Actions performed in the internal plane of consciousness are called. Mental actions. What will we do with the received material?

MENTAL ACTIONS

MENTAL ACTIONS

all kinds of actions (from mathematical calculations or finding the shortest route around the city to choosing the most appropriate behavior for the circumstances), when these actions are performed in the mind, without relying on external means or audible. U. d. can be visual and conceptual, emotional and cognitive, etc., they are distinguished. is that and only that they are performed internally. consciousness. The second obligatory (but no longer distinctive) feature of U.D. is that it distinguishes what is located or occurs in the internal. field of consciousness, from everything that exists outside consciousness.

The process of formation of U.D. can be schematically represented in the form of five main ones. stages. The first is the “indicative basis of action,” which includes an object or situation (task) and a plan for a possible action (solving the problem). In the future, this complex, together with ideal actions for its application, becomes an “indicative part” of a new action, psychological. mechanism for controlling it. The second stage is the formation of the action itself, which first (precisely because it is new) begins with an external material form; its variety is materialized - with models, drawings or letters. signs. After sufficient mastery, this form of action is transferred to the mind. plan, but not directly (this is impossible), but through another, speech form of action. In turn, speech action presupposes the identification of beings. link - a diagram of the objective situation and the action itself. Only this scheme can be unambiguously expressed in speech and then transferred - together with the problem situation (task) and action - into an independent speech plan (the third stage of the process), built according to the norms of societies. consciousness and impossible in its absence (in animals, in humans under pathological conditions). The speech plane is also at first external; it becomes internal only as a result of the transformation of loud speech addressed to another person. Thus, between the plane of material (materialized) action and mentality. The plan consists of a plan of perception reflecting “manual practice” with its more or less clear schematization and a plan of speech as societies. consciousness.

At the beginning of the transfer into the mind. the plan in it completely reproduces the previous loud-speech form of action. Whatever it may seem to the subject, in fact, this first form of the actual action is therefore nothing more than “external speech to oneself” (the fourth stage of the process). But then the mastery of action in the mind. plan leads to a reduction in its burdensome and by this time already stereotypical speech side. In the end, from a speech action “in consciousness” only its speech meanings are preserved, but without their former articulateness, which they owe precisely to their speech basis. From "external speech to oneself" the action passes into the actual " inner speech", which constitutes the last, fifth stage of the formation of action. Then it begins to appear in self-observation as an indefinite process, flowing automatically, aimed at a task, accompanied by feelings of confidence, doubt, error, etc. ("coordination -discrepancy" of the actual performance with the model), but in the process itself is not associated with any sensory images. All this coincides with the psychological characteristic as it was previously described, and allows us to conclude that as a result of these transformations the objective action receives form of thought, becomes a thought about this objective action. Objectively, it becomes a thought already at the level of loud speech, when it takes the form of a judgment. But then the speech shell still appears so external that it acts only as a message about the action. When the speech itself is translated into the position of that , that only “means”, then the objective action is already subjectively represented by “pure thought.” Now, controlling the formation of U.D., he knows that this is only “”, and knows what earthly thing is hidden behind its scenes.

Thus, the stage-by-stage formation of mental behavior reveals the emergence of a specific mental. process. This mechanism becomes a detailed explanation scheme for many psychological phenomena. Action is always aimed at defining. properties of objects, and each time it is used, the presence or absence of these properties is established in a permanent manner. The external stereotype of these properties as “irritants” leads to the formation of dynamic. stereotype, which, when it subsequently encounters a characteristic combination of its stimuli, immediately gives a picture of the object with all these properties. This is how new images arise, sensual and abstract.

For certain actions he will perform them. part remains in the external field: in physical. actions - in the field of things, for perceptual ones - in the field of perception. The approximate part of these actions can either go through the usual evolution of the visual action or, bypassing speech, remain an ideal “movement of attention” in the field of perception.

