Open Library - an open library of educational information. Assessment of physical development
As main means of physical culture should be called physical exercise. There is a so-called physiological classification of these exercises, combining them into separate groups according to physiological characteristics.
To FC funds also include the healing forces of nature (sun, air, water) and hygienic factors (sanitary and hygienic condition of places of activity, work, rest, sleep and nutrition regimes).
It has been noted that physical training, by improving a number of physiological mechanisms, increases resistance to overheating, hypothermia, hypoxia, reduces morbidity and increases performance.
In people who are systematically actively involved physical exercise, mental, mental and emotional stability significantly increases when performing strenuous mental and physical activities.
The body's resistance to the effects of adverse factors depends on congenital and acquired properties. This stability is quite labile and can be trained by means of muscle loads and external influences (temperature regime, oxygen level, etc.).
The healing powers of nature.
Strengthening and activating the body's defenses, stimulating metabolism and activity physiological systems and individual organs can be greatly promoted by the healing forces of nature. In increasing the level of physical and mental performance important role plays a special set of health-improving and hygienic measures (staying in the fresh air, avoiding bad habits, sufficient physical activity, hardening, etc.).
Regular exercise during strenuous activities educational activities help relieve neuropsychic tension, and systematic muscle activity increases the mental, mental, and emotional stability of the body.
Hygienic factors that promote health, increase the effect of physical exercise on the human body and stimulate the development of adaptive properties of the body include personal and public hygiene (body frequency, cleanliness of places of exercise, air, etc.), adherence to the general daily routine, routine physical activity, diet and sleep.
Physical development- the process of formation, formation and subsequent change in the forms and functions of the human body under the influence of physical activity and conditions of everyday life.
A person’s physical development is judged by the size and shape of his body, muscle development, functional capabilities of breathing and blood circulation, and indicators of physical performance.
Key indicators physical development are:
1. Physique indicators: height, weight, posture, volumes and shapes of individual parts of the body, amount of fat deposits, etc. These indicators characterize, first of all, the biological forms (morphology) of a person.
2. Indicators of the development of human physical qualities: strength, speed abilities, endurance, flexibility, coordination abilities. These indicators largely reflect the functions of the human muscular system.
3. Health indicators reflecting morphological and functional changes in the physiological systems of the human body. The functioning of the cardiovascular, respiratory and central nervous systems, digestive and excretory organs, thermoregulation mechanisms, etc. is of decisive importance for human health.
The physical development of each person largely depends on factors such as heredity, environment and physical activity.
Heredity determines the type of nervous system, physique, posture, etc. Moreover, genetically hereditary predisposition largely determines the potential capabilities and prerequisites for good or poor physical development. The final level of development of the forms and functions of the human body will depend on living conditions (environment) and on the nature of motor activity.
The process of physical development is subject to the law of unity of the organism and the environment and, therefore, significantly depends on the living conditions of man. These include living conditions, work, education, material support, as well as the quality of nutrition (calorie balance), all this affects the physical condition of a person and determines the development and change in the forms and functions of the body.
The climatic and geographical environment has a certain influence on the physical development of a person and environmental conditions accommodation.
Under the influence of systematic training sessions, a person can significantly improve almost all motor abilities, as well as successfully eliminate various physique defects and congenital anomalies, such as stoop, flat feet, etc., using physical education.
Psychophysiological foundations of educational work and intellectual activity. Means of physical culture in regulating performance
1. Objective and subjective factors of learning and the reaction of students’ bodies to them.
There are objective and subjective learning factors that affect the psychophysiological state of students.
Objective factors include the living environment and educational work of students, age, gender, health status, general academic workload, rest, including active rest.
Subjective factors include: knowledge, professional abilities, motivation to learn, performance, neuropsychic stability, pace of educational activity, fatigue, psychophysical capabilities, personal qualities(character traits, temperament, sociability), ability to adapt to social conditions studying at the university.
Students' study time averages 52-58 hours per week, including self-study), i.e. The daily teaching load is 8-9 hours, therefore their working day is one of the longest. A significant part of students (about 57%), not knowing how to plan their time budget, engage in self-study on weekends.
It is difficult for students to adapt to studying at a university, because yesterday’s schoolchildren find themselves in new conditions of educational activity, new life situations.
The critical and difficult exam period for students is one of the options stressful situation which occurs in most cases under time pressure. During this period, increased demands are placed on the intellectual and emotional sphere of students.
The combination of objective and subjective factors that negatively affect the body of students, under certain conditions, contributes to the emergence of cardiovascular, nervous, and mental diseases.
2. Changes in the state of the student’s body under the influence of various modes and learning conditions.
In the process of mental work, the main load falls on the central nervous system, its highest section is the brain, which ensures the flow of mental processes- perception, attention, memory, thinking, emotions.
A negative effect on the body of prolonged stay in a “sitting” position, which is typical for people with mental work, was revealed. In this case, blood accumulates in the vessels located below the heart. The volume of circulating blood decreases, which impairs blood supply to a number of organs, including the brain. Venous circulation worsens. When the muscles do not work, the veins become filled with blood and its movement slows down. Vessels quickly lose their elasticity and stretch. The movement of blood through the carotid arteries of the brain also worsens. In addition, a decrease in the range of movements of the diaphragm negatively affects the function of the respiratory system.
Short-term intense mental work causes the heart rate to increase, while long-term work causes a slowdown. It’s a different matter when mental activity is associated with emotional factors and neuropsychic stress. Thus, before the start of academic work, the students’ pulse rate was recorded on average at 70.6 beats/min; when performing relatively calm academic work - 77.4 beats/min. The same work of moderate intensity increased the heart rate to 83.5 beats/min, and with high stress to 93.1 beats/min. During emotionally stressful work, breathing becomes uneven. Blood oxygen saturation can decrease by 80%.
In the process of long and intense educational activity, a state of fatigue occurs. The main factor of fatigue is the educational activity itself. However, the fatigue that occurs during this process can be significantly complicated by additional factors that also cause fatigue (for example, poor organization of the daily routine). In addition, it is necessary to take into account a number of factors that do not themselves cause fatigue, but contribute to its appearance (chronic diseases, poor physical development, irregular nutrition, etc.).
3. Performance and the influence of various factors on it.
Performance is a person’s ability to perform a specific activity within given time limits and performance parameters. On the one hand, it reflects the possibilities biological nature of a person, serves as an indicator of his legal capacity, on the other hand, it expresses his social essence, being an indicator of the success of mastering the requirements of a specific activity.
At each moment, performance is determined by the influence of various external and internal factors, not only individually, but also in their combination.
These factors can be divided into three main groups:
1st - physiological nature - state of health, cardiovascular system, respiratory and others;
2nd - physical nature - the degree and nature of room illumination, air temperature, noise level and others;
3rd mental character - well-being, mood, motivation, etc.
To a certain extent, performance in educational activities depends on personality traits, characteristics of the nervous system, and temperament. Interest in emotionally attractive academic work increases the duration of its completion. The effectiveness of execution has a stimulating effect on maintaining a higher level of performance.
