees before the Evil Empire. Great difficulties arose: a decline in production, unemployment, food shortages. The Cuban communists had to take advantage of the Chinese experience and make compromises, retreat in the areas of tourism, foreign trade and finance. But they did not give up the main thing - the gains of socialism. And when a pitiful bunch of renegades, so-called dissidents, having received money from the United States, launched their treacherous activities and began preparing the “orange counter-revolution”, they were arrested, tried in open court under Cuban laws and shot.

China provided Cuba with significant assistance in overcoming the crisis, where part of the flow of traditional Cuban exports was redirected, as well as some Latin American countries. Already in 1995, economic growth resumed (an average of 4% annually) and by 2000, the pre-crisis level of GDP in 1989 was exceeded by more than 10%. Unemployment decreased by 2 times (to 4%), public consumption funds increased, and food distribution to the population increased by 10%. Inflation was kept at 0.5%.

There are three areas of social life in which socialist Cuba is proud of its achievements and which are at the level of highly developed countries.

1. Education - free general secondary education. Out of seven working people, one has a higher education diploma. 7.3% of GDP is spent on education.

2. Healthcare is free and at a high level. Key indicators: infant mortality -7.2 per 1000 births; average duration life - 75.5 years; highly developed medical science, production of such medicines and vaccines that are not found anywhere in the world. 6.3% of GDP is spent on healthcare.

3. Cuba is a world sports power that is confidently in the top ten at the Olympic Games in the team event.

No, the haters of socialism in Washington rubbed their hands in vain, strengthening the blockade of Liberty Island. The people of Cuba survived and moved forward again, captivating the countries of Latin America with their example.

Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez, who considers himself a friend and follower of F. Castro, has already taken a number of steps in the economic and political fields, giving him reason to set before the people the task of building “socialism of the 21st century.” To implement it, the creation of the ruling United Socialist Party of Venezuela is planned and a change to the Constitution is being prepared. Of course, Washington will not surrender its Latin American fiefdom without a fight, but it should be borne in mind that its options are now very limited. A third of the armed forces are mired in wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, and Iran and North Korea are challenging military dictates. We also have to be careful with economic sanctions, since new centers of power are willing to make holes in the American blockade. So, 2 years ago, the Chinese prime minister took with him a checkbook for hundreds of billions of dollars and traveled to a number of Latin American countries. Offering fairer terms of trade, he repurchased resources that had previously gone to the United States. So try to stop purchasing Venezuelan oil, which gives Hugo Chavez the economic basis for building socialism. World prices will soar, the American economy will sag, and China will receive Venezuelan oil at reasonable prices and make a new breakthrough in its development. Russia is increasingly selling modern weapons countries of this region. Profitable, market. So the gentlemen in Washington are nervous.

Socialism will save the world!

In conclusion, let us turn to the authoritative forecast for the 21st century made by World Forum scientists collected by the UN at the end of the last century in Rio de Janeiro. Its participants came to the conclusion that two global problems threaten the catastrophe of human civilization:

Resource - rapid depletion of explored natural resources;

Environmental - pollution environment has reached a level where the Earth's biosphere does not have time to clear itself of waste.

The forum condemned the capitalist system as unable to cope with these problems, since the pursuit of maximum profit requires the expenditure of enormous resources and produces a lot of waste and, in addition, instills lack of spirituality, moral and physical degradation of people.

The forum in its resolution clearly defined the way out of this dangerous prospect - the socialization of all aspects of the life of human society. Obviously this means:

1. Science and technology must organize the circulation of substances and materials in an artificial habitat created by man;

2. Limit material consumption to scientifically based standards;

3. To reveal the human element in a person - the unlimited consumption of spiritual values, which do not wear out as a result, and the active participation of the person himself in the creative process, in the creation of new spiritual values.

And this is socialism.