We can say that already in the present day. different types of cognizance. activities are obtained from different tasks and conditions for the formation of ideal ones, in particular U. d. In the same way one can approach other forms of mental. activities, as well as to the analysis of abilities and character traits. In this sense, the formation of mental dynamics acts not only as one of the psychological objects. research, but also as a study of other psychological processes.

The stages that go through during the formation of actions and concepts do not disappear, but become the hidden basis of each new form. Sequential layering occurs. forms of action and, thus, behind each “phenomenon” there appears ““, which does not pre-exist, but is formed and, having formed, acts as a specific one. mechanism of "phenomenon". In this process, the “phenomenon” receives an explanation and function. justification, because it turns out that it forms the most perfect and economical form of psychological. behavior management. Thus, the doctrine of the formation of mental health allows one to overcome the mental. phenomena as devoid of property. the essence of epiphenomena, the true mechanisms of which had to be sought outside of psychology, in generating physiological. processes or in logical-mathematical relations of reflected things.

P. Galperin. Moscow.

The fundamental process of the formation of mental behavior was emphasized by L. S. Vygotsky in his doctrine of higher specifically social mental processes. functions. Vygotsky pointed out that the latter are formed through the “ingrowth” of speech forms of people’s communication into their internal. the plan of individual consciousness and their transformation through an intermediate form of “communication with oneself” into the actual human forms of the psyche. activities. According to Vygotsky, in higher mental In its functions, speech serves as the same tool as material tools in the labor process. In the 30s in the works of A. N. Leontiev, A. V. Zaporozhets and L. I. Bozhovich, these views were further developed: activities were brought to the fore, which made it possible to deepen the understanding of the mechanism of U.D. Big influence The concept of U.D. was influenced by the position put forward by I.P. Pavlov about the psyche as an orientation in relation to the performer. forms of behavior. In the works of Zaporozhets, D.B. Elkonin and P.Ya. Galperin, it was expanded - it began to be revealed as a functional. characteristics of the psyche. On this basis, the U.D. was built, first set forth by Galperin (Izv. APN RSFSR, 1953, vol. 45). Within the framework of this theory, the stage-by-stage formation of U.D. is considered as the main thing. formation and development of thinking.

Lit.: Galperin P. Ya., Development of research on the formation of U.D., in the book: Psychological. in the USSR, vol. 1, M., 1959; him, Psychology of thinking and the doctrine of the phased formation of mental dynamics, in the book: Studies of thinking in the Soviet Union. psychology, M., 1966; Zaporozhets A.V., Development of voluntary movements, M., 1960, ch. 4; Vygotsky L.S., Development of higher mental. functions, M., 1960; Leontyev A. N., Problems of mental development, M., 1965, p. 497–525.

N. Alekseev. Moscow.

Philosophical Encyclopedia. In 5 volumes - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Edited by F. V. Konstantinov. 1960-1970 .

See what “MENTAL ACTIONS” are in other dictionaries:

mental actions Great psychological encyclopedia

Mental Actions- human actions (from mathematical transformations to assessing the behavior of another person), performed in the internal plane of consciousness, without relying on external means, including audible speech. This is what distinguishes U. d. from other human species... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy

A system of human intellectual operations aimed at identifying features of objects that are not given in the perceptual plane. Based on the use of certain cognitive tools developed in the course of social development... Psychological Dictionary

Activity approach in psychology (S.L. Rubinshtein, A.N. Leontyev).

It was formed in Russian psychology in the 20th century. In 1930, two interpretations of the activity approach in psychology were proposed:

- the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity, formulated by S. L. Rubinstein

- the principle of the common structure of external and internal activities, formulated by A. N. Leontyev.

This theory serves as a methodological basis for the study of the psyche in national science. That is, it is defined as a system of methodological and theoretical principles for the study of mental phenomena.

The main subject of research in activity theory is activity. Mediating all mental processes. Everything develops and happens through activity.

Rubinstein and Leontiev developed the theory in parallel, independently of each other. Their works have a lot in common, since both were based on Vygotsky’s theory and the philosophical foundations of K. Marx. The basic thesis of the theory is “It is not consciousness that determines activity, but activity that determines consciousness.”