At the same time, the motive of praise, instruction or censure can be excessive in its impact, causing such strong feelings about the results of work that no amount of volitional effort will allow one to cope with them, which leads to a decrease in performance. Therefore, the condition for a high level of performance is optimal emotional stress.
Installation also affects operating efficiency. For example, for students who are focused on the systematic assimilation of educational information, the process and curve of forgetting it after passing the exam are characterized by a slow decline. In conditions of relatively short-term mental work, the cause of a decrease in performance may be the fading of its novelty. Individuals with a high level of neuroticism were found to have a higher ability to absorb information, but a lower effect of its use, compared to individuals with a lower level of neuroticism.
4. The influence of the periodicity of rhythmic processes in the body on performance.
High performance is ensured only if the rhythm of life is correctly consistent with the natural biological rhythms of its psychophysiological functions inherent in the body. There are students with stable stereotypical changes in performance. Students classified as “morning” are the so-called larks.
They are characterized by the fact that they get up early, are cheerful and cheerful in the morning, and remain in high spirits in the morning and afternoon hours. They are most productive from 9 am to 2 pm. In the evening, their performance decreases noticeably. This is the type of students most adapted to the existing learning regime, since their biological rhythm coincides with the social rhythm of a full-time university. Students of the “evening” type - “night owls” - are most productive from 18:00 to 24:00.
They go to bed late, often do not get enough sleep, and are often late for classes; in the first half of the day they are inhibited, therefore they are in the least favorable conditions, studying full-time at a university. Obviously, it is advisable to use the period of decreased performance of both types of students for rest, lunch, and if it is necessary to study, then in the least difficult disciplines. For night owls, it is advisable to organize consultations and classes on the most difficult sections of the program from 18:00.
5. General patterns of changes in students’ performance during the learning process.
Under the influence of educational and work activities, students’ performance undergoes changes that are clearly observed during the day, week, throughout each semester and the academic year as a whole.
The dynamics of mental performance in the weekly educational cycle is characterized by a sequential change in the working-in period at the beginning of the week (Monday), which is associated with the entry into the usual mode of educational work after rest on the day off. In the middle of the week (Tuesday-Thursday) there is a period of stable, high performance. By the end of the week (Friday, Saturday) there is a process of its decline.
At the beginning of the academic year, the process of fully realizing the educational and labor capabilities of students drags on for up to 3-3.5 weeks (the period of development), accompanied by a gradual increase in the level of performance. Then comes a period of stable performance lasting 2.5 months. With the start of the test session in December, when, against the backdrop of ongoing studies, students prepare and take tests, the daily workload increases to an average of 11-13 hours, combined with emotional experiences - performance begins to decline. During the exam period, the decline in the performance curve intensifies.
6. Types of changes in students’ mental performance.
Research shows that students' performance is different levels and types of changes that affect the quality and volume of work performed. In most cases, students who have a stable and multifaceted interest in learning have a high level of performance; persons with unstable, episodic interest have a predominantly reduced level of performance.
According to the type of changes in performance in educational work, increasing, uneven, weakening and even types are distinguished, connecting them with typological features. Thus, the increasing type includes mainly people with a strong type of nervous system, capable of engaging in mental work for a long time. The uneven and weakening types include individuals with a predominantly weak nervous system.
7. Condition and performance of students during the examination period.
Exams for students are a critical moment in educational activities, when the results of academic work for the semester are summed up. The issue of the student’s compliance with the level of the university, receiving a scholarship, personal self-affirmation, etc. is being decided. An examination situation is always a certain uncertainty of the outcome, which allows it to be assessed as a strong emotional factor.
Repeatedly repeated examination situations are accompanied by emotional experiences that are individually different, which creates a dominant state of emotional tension. Exams are a definite incentive to increase the volume, duration and intensity of students’ educational work, and to mobilize all the forces of the body.
During exams, the “cost” of students’ academic work increases. This is evidenced by the facts of a decrease in body weight during the examination period by 1.6-3.4 kg. Moreover, this is to a greater extent characteristic of those students whose reactivity to the examination situation is increased.
According to the data, first-year students have the highest gradient of mental performance. In subsequent years of study, its value decreases, which indicates better adaptation of students to the conditions of the examination period. In the spring session, the performance gradient increases compared to the winter session.
8. Means of physical culture in regulating the psycho-emotional and functional state of students during the examination period.
The university provides students with three types of recreation, varying in duration: short breaks between classes, a weekly day of rest, and vacations in winter and summer.
The principle of active rest has become the basis for organizing rest during mental activity, where appropriately organized movements before, during and after mental work have a high effect in maintaining and increasing mental performance. Daily independent exercise is no less effective.
Active rest increases performance only if certain conditions are met:
Its effect manifests itself only under optimal loads;
When antagonist muscles are included in the work;
The effect decreases with rapidly developing fatigue, as well as fatigue caused by monotonous work;
Positive effect expressed more strongly against the background of a greater, but not high, degree of fatigue than with a weak degree;
The more trained a person is for tiring work, the higher the effect of active rest.
Thus, the focus of classes during the examination period for the bulk of students should be preventive in nature, and for student-athletes should have a maintaining level of physical and sports-technical readiness.
The state of mental tension observed in students during exams can be reduced in several ways.
Breathing exercises. Full abdominal breathing - first, with relaxed and slightly lowered shoulders, inhale through the nose; The lower parts of the lungs are filled with air, while the stomach protrudes. Then, inhaling, the chest, shoulders, and collarbones rise sequentially. A complete exhalation is performed in the same sequence: the stomach is gradually drawn in, the chest, shoulders and collarbones are lowered.
The second exercise consists of full breathing, carried out in a certain walking rhythm: a full inhalation for 4, 6 or 8 steps, followed by a breath hold equal to half the number of steps taken when inhaling. A complete exhalation is done in the same number of steps (4, 6, 8). The number of repetitions is determined by how you feel. The third exercise differs from the second only in the conditions of exhalation: pushes through tightly compressed lips. The positive effects of exercise increase with the amount of exercise.
Mental self-regulation. Changing the direction of consciousness includes such options as switching off, in which, with the help of volitional efforts and concentration of attention, foreign objects, objects, situations are included in the sphere of consciousness, except for circumstances that cause mental stress. Switching is associated with concentration of attention and focus of consciousness on some interesting matter. Disconnection consists of limiting the sensory flow: staying in silence with eyes closed, in a calm, relaxed position, imagining situations in which a person feels easy and calm.
7. The use of “small forms” of physical culture in the educational work of students.
Among the various forms physical activity morning exercises are the least complicated, but quite effective for accelerated inclusion in the school day, thanks to the mobilization of the body’s vegetative functions, increasing the performance of the central nervous system, creating a certain emotional background. For students who regularly perform morning exercises, run-in period on the first educational couple was 2.7 times less than that of those who did not perform it. The same fully applies to the psycho-emotional state - mood increased by 50%, well-being by 44%, activity by 36.7%.
