Social changes and development of society. Society development

Society is a dynamic system, which is characterized by such characteristics as change, development.

social change is the transition of society and its constituents structural elements from one state to another.

History shows that no society stands still: it either progresses or regresses. If the sum of the positive consequences of large-scale changes in society exceeds the sum of the negative ones, then one speaks of social progress. Otherwise, social regression takes place. social progress - global process characterizing the movement of human society throughout history. Social regression is a local process, covering individual societies and short periods of time. Depending on the intensity of changes in the qualitative state of the object, the processes are divided into evolutionary and revolutionary.

Social development (progress) - irreversible changes in society associated with a qualitatively new, higher state of its structure and functions. In other words, it is the progressive movement of society from lower forms to a more perfect state. Social development in modern society called modernization. It implies a fundamental change social institutions and way of life of people, covering all spheres of society. There are two types of modernization: organic ("primary") and inorganic ("secondary").

Organic modernization is a moment of the country's own development and has been prepared by the entire course of the previous evolution. An example of organic modernization is the transition of England, France, the United States from feudalism to capitalism as a result of the industrial revolution of the second half of XVIII century - the first half of XIX century. This type of modernization does not begin with the economy, but with culture and a change in public consciousness. Capitalism arose as a natural consequence of changes in the way of life, traditions, worldview and orientations of people.

Inorganic modernization is a response to an external challenge from more developed countries. The main goal undertaken by the government is to overcome historical backwardness and avoid the country's foreign dependence. This model of social change, which is implemented, as a rule, in backward countries, has received the name "catch-up development". Inorganic modernization is carried out by purchasing foreign equipment and patents, borrowing someone else's technology (often by economic espionage), invitations of specialists, training abroad, investments. Corresponding changes are taking place in the social and political spheres: the system of government is changing dramatically, new power structures are being introduced, the country's constitution is being reorganized under foreign analogues. Inorganic modernization does not begin with culture, but with economics and politics. In other words, organic modernization comes "from below", and inorganic "from above". Examples: Russia (Peter's reforms of the 18th century, Stalin's industrialization of the 30s of the 20th century), Japan (the second half of the 19th and 20th centuries).

There are many things going on in the world around changes. Some of them are committed constantly and can be recorded at any time. To do this, you need to choose a certain period of time and track which features of the object disappear and which appear. Changes may relate to the position of the object in space, its configuration, temperature, volume, etc., i.e. those properties that do not remain constant. Summarizing all the changes, we can isolate character traits that distinguish this object from others. Thus, the category "change" refers to the process of movement and interaction of objects and phenomena, the transition from one state to another, the emergence of new properties, functions and relationships.

A special type of change is development. If change characterizes any phenomenon of reality and is universal, then development is associated with the renewal of an object, its transformation into something new, and development is not a reversible process. For example, the change "water - steam - water" is not considered development, just as it is not considered quantitative changes or the destruction of the object and the cessation of its existence.

Development always implies qualitative changes occurring in relatively large time intervals. Examples are the evolution of life on Earth, the historical development of mankind, scientific and technological progress, etc.

Society Development is a process of progressive change that occurs every this moment at every point of the human hostel . In sociology, to characterize the movement of society, the concepts “ social development' and 'social change'. The first of them characterizes a certain type of social change that is directed towards improvement, complication and perfection. But there are many other changes. For example, the emergence, formation, growth, decline, disappearance, transition period. These changes are neither positive nor negative. The concept of "social change" covers a wide range of social changes, regardless of their direction.

Thus, the concept "social change" denotes various changes occurring over time in social communities, groups, institutions, organizations, in their relationships with each other, as well as with individuals. Such changes can occur at the level of interpersonal relations (for example, changes in the structure and functions of the family), at the level of organizations and institutions (education, science are constantly subject to changes both in terms of their content and in terms of their organization), at the level of small and large social groups.

There are four type of social change :

1) structural changes regarding the structures of various
social formations (for example, families, any other community, society as a whole);

2) changes affecting social processes(relations of solidarity, tension, conflict, equality and subordination, etc.);

3) functional social changes concerning the functions of various social systems (in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1993, there were changes in the functions of the legislative and executive authorities);

4) motivational social changes (in Lately
for significant masses of the population, the motives of personal money earnings, profits come to the fore, which affects their behavior, thinking, consciousness).

All these changes are closely related. Changes in one kind inevitably entail changes in other kinds.