According to Rubinstein, activity is a set of actions aimed at achieving goals.

The psyche and consciousness are formed in activity, and manifest themselves in activity. Both activity and consciousness are considered not as two forms of manifestation of something single, but as two instances forming an indissoluble unity.

Activity and consciousness, considered as identical, are defined: activity not as a set of reflex reactions, but as actions regulated by consciousness (in animals they are reflexive, but in people they are not).

Consciousness is considered as a reality that is not given to the subject directly for his introspection. Consciousness can be known only through a system of subjective relations. Including through activities in which the subject develops.

Leontiev clarifies Rubinstein's position, noting that consciousness does not simply manifest itself as a separate reaction.

Consciousness is embedded and inextricably linked with activity.

In Leontiev’s theory of activity, activity also acts as the subject of analysis. Since the psyche itself cannot be separated from the moments of activity that generate and mediate it. The psyche itself is a form of objective activity.

When deciding the question of the relationship between external practical activity and consciousness, the position is accepted that the internal plane of consciousness is formed in the process of collapsing initially practical actions. With this interpretation, consciousness and activity differ, as do the image and the process of its formation. In this case, the image is “accumulated movement”, collapsed actions. These methodological guidelines were formulated by Leontiev in the late 1920s, when he worked with Vygotsky.

General structure of human activity.

Activity as a concept is fundamental, the development of this concept is associated with the names of Vygotsky, Rubinstein, Leontiev, Luria, Galperin.

Leontiev defines activity as a unit of life (when you are in activity, you live).

Shadrikov V.D. - activity is a form of the subject’s active relationship to reality - aimed at achieving a consciously set goal and is associated with the consciousness of socially significant values ​​or the development of social experience.

Every activity is an interaction with the outside world, during which relationships with the outside world are built.

In psychology, activity is considered in two functions:

As a subject of research;

As an explanatory principle.

Activity has motivating reasons and is aimed at achieving a result, that is, it has a goal. On the one hand, activity is a condition for the development of personality, on the other hand, activity depends on the level of personality development.

Activity is a holistic process that combines external and internal components in an inextricable unity. External movements include a variety of movements that are associated with the performance of an action where real contact person with the environment, the environment is transformed - physical objective characteristics.

To the internal – the activity of memory, thinking, psychological processes and states included in the regulation of activity. Performing the functions of motivation, planning, decision-making, control and evaluation. That is, these are psychological subjective components.

The ratio of external and internal components is not constant. As development progresses, the transition of external components to internal ones (interiorization, automation).

If difficulties arise when performing an activity, conscious control is activated (the automated component unfolds and becomes external, controlled), that is, exteriorization occurs.

Modern science cannot yet explain the psychological nature of the connection between internal and external components of activity.

Thus, it can be stated that activity is the external and internal activity of a person, regulated by a conscious goal.

The question of the relationship between “behavior” and “activity” is difficult. Some authors use them interchangeably.

Others, as opposite in meaning, explain the active nature of the activity, and the reactive nature of behavior (reaction to action).

Behavior is an external manifestation of mental action (internal). The higher the development of a living being, the more stereotypical behavior is replaced by acquired behavior.

The unit of behavior is an act that expresses the position of the individual (morality, values, attitudes), and the personality is formed in actions.

An act is an action that a person performs realizing its meaning for other people, that is, realizing the social meaning. Without social meaning, it is just an action.

Activities and behavior characterize a person:

Proper generally accepted behavior established by society (social, normative)

Antisocial behavior is divided into:

1. Deviant – ignoring essential social norms and social expectations, is expressed in the forms of lying, rudeness, fighting, smoking, running away from home, etc.
2. Delinquent behavior is consciously carried out behavior, the purpose of which is to replace or destroy the norms accepted by a given society (social institutions).

The criterion for deviant is a (negative) act, and for delinquent is a crime (destruction of norms).