An effective and accessible form of classes at a university is a physical education break. She solves the problem of providing leisure students and increase their performance. When studying the effectiveness of using physical exercises of a dynamic and postnotonic nature during micropauses, it was found that a one-minute dynamic exercise (running in place at a pace of 1 step per second) is equivalent in its effect to performing posturetonic exercises for two minutes. Since the working posture of students is characterized by monotonous tension mainly of the flexor muscles (sitting, leaning forward), it is advisable to begin and end the cycle of exercises by vigorously stretching the flexor muscles.
Methodological recommendations for the use of posture exercises. Before the start of intensive mental work, in order to shorten the period of training, it is recommended to voluntarily additional tension of the muscles of the limbs of moderate or medium intensity for 5-10 minutes. The lower the initial nervous and muscle tension and the faster it is necessary to mobilize for work, the higher the additional tension in the skeletal muscles should be. During prolonged intense mental work, if it is also accompanied by emotional stress, voluntary general relaxation of skeletal muscles is recommended, combined with rhythmic contraction of small muscle groups (for example, flexors and extensors of the fingers, facial muscles, etc.).
8. Students’ performance in a health and sports camp.
A healthy lifestyle for students implies the systematic use of physical education and sports in academic year. Active rest helps to successfully fulfill educational and work responsibilities while maintaining health and high performance. Among various forms During the holiday period, student health and sports camps (winter and summer) are widely developed in universities.
A 20-day vacation in the camp, organized a week after the end of the summer session, made it possible to restore all indicators of mental and physical performance, while for those vacationing in the city, the recovery processes were sluggish.
9. Features of conducting physical education classes to improve students’ performance.
The structure of the organization of the educational process at a university has an impact on the student’s body, changing its functional state and affecting performance. This circumstance should be taken into account when conducting physical education classes, which also influence changes in students’ performance.
Based on the research results, it has been established that in order to successfully develop the basic physical qualities of students, it is necessary to rely on a regular periodicity of performance during the academic year. According to this, in the first half of each semester, in educational and independent classes, it is advisable to use physical exercises with a primary (up to 70-75%) focus on the development of speed, speed-strength qualities and speed endurance with an intensity of heart rate of 120-180 beats/min; in the second half of each semester with a primary (up to 70-75%) focus on developing strength, general and strength endurance with a heart rate intensity of 120-150 beats/min.
The first part of the semester coincides with a higher functional state of the body, the second - with its relative decline. Lessons built on the basis of such planning of funds physical training, have a stimulating effect on the mental performance of students, improve their well-being, and ensure a progressive increase in the level of physical fitness during the academic year.
With two classes per week, the combination of physical activity and mental performance has the following features. Most high level mental performance is observed when combining two classes at a heart rate of 130-160 beats/min at intervals of 1-3 days. A positive, but half as much effect is achieved by alternating classes with a heart rate of 130-160 beats/min and 110-130 beats/min.
Using two classes per week at a heart rate above 160 beats/min leads to a significant decrease in mental performance in a weekly cycle, especially for those who are not sufficiently trained. The combination of classes with this regimen at the beginning of the week and classes with a heart rate of 110-130, 130-160 beats/min in the second half of the week has a stimulating effect on the performance of students only at the end of the week.
In the practice of physical education for a certain part of students, a problem constantly arises: how to combine the successful fulfillment of academic responsibilities and the improvement of sportsmanship. The second task requires 5-6 training sessions per week, and sometimes two per day.
When systematically practicing various sports, certain mental qualities are cultivated that reflect the objective conditions of sports activity.
General characteristics successful use of physical education means in the educational process, ensuring a state of high performance of students in educational and work activities, are as follows:
Long-term preservation of performance in academic work;
Accelerated workability;
Ability to accelerate recovery;
Emotional and volitional resistance to disruptive factors;
Average intensity of emotional background;
Reducing the physiological cost of educational labor per unit of work;
Successful fulfillment of educational requirements and good academic performance, high organization and discipline in studies, everyday life, and recreation;
Rational use of the free time budget for personal and professional development.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT is a natural process of age-related changes in the morphological and functional properties of the human body during his life.
The concept of physical development includes the morphofunctional constitution of a person. The human constitution is a complex of individual physiological and anatomical features of the human body, which are formed on the basis of hereditary properties acquired under the influence of social and natural conditions.
Physical development depends on genetic factors, with heredity playing a significant role in the dynamics of physical development and physique, and conditions external environment(social, climatic, geographical, etc.).
To determine physical development, anthropometric measurements are taken, and various indices are used to assess it. Indices are indicators of physical development, representing the ratio of individual anthropometric characteristics expressed in a priori mathematical formulas.
The study of the level of physical development of children and adolescents is carried out using the method of determining sigma deviations. The use of this method is based on comparison of indicators of the physical development of the subject (height, weight, OGK, etc.) with the arithmetic average values of these characteristics (M), taken from the table of standards.
ANTHROPOMETRIC INDICATORS is a complex of morphological and functional data that characterizes age and gender characteristics of physical development.
The following anthropometric indicators are distinguished:
Somatometric;
Physiometric;
Somatoscopic.
Somatometric indicators include:
· Height– body length.
The greatest body length is observed in the morning. In the evening, as well as after intense physical exercise, height may decrease by 2 cm or more. After exercises with weights and a barbell, height may decrease by 3-4 cm or more due to compaction of the intervertebral discs.
· Weight– it would be more correct to say “body weight”.
Body weight is an objective indicator of health status. It changes during physical exercise, especially during initial stages. This occurs as a result of the release of excess water and the combustion of fat. Then the weight stabilizes, and later, depending on the focus of the training, it begins to decrease or increase. It is advisable to monitor body weight in the morning on an empty stomach.
To determine normal weight, various weight-height indices are used. In particular, in practice they widely use Broca's index Brugsha:, according to which normal body weight is calculated as follows:
For people 155-165 cm tall:
optimal weight = body length – 100
For people 165-175 cm tall:
optimal weight = body length – 105
For people 175 cm tall and above:
optimal weight = body length – 110
More accurate information about the relationship between physical weight and body constitution is provided by a method that, in addition to height, also takes into account chest circumference:
Body weight (weight) for adults is calculated using the Bernhard formula:
Weight = (height x chest volume) / 240
The formula makes it possible to take into account body features.
· Circles– volumes of the body in its various zones.
Usually the circumferences of the chest, waist, forearm, shoulder, hip, etc. are measured. A centimeter tape is used to measure body circumference.
Chest circumference is measured in three phases: during normal quiet breathing, maximum inhalation and maximum exhalation. The difference between the sizes of the circles during inhalation and exhalation characterizes the chest excursion (ECC). The average EGC size usually ranges from 5-7 cm.
Circumference of waist, hips, etc. are used, as a rule, to control the figure.
Physiometric indicators include:
· Vital capacity of the lungs (VC)- the volume of air obtained during the maximum exhalation made after the maximum inhalation.