The study of development is dialectics . This concept originated in Ancient Greece, where the ability to argue, argue, convince, proving one's case was highly valued. Dialectics was understood as the art of dispute, dialogue, discussion, during which the participants put forward alternative points of view. In the course of the dispute, one-sidedness is overcome, and a correct understanding of the phenomena under discussion is developed. Wide famous expression“truth is born in a dispute” is quite applicable to the discussions of philosophers of antiquity.

Ancient dialectics represented the world as constantly moving, changing, and all phenomena as interconnected. But at the same time, they did not single out the category of development as the emergence of something new. IN ancient Greek philosophy the concept of the great cycle dominated, according to which everything in the world is subject to cyclic recurrent changes and, like the change of seasons, everything eventually returns “to normal”.

The concept of development as a process of qualitative changes appeared in medieval Christian philosophy. Augustine the Blessed compared history with human life passing through the stages of childhood, youth, maturity and old age. The beginning of history was compared with the birth of a person, and its end (the Last Judgment) - with death. This concept overcame the notion of cyclical changes, introduced the concept of progressive movement and the uniqueness of events.

In the era of bourgeois revolutions, the idea arose historical development , put forward by the famous French enlighteners Voltaire and Rousseau. It was developed by Kant, who raised the question of the development of morality and the social development of man.

The holistic concept of development was developed by Hegel. He found diverse changes in nature, but he saw true development in the history of society and, above all, in its spiritual culture. Hegel identified the main principles of dialectics : universal connection of phenomena, unity of opposites, development through negation.

Dialectical opposites are inextricably linked, inconceivable without each other. Thus, content is impossible without form, a part is impossible without a whole, a consequence is impossible without a cause, and so on. In a number of cases, opposites converge and even pass into each other, for example, illness and health, material and spiritual, quantity and quality. Thus, the law of the unity and struggle of opposites establishes that internal contradictions are the source of development.

Special attention dialectics pays the relationship of quantitative and qualitative changes. Any object has a quality that distinguishes it from other objects, and quantitative characteristics of its volume, weight, etc. Quantitative changes can accumulate gradually and not affect the quality of the item. But at a certain stage, change quantitative characteristics leads to a change in quality. Thus, an increase in pressure in a steam boiler can lead to an explosion, the constant implementation of reforms that are unpopular among the people causes discontent, the accumulation of knowledge in any field of science leads to new discoveries, etc.

The development of society is progressive, passing through certain stages. Each subsequent stage, as it were, denies the previous one. As development proceeds, a new quality appears, a new negation occurs, which in science is called negation of negation. However, negation cannot be considered the destruction of the old. Along with more complex phenomena, there are always simpler ones. On the other hand, the new, highly developed, emerging from the old, retains everything valuable that was in it.

Hegel's concept is based on reality, generalizes a huge historical material. However, Hegel put the spiritual processes of social life in the first place, believing that the history of peoples is the embodiment of the development of ideas.

Using Hegel's concept, Marx created the materialist dialectic, which is based on the idea of ​​development not from the spiritual, but from the material. Marx considered the improvement of the tools of labor (productive forces) to be the basis of development, which entails a change in social relations. Development was considered by Marx, and then by Lenin, as a single natural process, the course of which is carried out not in a straight line, but in a spiral. On a new turn, the passed steps are repeated, but at a higher quality level. Forward movement occurs spasmodically, sometimes catastrophically. The transition of quantity into quality, internal contradictions, clash various forces and trends give impetus to development.

However, the process of development cannot be understood as a rigorous movement from the lower to the higher. Different peoples on Earth differ in their development from each other. Some nations developed faster, some slower. In the development of some, gradual changes prevailed, while in the development of others they were of a spasmodic nature. Depending on this, allocate evolutionary And revolutionary development.

Evolution are gradual, slow quantitative changes that eventually lead to a transition to a qualitatively different state. The evolution of life on Earth is the most a prime example such changes. In the development of society, evolutionary changes manifested themselves in the improvement of tools, the emergence of new, more complex forms of interaction between people in different areas of their lives.

Revolution- these are extremely radical changes, involving a radical breakdown of pre-existing relations, which are universal in nature and based, in some cases, on violence. The revolution is in leaps and bounds.