Vital vital capacity is measured with a spirometer: having previously taken 1-2 breaths, the subject takes a maximum breath and smoothly blows air into the mouthpiece of the spirometer until it fails. The measurement is carried out 2-3 times in a row, the best result is recorded.
Average vital capacity indicators:
For men 3500-4200 ml,
In women 2500-3000 ml,
Athletes have 6000-7500 ml.
· Breathing rate– the number of complete respiratory cycles per unit of time (for example, per minute).
The normal respiratory rate of an adult is 14-18 times per minute. Under load it increases 2-2.5 times.
· Oxygen consumption- the amount of oxygen used by the body at rest or during exercise in 1 minute.
At rest, a person on average consumes 250-300 ml of oxygen per minute. At physical activity this value increases.
Largest quantity oxygen that the body can consume per minute during maximum muscular work is called maximum oxygen consumption (IPC).
· Dynamometry– determination of the flexion strength of the hand.
The flexion force of the hand is determined special device– dynamometer, measured in kg.
Right-handers have average strength values right hand :
For men 35-50 kg;
For women 25-33 kg.
Average strength values left hand usually 5-10 kg less.
When doing dynamometry, it is important to take into account both absolute and relative strength, i.e. correlated with body weight.
To determine relative strength, arm strength is multiplied by 100 and divided by body weight.
For example, a young man weighing 75 kg showed a right hand strength of 52 kg:
52 x 100 / 75 = 69.33%
Average relative strength indicators:
In men, 60-70% of body weight;
In women, 45-50% of body weight.
Somatoscopic indicators include:
· Posture- the usual pose of a casually standing person.
At correct posture I'm good physically developed person the head and torso are on the same vertical, the chest is raised, the lower limbs are straightened at the hip and knee joints.
At incorrect posture the head is slightly tilted forward, the back is hunched, the chest is flat, the stomach is protruded.
· Body type– characterized by the width of skeletal bones.
The following are distinguished: body types: asthenic (narrow-boned), normosthenic (normal-boned), hypersthenic (broad-boned).
Determination of the thickness of skin-fat folds. To measure the thickness of skin-fat folds, a special device called a caliper is used. When measuring Special attention you should pay attention to its calibration. The pressure exerted by the caliper legs should not exceed 10 g per 1 mm2 of skin surface. The area of skin grasped by the fingers should be at least 20-40 mm2. Measurements must be carried out in strictly designated places. Usually the thickness of 8 longitudinal skin-fat folds is determined:
1. in the back area - under the lower angle of the shoulder blade;
2. in the chest area - along the axillary edge of the pectoralis major muscle;
3. in the abdominal area - on the right near the navel;
4. on the front surface of the shoulder - above the biceps muscle (approximately in the middle of the shoulder);
5. on the back of the shoulder – above the triceps brachii muscle (approximately in the middle of the shoulder);
6. on the dorsum of the hand – in the middle of the ΙΙΙ metacarpal bone;
7. on the front surface of the thigh - above the rectus femoris muscle, slightly below the inguinal ligament;
8. on the back surface of the lower leg in the area of the outer head of the gastrocnemius muscle.
Towards anthropometric tools include:
1. a metal rod anthropometer of the Martin system, which can simultaneously serve as a rod compass;
2. wooden easel height meter;
3. large and small thick compasses;
4. sliding compass;
5. millimeter (metal, linen or rubberized) tapes up to 1.5-2 m long;
6. medical scales with measurement accuracy up to 50 g;
7. caliper;
8. dynamometers (wrist, deadlift);
9. goniometers;
10. stopometers.
Martin's metal rod anthropometer and wooden easel stadiometer make it possible to determine with a high degree of accuracy (up to 0.2-0.5 cm) the body length of the subject in a standing or sitting position. In addition, using a metal anthropometer, you can determine the longitudinal dimensions of the body (the length of the shoulder, forearm, hand, entire upper limb, thigh, lower leg, entire lower limb, etc.), which cannot be done with a wooden stadiometer.
Thick and sliding compasses are used to determine end-to-end dimensions, i.e. distances between two points in projection onto a line parallel to the measured axis. Thick compasses, unlike sliding compasses, which resemble rod compasses, have arched legs that make it possible to measure distances between points of the body that lie deeper than the surrounding areas of the body, and which cannot be fixed by the straight legs of a sliding or rod compass.
Millimeter metal or rubberized canvas tapes are used to determine the perimeters (circumferences, girths) of the body and its segments.
The caliper is used to measure the thickness of skin and fat folds. This device has a specially calibrated spring, which makes it possible in each specific case to produce identical pressure on the fold
Dynamometers (wrist, backbone) have recently been used to measure the strength of not only the wrist flexor muscles and trunk extensor muscles, but also many other muscle groups (Fig. 7).
Goniometers (Mollison, Gamburtsev, Sermeev, Yatskevich) are devices for determining mobility in joints in degrees. The total mobility in all joints studied makes it possible to characterize this physical quality human like flexibility.
Definition of the concept. Under physical development understand the size and shape of the body, its correspondence to age norms. Quantitative assessment of physical development can be expressed both in absolute (kilograms, centimeters) and in relative (percentage of the age norm) values. Closely related to physical development motor(motor) development And puberty. Marked deviations from the standards of physical development, as a rule, mean disturbances in the processes of growth and maturation of the body. They are often associated with certain metabolic disorders, as well as pathologies of the endocrine and central nervous systems. At the same time, a significant lag in physical development is sometimes even less dangerous than a significant advance, which almost always indicates the presence of hormonal disorders.
Dimensions and general plan of the body structure. In age-related, comparative and environmental physiology, much attention is paid to patterns connecting body size and certain functional properties of the organism. The outstanding modern researcher K. Schmidt-Nielsen even published a special monograph entitled “Animal Sizes: Why They Are So Important.” One of the central thoughts of the author is that a change in size inevitably leads to a change in design, since principles suitable for a small object cannot be applied to a larger object of similar function. This was wonderfully illustrated by him with a number of examples both from the morphology and physiology of animals, and from technology. Indeed, a simple increase in size without changing the proportions usually looks ridiculous and obviously impractical. It is difficult to imagine an adult having the proportions of a newborn. Such a person would be a helpless invalid - with a huge torso and head and short arms and legs, completely incapable by their very design of producing anything useful.
Relationship between physiological functions and body size and shape. Physical development, characterizing the geometric dimensions of the body and its proportions, directly affects the functioning of all organs and systems of the body without exception (Fig. 7). This is due to the fact that the mass and surface area of the body largely determine the intensity of metabolic processes in the body. The mass of a body acts as a measure of energy (heat) production, and its surface as a measure of heat transfer. In other words, the size and proportions of the body largely determine the relationship between mechanisms heat production And heat transfer. A small child is closer in proportions to a ball, that is, to an ideal shape that has a minimum ratio of surface to volume (mass). This form is the most economical for maintaining the energy and heat balance of the body at a minimum level, i.e., heat transfer with this form will be the smallest, which reduces the load on the heat production mechanisms. At the same time, the larger the spherical body, the smaller (with constant proportions) its relative surface and, consequently, heat transfer. This is due to a simple mathematical relationship, according to which the volume of a spherical body is proportional to its radius to the 3rd power, and the surface is proportional to the radius to the 2nd power. An increase in the radius (i.e., size) of a body leads to a significantly faster increase in volume than an increase in surface. That is, the relative surface area (surface area per unit volume) of a small body is significantly higher than that of a large one. Therefore, for a small organism the problem is additional heat production during cooling, and for a large organism the problem is additional heat removal during overheating.
Body size and physical factors. Throughout his entire postnatal life, a person constantly interacts with two main physical factors to which the body has to continuously adapt - temperatureenvironment and gravity (gravity). The body's response to both of these factors is most directly related to the mass, geometric dimensions and proportions of the body, i.e. with physical development. Other physical factors, which also determine the characteristics of human ecology, affect the body regardless of its shape and size (for example, the level of insolation, humidity, gas composition of the surrounding air, etc.).
Ambient temperature- a constantly acting factor of variable value. Due to the fact that the body's cells require a constant temperature of about 37 "C for their normal functioning, changes in external temperature necessitate the body's adaptation to this variable factor. The size and proportions of the body in this case are very important, since the intensity of heat production in the body is proportional to its mass, and the rate of heat transfer is proportional to the surface area of the body. Any change in size and proportions, including those occurring as a result of natural processes of growth and development, directly affects the balance of production and heat removal and strictly leads to a restructuring of the activity of all vegetative systems body, and therefore control systems (central nervous system and endocrine system).In order to avoid overheating, increased environmental temperature requires the activation of functions that promote heat transfer (redistribution of blood flow towards increased skin circulation, activation of pulmonary ventilation and sweating). Reduced temperature, on the contrary, requires the conservation of heat in the body (due to the reverse redistribution of blood flow, a decrease in the activity of external respiration and sweating) and an increase in its production due to an increase in the intensity of metabolism (especially in such organs as the liver, brown adipose tissue and skeletal muscle).
Gravity (force of gravity) - another constantly operating factor, the influence of which is continuous and is closely related to the mass and shape of the body. A change in body proportions inevitably leads to a change in biomechanical properties and, as a consequence, the efficiency of various movements, i.e. affects the energy balance of the body.
Thus, the geometric dimensions, mass and proportions of the body very significantly influence the course of all the most important functions of the body, affecting their efficiency and setting limits to adaptive capabilities.
The influence of body size on metabolism and autonomic functions. Body size largely determines the intensity of metabolic processes (Fig. 8), the activity of many physiological functions (for example, heart rate and breathing), as well as tolerance to external temperature and other environmental factors. The dependence of indicators of functional activity on body size in the range of animals “from mice to elephants” has been widely studied, and an adult fits well into these general biological patterns. Usually measured indicators of the intensity of metabolic processes (the intensity of oxygen consumption or its caloric equivalent) and related autonomic functions (pulse rate, relative volumetric blood flow velocity, respiratory rate, etc.) decrease with increasing body size in proportion to body weight to the power of 2/ 3. Similar patterns can be revealed during ontogenetic growth, but there are factors here that significantly distort the smooth course of the corresponding curves. These factors are associated with different organization of body functions at different stages of ontogenesis, as discussed above. Nevertheless, within one age group, size patterns, although not so clearly expressed, do exist. This is another reason why monitoring the level of physical development of children and adolescents is important when assessing their general morphofunctional state.
Body weight, metabolic rate nal processes and “physiological time". A decrease in the intensity of metabolic processes with age and increasing body size means that a smaller number of biochemical reactions that form the basis of metabolism occur per unit of time. In this regard, the idea of “physiological time” arose, i.e. that time passes faster for a smaller organism. "Physiological time" has been shown to be proportional to body mass to the power of 0.25. For example, for a one-year-old child weighing 12 kg, time passes 1.5 times faster than for an adult weighing 70 kg, and for a first-grader weighing 30 kg - 25% faster. Completely similar results can be obtained by calculating the ratio of heart rate, which can also serve as an expression of the intensity of metabolic processes in the body. So, in a 7-year-old child at rest the pulse is approximately 90 beats/min, and in an adult it is 70, which is 1.28 times lower. Thus, one-year-old children live 1.5 days per day, and 7-year-olds live 1.25 days. Under these conditions, the need for daytime sleep becomes clear to restore strength, the supply of which in the child’s body is also still small.
Types of tissue growth ma. Different tissues of the body may have different types of growth processes (Fig. 9). The nature of growth processes is usually expressed by a growth curve. In developmental biology, four types of growth are distinguished: A - lymphoid (thymus, lymph nodes, intestinal lymphoid tissue, etc.); B - cerebral (brain and its parts, dura mater, spinal cord, eye, head size); B - general (body as a whole external dimensions, respiratory and digestive organs, kidneys, aorta and pulmonary artery, muscular system, blood volume); reproductive (testes, epididymis, prostate gland, seminal vesicles, ovaries, fallopian tubes).
Type A is characterized by a very high growth rate in the first 10 years of life and the achievement of maximum organ size in the pre-pubertal period, and then involution with the onset of puberty. Type B is characterized by a gradual slowdown in growth rate from birth to maturity, and already at the age of 8-10 years the organ practically reaches its definitive size. Type B is characterized by rapid growth at the beginning of postnatal life, then growth processes are inhibited, and again they accelerate with the onset of puberty. And finally, type G, which describes the growth of the gonads, is characterized by slow growth in the first years of life and its abrupt acceleration with the onset of puberty.
A very special type of growth curve is characteristic of subcutaneous adipose tissue. The very high rate of growth of the fat layer in the first months of life leads to the fact that by the age of 1 year the child develops a very pronounced subcutaneous layer of fat, which then begins to decrease, and only when the child reaches the age of 6-8 years does the subcutaneous fat accumulate again. Subject to changes general sizes body, it must be admitted that the content of subcutaneous fat in the body of a one-year-old baby is relatively very high and normally such a condition is never observed in the future. In the dynamics of subcutaneous fat growth, quite clear differences are revealed between boys and girls: in girls, both the growth rate and the absolute size of subcutaneous fat tissue are usually higher.
Indicators of physical development. Indicators of physical development that are usually considered by doctors, anthropologists and other specialists in order to monitor the dynamics of growth and development processes include:
body mass;
body length;
chest circumference;
waist circumference.
Along with these, other indicators can also be considered (for example, the size of the skin-fat folds, the circumference of individual parts of the body - thigh, lower leg, shoulder, etc.). However, for comparison with the norm and a conclusion about the nature and level of physical development, the listed indicators are sufficient.