Depending on the duration of the revolution, there are short-term And long-term. The former include social revolutions - radical qualitative changes in the entire social life, affecting the foundations of the social system. These were bourgeois revolutions in England (XVII century) and France (XVIII century), the socialist revolution in Russia (1917). Long-term revolutions are of global importance, affect the process of development different peoples. The first such revolution was neolithic revolution . It lasted for several thousand years and led to the transition of mankind from an appropriating economy to a producing economy, i.e. from hunting and gathering to cattle breeding and agriculture. The most important process, which took place in many countries of the world in the XVIII-XIX centuries, became industrial revolution , as a result of which there was a transition from manual labor to machine labor, mechanization of production was carried out, which made it possible to significantly increase the volume of output at lower labor costs.

In the description of the development process in relation to the economy, extensive and intensive development paths are often distinguished. extensive path associated with an increase in production by attracting new sources of raw materials, labor resources, increased exploitation of the labor force, and expansion of sown areas in agriculture. intensive way associated with the use of new production methods based on the achievements of scientific and technological progress. The extensive development path is not endless. At a certain stage, the limit of its capabilities comes, and development comes to a standstill. The intensive path of development, on the contrary, involves the search for a new one, which is actively used in practice, society is moving forward at a faster pace.

The development of society is a complex process that continues uninterruptedly throughout the history of human existence. It began from the moment of the separation of man from the animal world and is unlikely to end in the foreseeable future. The process of development of society can be interrupted only with the death of mankind. If the person himself does not create conditions for self-destruction in the form nuclear war or ecological disaster, the limits of human development can only be associated with the end of existence solar system. But it is likely that by that time science will have reached a new qualitative level and a person will be able to move to outer space. The possibility of settling other planets, star systems, galaxies can remove the question of the limit of the development of society.

Questions and tasks

1. What is meant by the category "change"? What types of changes can you name?

2. How is development different from other types of change?

3. What types of social change do you know?

4. What is dialectics? When and where did it originate?

5. How did ideas about the development of the history of philosophy change?

6. What are the laws of dialectics? Give examples that support them.

7. What is the difference between evolution and revolution? How did these processes manifest themselves in the life of individual peoples, of all mankind?

8. Give examples of extensive and intensive development paths. Why can't they exist one without the other?

9. Read the statement by N.A. Berdyaev:

“History cannot make sense if it never ends, if there is no end; the meaning of history is the movement towards the end, towards completion, towards the end. Religious consciousness sees in history a tragedy that has a beginning and will have an end. In a historical tragedy there are a number of acts, and in them the final catastrophe is brewing, an all-solving catastrophe ... ".

What does he see as the meaning of history? How are his ideas related to the problem of social development?

10. Conduct a discussion on the topic “Is there a limit to the development of mankind?”

The social objects and processes that make up society as a social system are constantly changing: improving or, conversely, degrading, giving rise to complex contradictions that stimulate the development of society as a whole and its relatively independent parts.

social change- this is the transition of society and its constituent structural elements from one state to another.

Separate, private changes in society gradually, due to the accumulation of differences and their subsequent integration, turn into global changes. They are reflected:

In the accumulation and transfer of experience of previous generations;

In the ways of producing goods and services necessary to maintain the life of members of society;

In the social class structure of society;

In the nature of the relationship between individuals and social groups.

At the heart of social changes are contradictions associated with the mismatch of interests and goals of individuals and different social groups. If the contradictions are not eliminated in a timely manner, social conflicts arise that lead to the destabilization of society as a whole. The resolution of contradictions occurs through certain changes in the structure and functions of social communities.

Often, difficulties arise in the relationship between the individual and society, associated with the inability of people brought up in other social relations to adapt to the conditions of life.

The problem of social choice manifests itself in relief in the crisis of social roles, i.e. stereotypes of behavior that correspond to the expectations of society in relation to the bearers of certain social functions.

social development- irreversible changes in society associated with a qualitatively new, higher state of its structure and functions. In other words, it is the progressive movement of society from lower forms to a more perfect state.

There are two ways of development of society: evolutionary and revolutionary.

social revolution unlike reform, it is a drastic change social system, an abrupt transition to new social relations. It is accompanied by an open clash of forces in power, but losing their privileged position, and social groups that are not satisfied with their secondary place in society.

As opposed to destructive social revolutions, an evolutionary (reformist) way of development of society is possible. He suggests:

Gradual implementation of changes under the control of the authorities;

Gradual improvement of the social system in the direction of increasing the stability and efficiency of functioning;

Striving to resolve sensitive issues democratically (at referendums or through nationwide discussions);

A legislative ban on calls for the violent overthrow of the existing system.