Assessment of physical development indicators. To assess indicators of physical development, normative tables and scales based on sigma deviations are used. Usually, each of the indicators of physical development is assessed separately on a sigma scale, and their relationship is also analyzed based on standard linear regression equations to identify disharmonious options. Sigma scales allow you to evaluate the results of each measurement on a 5-point scale, in which:
<М- 1,33 5 - низкий уровень;
<М-0,67 5 - нижесредний уровень;
M + 0.67 5 - average level;
> M + 0.67 8 - above average level;
> M + 1.33 5 - high level.
When assessing physical development, body length is first assessed, and then the correspondence of body weight and circumference to the measured body length. This is done using standard linear regression equations. For quantitative assessment, specially developed standards of physical development are used.
Standards (norms) of physical development represent the results of an anthropometric survey of large groups of the population of a given area - at least 100-150 people per age and sex group. Since the physical development of the population is subject to fluctuations depending on geographical, ethnic, climatic, social, nutrient, environmental and other factors, standards and regulations for physical development require regular (at least once every 5-10 years) updating. Physical development standards are always regional in nature, and within regions inhabited by different ethnic groups, standards developed based on measurements of representatives of the corresponding ethnic groups should be used. It has great importance in the regions of the Far North, Far East, as well as in the Volga region, the Caucasus and other regions of Russia, where representatives of different ethnic groups and races live together, having significant genetically predetermined anthropological differences.
Rate of physical development. Acceleration and retardation. Rate of physical development - important characteristic to assess the health status of each individual child. Whether this rate moderately accelerates or decelerates may depend on a variety of factors, but both should always be taken into account when taking the history and making any clinical diagnosis. Individual diversity in the pace of physical development is quite large, but if it fits within the boundaries of the norm, this indicates the adequacy of the child’s living conditions to his morphofunctional capabilities for development. at this stage individual development.
However, along with individual changes, population shifts in the rate of physical development are observed in certain periods. Thus, in the countries of Europe, North America and some countries of Asia and Africa in the 20th century. Acceleration of the rate of physical development of children at the level of entire populations began to be observed. This phenomenon is called “epochal shift”, or “acceleration” (from lat. accelero - accelerate) physical development. It manifested itself in the fact that children were significantly ahead of their parents at the appropriate age in terms of body length and weight, and also reached puberty earlier. During the period from the 1960s to the 1990s, a huge number of studies were carried out in order to identify the very fact of acceleration of growth and development, and also try to give a rational explanation for it. Among the hypotheses regarding the causes of acceleration were those that, in various forms, linked these processes with a general increase in the standard of living and well-being of the Earth's population, which grew at a higher rate in those countries where acceleration began earlier and was more pronounced. Another common point of view is the information hypothesis, according to which the huge amount of information that hits children from an early age through print, radio, television and other means of communication stimulates growth processes and accelerates the maturation of the body. And finally, the third point of view was that acceleration is a temporary phenomenon associated with some exogenous (for example, dependent on solar activity) or endogenous (the causes of which are unknown) population cycles, which repeatedly over the centuries led either to acceleration or to slowdown (retardation, from lat. retardo - slow down, slow down) the physical development of humanity.
To date, none of these points of view has received universal recognition; moreover, an increasing number of researchers are inclined to recognize the combined impact of all these factors, which led to a sharp acceleration of physical development in the second half of the 20th century. Meanwhile, measurements made in the last 5-10 years in Russia and in the countries of Europe and America have shown that the acceleration processes at the population level have stopped, and even a certain tendency towards retardation in the development of the younger generation has been noted. This circumstance testifies most of all in favor of the cyclic theory of acceleration-retardation of development. This concept is confirmed by the fact that, judging by the size of military armor, medieval knights were distinguished by their small body sizes and gracile physique, similar to the physique of modern teenagers. At the same time, judging by the data of archaeological excavations, European inhabitants who lived another 1000 years earlier ancient world- Rome and Greece - were in their physical development closer to the modern type of representative of the European race.
The acceleration of physical development that has manifested itself in the world over the past 50 years has practically not affected the pace of mental and spiritual development, and this created certain difficulties in the field of training and education. In particular, the early achievement of puberty led to the mass early entry of adolescents into sexual relations, which still represents a significant sociocultural, pedagogical and medical problem.
Age-related changes in the general plan of the body structure. A general idea of changes in body structure with age can be obtained by considering Fig. 7. It clearly shows that the relative size of the head decreases very significantly with age, while the relative length of the limbs increases significantly. A newborn baby is relatively very wide, and its body has approximately the same width along its entire length. By the age of puberty, gender differences in body structure appear: wide shoulders and a narrow pelvis in boys and a clearly defined waist with subsequent expansion towards the pelvis in girls. All these changes are due to differences in the growth rates of individual parts of the body at different stages of ontogenesis. In turn, they lead to the appearance of both morphological and physiological characteristics characteristic of each stage of individual development.
Morphological criteria of biological age. Wide! The spread of individual development rates leads to the fact that the calendar (passport) age and the level of morphofunctional development (biological age) can diverge quite significantly. Meanwhile, for carrying out social, pedagogical, and even therapeutic activities with a child, it is much more important to focus on his individual level of morphofunctional maturity than on calendar age. In this regard, the task of assessing biological age arises. A comprehensive anthropological and physiological study could give an unambiguous answer to such a question, but conducting such studies on a wide scale is practically impossible, and yet knowledge of the degree of biological maturity of an organism is necessary for many practical purposes. Therefore, simple morphological criteria have been developed that, with a certain degree of probability, can characterize the biological age of a child.
The simplest, but also the crudest way to estimate biological age is by body proportions - length ratio tolimbs and torso. It should be emphasized that individual body length or weight, as well as the size of any part of the body, cannot be used as criteria for biological age. An excess of the level of physical development above the population average, as well as its lag, does not in itself indicate the degree of morphofunctional maturity of the organism. So, for example, the tall height of a child can mean not only that he is developing faster than others (this is exactly what we have to find out), but also that he will become a tall adult and is already ahead of his peers. It is impossible to distinguish these alternatives along one dimension. Another thing is the proportions of the body, taking into account the ratio of the degree of development of its individual parts: head, torso, limbs. But such an assessment can only give a very rough, approximate result, since the factor of biological diversity intervenes here, i.e. constitutional affiliation of the individual. Potential dolichomorphs, already in childhood, may have relatively longer legs than their brachymorph peers, although the rate of morphofunctional development of brachymorphs is often higher in many respects. Therefore, judging by the proportions of the body, one can confidently attribute the child only to one or another age group, and quite a wide one at that.
Bone age. Much more exact result provides a study of bone (skeletal) age. Ossification of each bone begins from a primary center and passes through a series of successive stages of enlargement and formation of an ossification area. In addition, in some cases, one or more additional ossification centers appear in the epiphyses. Finally, the epiphyses fuse with the body of the bone, and maturation is completed. All these stages can be easily seen on an x-ray. Based on the number of existing ossification centers and the degree of their development, one can fairly accurately judge bone age. In practice, the hand and wrist (usually the left hand) are most often used for these purposes. This is due both to the structural features of this part of the body (many bones and epiphyses), and to the technological convenience, comparative cheapness and safety of the procedure. Comparing the resulting radiograph with standards and scoring the degree of development of many bones makes it possible to express the result obtained quantitatively (in years and months). The disadvantage of this method is that it is quite labor-intensive and requires an expensive and unsafe x-ray examination.
Dental age. If you count the number of teeth that have erupted (or replaced) and compare this value with standards, you can estimate the so-called dental age. However, the age periods when such a determination is possible are limited: baby teeth appear in the range from 6 months to 2 years, and their replacement with permanent teeth occurs from 6 to 13 years. In the period from 2 to 6 years and after 13 years, determining dental age loses its meaning. True, it is possible to assess the degree of ossification of teeth on the basis of radiographs, as in the case of bone age, but for obvious reasons this method has not gained practical acceptance.
External sexual characteristics. During puberty, biological age can be assessed by external sexual characteristics. There are different - quantitative and qualitative - methods for taking into account these signs, but they all operate on the same set of indicators: for young men, this is the size of the scrotum, testicles and penis, hair growth on the pubis, in the armpits, on the chest and abdomen, the appearance of wet dreams , swelling of the nipples; in girls, this is the shape and size of the mammary glands and nipples, pubic and armpit hair, the time of the first appearance and establishment of regular menstruation.
The sequence of appearance and dynamics of the degree of expression of the listed signs are well known, which provides grounds for fairly accurate dating of biological age in the period from 11 - 12 to 15-17 years.
Components of body mass. When describing physical development, anthropologists often use the concept of “components of body mass.” This refers to the three most important components of the human body: bones, muscles and adipose tissue. It is clear that these components do not exhaust the entire diversity of body tissues, but this concept is based on the fact that other tissues have fewer quantitative interindividual differences. In addition, each of these components is the result of the development of one of the three embryonic germs
sheets that gave rise to all tissues of the body: the bone component is of ectodermal origin, the muscle component is of mesodermal origin, and the fatty component is of endodermal origin. In this way, an ontological connection is established between the zygote, from which three germ layers are formed, and the body components of a mature organism.
It is known that body tissues have unequal metabolic activity. The most intensive and constant metabolic processes occur in organs consisting of parenchymal tissues - such as the liver, kidneys, epithelium of the gastrointestinal tract, etc. The metabolic activity of muscle tissue very much depends on its state: under resting conditions, the muscle is metabolically inactive, while under load the metabolic rate, for example, in skeletal muscle can increase 50-100 times. Even less metabolically active is bone tissue, which, along with muscles, forms the basis of the musculoskeletal system. And finally, the most metabolically inert tissue is adipose tissue, the rate of metabolic processes in which can decrease almost to zero. In this regard, sometimes adipose tissue is considered as a kind of ballast in the body, which has an extremely negative effect on the body, creating additional stress on the muscles and systems of autonomic support of muscle activity (primarily the heart and blood vessels, as well as breathing, excretion, etc. ) for any motor act. Therefore, in many cases, for health purposes, they try to control the amount of fat in the body.
The most accurate ways to measure the amount of fat involve the use of ultrasound diagnostic devices and computed tomography. Today in practice, they most often use the measurement of skin-fat folds using a special caliper device, similar in design to a caliper. For practical purposes, usually 3 to 10 skin folds are measured and the amount of body fat, or “body fat mass,” is determined using formulas or nomograms developed taking into account age and gender characteristics. The difference between whole body mass and fat mass is “fat-free mass.” This value correlates very closely with the intensity of metabolic processes in the body, regardless of the individual’s physique. This is understandable, since “fat-free mass” is the sum of the masses of all metabolically active tissues of the body.
Of course, control of the amount of adipose tissue in the body is necessary, and from a very early childhood. Overeating, unbalanced (mainly carbohydrate) nutrition and other exogenous causes can lead to obesity, which is harmful to health. However, the need for fat in the body cannot be completely denied. Not to mention the fact that adipose tissue is a depot of the most high-calorie nutrients (the oxidation of 1 g of fat provides almost twice as much energy necessary for the life of any body cell than the oxidation of 1 g of carbohydrates), it also performs the function of storing many biologically active substances, in particular steroid hormones. These substances are able to dissolve in fat droplets that fill fat cells, and, if necessary, can enter the blood and become available to other tissues of the body. An excessive decrease in the amount of fat in the body leads to hormonal disorders. In particular, for normal sexual development and maintenance of sexual function, the body must have a certain amount of fat (about 10-15%), and in the female body it is approximately 2 times more than in the male body. Lack of fat (emaciation) inevitably leads to dysfunction of the gonads, menstrual cycle disorders in women and impotence in men.
There is evidence that the number of fat cells in the human body is genetically predetermined, and excess or insufficient fat deposition is determined not by an increase or decrease in the number of these cells, which remains unchanged from birth to old age, but by the degree of their filling with stored fat.
The ratio of the amount of bone, muscle and fat components determines body type person.
Physique and constitution. Physique is one of the most fundamental concepts of anthropology, the study of which has been the subject of hundreds of works since the mid-19th century. Ancient and medieval doctors paid attention to the characteristics of the physique and the associated features of neuropsychic processes and morbidity. All this led to the emergence of the doctrine of the human constitution. The human constitution is usually understood as a complex of anatomical, physiological and psychological characteristics of an individual, fixed genetically and determining the forms and methods of its adaptation to a variety of external environmental influences, as well as the incidence and nature of the course of diseases (which, of course, also reflects adaptive properties). Both ancient and most modern authors understand the constitution comprehensively, as a kind of synthesis of different aspects of human individuality. The biological essence of a person is characterized by three main components: the structure of the body, the physiology of vital functions and metabolism, and the psychological characteristics of the individual. They are interconnected and together make up the human constitution - the most fundamental characteristic of the whole organism (Table 1).
Table 1
Morphofunctional properties characteristic of humans
Indicators of physical development
Types of diagnostics, purpose, tasks
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS
SELF-CONTROL OF PARTICIPANTS
LECTURE 6
PLAN:
1. Types of diagnostics, purpose, tasks
2. Indicators of physical development
3. Assessment of functional fitness
4. Self-control
4.1. Subjective indicators self-control
4.2. Objective indicators of self-control
DIAGNOSTICS – assessment of the health status of the student.
DIAGNOSIS – a conclusion about the student’s state of health.
The main types of diagnostics are:
· Medical supervision– a comprehensive medical examination of the physical development and functional readiness of those involved in physical culture and sports.
· Pedagogical control– a systematic process of obtaining information about physical condition involved in physical education and sports.
· Self-control– regular observations of those involved in their health, functional and physical fitness and their changes under the influence of physical exercise and sports.
Purpose of diagnosis– optimization of the process of physical education classes based on an objective assessment of various aspects of the condition of those involved.