Reformist path of development society is the softest and most expedient way to eliminate social contradictions, aimed at creation, not destruction.

3.3 Social activities and social interaction

social activities- regularly repeated interference of individuals or groups of people (subjects of activity) in social processes (objects of activity) in order to change and subordinate them to their own interests. It is a form of active human interaction with social environment, consciously aimed at transforming the external conditions of its existence, as well as changing the views, worldview, value orientations of the surrounding people.

The subjects of social activity are the performers of specific actions. Among them may be: individuals; social groups; social organizations and social institutions.

The objects of social activity in this context are nothing but social processes at all structural levels of the functioning of society.

Social activity consists of specific social actions (actions, actions, steps), organized (intentionally) or spontaneously (spontaneously) carried out by people with the desire to cause certain social consequences (results). In other words, social actions can be carried out by individuals or groups of people intentionally, purposefully, or, conversely, spontaneously, under the influence of random circumstances.

Action must be distinguished from behavior. Behavior is a set of actions performed by an individual. Determining, say, the behavior of a student, the teacher gives a generalized assessment of the actions (deeds) committed by him. In other words, actions characterize the behavior of an individual.

social interaction, or interaction, involves the regular influence of individuals on each other, as a result of which new social ties are renewed and created within the community or between its elements. At least two subjects, which are called interactants, participate in social interaction. Their interactive actions must certainly be directed at each other.

Variety of forms social interaction is largely determined by the variety of social ties between the subjects of interaction.

Social connections- these are the interdependencies of individuals from each other, which have developed in the process of joint activity. Social connections can manifest themselves as social contacts (short-term, shallow connection) or as social relations (a complex system of social interaction, when the behavior of some causes the activities of others).

social relations- these are stable, mediated forms of social interaction that develop within the framework of the activities of social communities and social institutions.

Social relations differ in their composition and nature of connections:

Between individuals, for example, love, enmity, exchange of goods or services, joint labor activity;

Between groups (classes, ethnic groups, social institutions and other communities) about the same or opposing interests, often associated with the distribution of the results of social labor. Social relations differ from simple interaction in that they are perceived by individuals as long-term, repetitive, and, therefore, stable.

In society, most often, such a term as social development is used. It denotes any improvements that bring positive results. However, there are also social changes that have a generally neutral effect. They do not contain evaluation component. That is, social development is certain processes that have a positive result. Changes are quite neutral. They just happen because of something. historical processes.

Social change can be divided into several levels. Let's consider them all. Short-term changes occur in a short time frame. For example, it may be the organizational restructuring of the authorities. Long-term changes take a long time to implement. For example, it can be a restructuring of the mores, norms or traditions of people.

There are also partial social changes. Them distinctive feature is that they affect only certain segments of reality. For example, it can be a restructuring of the industry or the system higher education. There are also changes regarding most

The changes under consideration affect, first of all, various, in particular, groups and communities, certain processes, organizations. Social change can occur at the level of interpersonal relationships. For example, the functions and structure of the family are changing. Restructuring can also take place at the level of various institutions and organizations. For example, social change may affect education and science. Restructuring is taking place at the level of small and large groups. In particular, the structure of the working class is being modified, new ones appear. Restructuring can take place at the global level. For example, this can include environmental threats, migration processes.

Social change can be divided into four categories. They are determined on the basis of which particular area is undergoing restructuring. Let's look at all four categories.

There are structural social changes. For example, they may relate to the family institution. Interpersonal relationships can change in the direction of monogamy or polygamy, large families or small families. Perestroika can also concern professional groups, the nation, the structure of power and management, and society as a whole. These include changes affecting science, the education system, and religion.

Restructuring can also occur in any That is, relating to the relationship between different societies, individuals, institutions and structures. For example, in the field of equality, solidarity, subordination, tolerance and so on.

Functional changes affect functions various organizations, systems and institutions. In this way, new functions may arise, or old ones may be improved. Let's consider a simple example. In connection with the new Constitution of the Russian Federation, the functions of the legislative and executive authorities have changed significantly.

Perestroika also affects the spiritual spheres. In particular, the structure of motivation for collective and individual activities may change. Perestroika affects the values, norms, goals, ideals of people. For example, during the transition to a market economy, the motivational structure of society has changed significantly. The signal for activity is personal money earnings, enrichment, climbing the career ladder. Such changes affect the thoughts, values, worldviews and norms of large social groups.