Diagnostic tasks:
1) Medical monitoring of the health of persons involved in physical education and sports;
2) Assessing the effectiveness of the applied means and methods of training;
3) Implementation of the training plan;
4) Determination of tests to assess preparedness (physical, technical, tactical, moral-volitional, theoretical);
5) Forecasting the achievements of athletes;
6) Identification of the dynamics of sports results;
7) Selection of talented athletes.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT is a natural process of age-related changes in the morphological and functional properties of the human body during his life.
The term “physical development” is used in two meanings:
1) as a process occurring in the human body during natural age development and under the influence of physical culture means;
2) as a state, ᴛ.ᴇ. as a complex of signs characterizing the morphofunctional state of the organism, the level of development of physical abilities necessary for the life of the organism.
Features of physical development are determined using anthropometry.
ANTHROPOMETRIC INDICATORS - a complex of morphological and functional data characterizing age and gender characteristics of physical development.
The following anthropometric indicators are distinguished:
Somatometric;
Physiometric;
Somatoscopic.
Somatometric indicators include:
· Height– body length.
The greatest body length is observed in the morning. In the evening, as well as after intense physical exercise, height may decrease by 2 cm or more. After exercises with weights and a barbell, height may decrease by 3-4 cm or more due to compaction of the intervertebral discs.
· Weight– it is more correct to say “body weight”.
Body weight is an objective indicator of health status. It changes during physical exercise, especially in the initial stages. This occurs as a result of the release of excess water and the combustion of fat. Then the weight stabilizes, and then, based on the direction of the training, it begins to decrease or increase. It is advisable to monitor body weight in the morning on an empty stomach.
To determine normal weight, various weight-height indices are used. In particular, in practice they widely use Broca's index, according to which normal body weight is calculated as follows:
For people 155-165 cm tall:
optimal weight = body length – 100
For people 165-175 cm tall:
optimal weight = body length – 105
For people 175 cm tall and above:
optimal weight = body length – 110
More accurate information about the relationship between physical weight and body constitution is provided by a method that, in addition to height, also takes into account chest circumference:
· Circles– volumes of the body in its various zones.
Usually the circumferences of the chest, waist, forearm, shoulder, hip, etc. are measured. A centimeter tape is used to measure body circumference.
Chest circumference is measured in three phases: during normal quiet breathing, maximum inhalation and maximum exhalation. The difference between the sizes of the circles during inhalation and exhalation characterizes the chest excursion (ECC). The average EGC size usually ranges from 5-7 cm.
Circumference of waist, hips, etc. are used, as a rule, to control the figure.
· Diameters– the width of the body in its various zones.
Physiometric indicators include:
· Vital capacity of the lungs (VC)- the volume of air obtained during the maximum exhalation made after the maximum inhalation.
Vital vital capacity is measured with a spirometer: having previously taken 1-2 breaths, the subject takes a maximum breath and smoothly blows air into the mouthpiece of the spirometer until it fails. The measurement is carried out 2-3 times in a row, the best result is recorded.
Average vital capacity indicators:
For men 3500-4200 ml,
In women 2500-3000 ml,
Athletes have 6000-7500 ml.
To determine the optimal vital capacity of a particular person, it is used Ludwig's equation:
Men: due vital capacity = (40xL)+(30xP) – 4400
Women: due vital capacity = (40xL)+(10xP) – 3800
where L is height in cm, P is weight in kᴦ.
For example, for a girl 172 cm tall and weighing 59 kg, the optimal vital capacity is: (40 x 172) + (10 x 59) – 3800 = 3670 ml.
· Breathing rate– the number of complete respiratory cycles per unit of time (for example, per minute).
The normal respiratory rate of an adult is 14-18 times per minute. Under load it increases 2-2.5 times.
· Oxygen consumption- the amount of oxygen used by the body at rest or during exercise in 1 minute.
At rest, a person on average consumes 250-300 ml of oxygen per minute. With physical activity this value increases.
The greatest amount of oxygen that the body can consume per minute during maximum muscular work is usually called maximum oxygen consumption (IPC).
· Dynamometry– determination of the flexion strength of the hand.
The flexion force of the hand is determined by a special device - a dynamometer, measured in kᴦ.
Right-handers have average strength values right hand:
For men 35-50 kg;
For women 25-33 kᴦ.
Average strength values left hand usually 5-10 kg less.
When doing dynamometry, it is important to take into account both absolute and relative strength. correlated with body weight.
To determine relative strength, arm strength is multiplied by 100 and divided by body weight.
For example, a young man weighing 75 kg showed a right hand strength of 52 kᴦ:
52 x 100 / 75 = 69.33%
Average relative strength indicators:
In men, 60-70% of body weight;
In women, 45-50% of body weight.
Somatoscopic indicators include:
· Posture- the usual pose of a casually standing person.
At correct posture in a well-physically developed person, the head and torso are on the same vertical, the chest is raised, the lower limbs are straightened at the hip and knee joints.
At incorrect posture the head is slightly tilted forward, the back is hunched, the chest is flat, the stomach is protruded.
· Body type– characterized by the width of the skeletal bones.
The following are distinguished: body types: asthenic (narrow-boned), normosthenic (normal-boned), hypersthenic (broad-boned).
· Chest shape
The following are distinguished: chest shapes: conical (the epigastric angle is greater than the right angle), cylindrical (the epigastric angle is straight), flattened (the epigastric angle is less than the right angle).
Figure 3. Shapes of the chest:
a - conical;
b - cylindrical;
c - flattened;
α - epigastric angle
The conical shape of the chest is typical for people who do not engage in sports.
The cylindrical shape is more common among athletes.
A flattened chest is observed in adults who lead a sedentary lifestyle. Individuals with a flattened chest should have reduced respiratory function.
Physical exercise helps increase the volume of the chest.
· Back shape
The following are distinguished: back shapes: normal, round, flat.
An increase in the curvature of the spine backward relative to the vertical axis by more than 4 cm is usually called kyphosis, and forward - lordosis.
Normally, there should also be no lateral curvatures of the spine - scoliosis. Scoliosis is right-, left-sided and S-shaped.
Some of the basic causes of spinal curvature are insufficient motor activity and general functional weakness of the body.
· Leg shape
The following are distinguished: leg shapes: normal, X-shaped, O-shaped.
development of bones and muscles of the lower extremities.
· Foot shape
The following are distinguished: foot shapes: hollow, normal, flattened, flat.
 |
Rice. 6. Foot Shapes:
a – hollow
b – normal
c – flattened
g – flat
The shape of the feet is determined by external examination or by foot prints.
· Belly shape
The following are distinguished: belly shapes: normal, saggy, retracted.
A saggy belly is usually caused by poor development of the abdominal wall muscles, which is accompanied by drooping internal organs(intestines, stomach, etc.).
A retracted abdomen occurs in people with well-developed muscles and little fat deposits.
· Fat deposition
Distinguish: normal, increased and decreased fat deposition. At the same time, determine uniformity and local fat deposition.
produce measured compression of the fold, which is important for measurement accuracy.
Indicators of physical development - concept and types. Classification and features of the category “Indicators of Physical Development” 2017, 2018.