Before considering the mechanism of changing social relations, it is necessary to briefly touch upon the question of the structure of social relations - cells public relations. At a minimum, it consists of two subjects, potential or real interaction between them, as well as an object to which their interests are directed (Fig. 8). If we reveal the content of the interaction between the subjects, then it will be reduced to the statuses (positions) of the subjects relative to each other and/or the actions of one or both of them, aimed at satisfying the interest. Action (behavior) is divided into elements of an objective (external, physical) and subjective (internal, psychological) character.

Rice. 8.

Take, for example, labor relations in a market economy. The subjects are an employee and an entrepreneur. The interaction between them is the rights and obligations of each relating to the labor process, wages, social guarantees, etc. The object of interest is labor and its equivalent (wage). All these elements are very significant for these two individuals, and also greater value they acquire on a social scale, when it is not about two subjects, but about an "army of hired workers" and an "army of entrepreneurs."

Here it is time to turn to Marx's Capital, but we will confine ourselves to the more modest task of analyzing the mechanisms of the emerging conflict.

In what part of this structure can its deformation begin? For what reason? These questions cannot be answered unambiguously. In essence, a change in the relationship between two subjects can begin with any element: goals, motives for behavior, external actions, interests, as well as with attendant circumstances (such as, for example, the environment for the interaction of subjects, the actions of third forces). It is all the more difficult to determine in theoretical reasoning the initial moment of deformation of social relations as a mass, social phenomenon, especially when you consider that in different areas of life, these changes can have different causes.

So, labor relations can be violated due to failure by one of the subjects of their duties. A common cause of labor conflicts in our time are factors external to production: rising prices, poor living conditions, national tension, etc. All of them can cause changes in requirements for employers, lead to strikes and other actions. Instead of the harmonious labor relations of the past, although they concealed deep social disadvantage, we are now dealing with direct conflicts at work, fraught with further economic collapse.

And yet, the following can be said about the mechanism of deformation of social relations in general. Firstly, social relations are more stable than social values, and in order to change them, much more weighty ones are needed. objective reasons. This explains the relative stability of social (class, national, group, etc.) ties in society compared, for example, with social preferences, moods, fashion, etc.

Secondly, changes in social relations, as we shall see later, most often follow changes in other elements. public life. Strikes, interethnic conflicts, armed clashes do not start, but complete the process of social tension in the city, region, region. And the very intensity of changes in social relations reflects the nature and depth of deformations in the elements discussed above: value orientations, institutions, norms. It can apparently be said that public relations are deformed the stronger, the more seriously distorted value orientations in certain segments of the population, the less effective social norms and institutions operating in the sphere of human relations.

Analysis of changes in social relations in last years made by sociologists repeatedly. The most obvious changes are in interethnic relations. It is known that during periods of crisis, some interethnic processes take on a social connotation. This is what began to characterize the state of affairs in a number of regions of the country. The "parade of sovereignties" led to the opposition of the local and central leadership, people of different nationalities and religions, to the incitement of ethnic discord and conflicts. Needless to say, the thesis about "friendship of the peoples of the USSR" turned out to be untenable; the principles of internationalism were replaced by clear manifestations of nationalism and great-power chauvinism.

At the same time, socio-psychological studies have shown that many negative processes and manifestations in the sphere of interethnic relations pretty superficial. As a result of the elections in The Supreme Council of the RSFSR in February 1990 and the People's Deputies of the USSR in 1989, supporters of the "national-patriotic bloc" gained an average of 2-4% of the votes. "Sovereign" types of mass consciousness, according to experts, have an impact on approximately 20% of the population of Russia. According to the same data, about 14% of respondents expressed a positive attitude towards the “Memory” society. When it comes to everyday, everyday connections and relationships of people at the interpersonal level, nationalistic manifestations recede into the background, traditional feelings of neighborhood, fellowship, friendship, acquaintance, camaraderie take over. This suggests that internationalism, as a feature of the psychology of the bulk of the population, has not been lost, but only clogged, deformed.

If we return to the list of types of social relations given in the previous paragraph, then in general we can say that during deformations there is a transition from relations of cooperation to conflicts, confrontation, struggle. Ultimately, there is a rupture of social relations, their atomization. And the collapse of social ties is already sure sign deep crisis in society.

• See: Deepening social disintegration in 1990 ... S. 33 et seq.