Meaning of activity:

1. activity acts as a tool to satisfy human life needs
2. activity transformation the world(creation of material and cultural benefits)
3. activity contributes to the subjective recreation of the surrounding reality, the construction of a subjective model (worldview)
4. activity as a tool for human development
5. activity is an important condition for the existence of a person as a full-fledged subject, as an individual
6. creative activity acts as a means of self-realization

Subject matter of the activity.

Activity characteristics:

Objectivity is the main characteristic of an activity, a fixed, socially developed way of acting with an object, and this method is reproduced every time an objective activity is carried out.

Activity is located inside the person himself, these are his needs and motives. Thanks to them, a person comes into contact with the outside world.

Sociality - a person cannot learn a form of activity with objects (1) without the help of other people who demonstrate patterns of activity, include a person in joint activities, during which the formation of mental formations occurs (ZUNs, abilities, attitudes, etc.)

Mediocrity – material objects, signs, symbols, and speech act as means of activity.

Purposefulness is a consciously presented planned result.

Productivity is a result that leads to transformation in the outside world, or to transformation in the person himself.

The problem of motivation to activity, its internal regulation.

The difference between activity and animal activity:

1. Human activity is active, productive, creative. Animal activity has a consumer basis and does not create or produce anything.
2. Human activity is connected with objects of material and spiritual culture, which are used as a tool and means of one’s own development or satisfaction of needs. Animals manage without tools as such.
3. Human activity transforms him and his living conditions. Human activity does not change anything.
4. The objective activity of people is not given from birth, but is given by culture. It must be developed in the process of training and education. Animal activity is determined by genotype (from birth)

Functions of motive: motivation and meaning formation.

The activity has the main characteristics:

• MOTIVE is what motivates, for the sake of which activity is carried out. The motive is a specific goal that is satisfied through this activity. Motives may be:

Organic: aimed at satisfying natural needs, at creating conditions conducive to this satisfaction, the product can be clothing, food, housing. Food, sleep, safety.

Functional: satisfied through various cultural forms of activity - games, sports.

Material: aimed at creating household items, various things, tools, serving natural needs.

Social: the need to take one’s place in society, to gain recognition and respect from others.

Spiritual: various types of activities related to human self-improvement.

• The GOAL of the activity is a product, it can be a real physical object, certain ZUNs in the course of the activity acquire a creative result (thought, idea, theory, work of art). The purpose of an activity is not the same as a motive. Different activities with the same goal may be motivated by different motives. A number of activities with different goals may be based on the same motives.
• The SUBJECT of an activity is what it directly deals with. IN cognitive activity– this can be information, in educational – ZUNY, in labor – a material or intellectual product. The subject of communication will be interaction.
• TOOLS – a tool that is used to perform an action or operation. The development of means of activity leads to its improvement. Due to this, the activity becomes productive and of high quality.

Activities ® actions ® operations ® pure physiology

• STRUCTURE – actions and operations as the main components of activity.

Actions are part of an activity that has independent conscious activity. A situation is possible when an action previously included in an activity can stand out from it and acquire an independent status, and can turn into an activity with its own motive. That is, the birth is celebrated new activity(an artist as a hobby, sold it, decided to become an artist as a profession, thus the leisure activity turned into a separate one).

In this case, Leontyev A.N. speaks of a shift in motive to the goal.

Operations are a way of carrying out an action. How many in various ways performing an activity, so many different operations can be distinguished. The nature of the operations depends on skills and abilities, on the available means of implementation. Preferred operations characterize the individuality of their activities. The goals of the operations are not understood. Operations can also be external and internal (external - to move something - visible to the eye, internal - analysis, synthesis, generalization).

(diagram in the paragraph about the general structure)

Action concept.

Action, which is the basic unit of activity analysis. Action is a process aimed at realizing a goal, which, in turn, can be defined as an image of the desired result. The goal in this case is a conscious image. While performing a certain activity, a person constantly keeps this image in his mind. Thus, action is a conscious manifestation of human activity. Exceptions are cases when a person, due to certain reasons or circumstances, has impaired adequacy of mental regulation of behavior, for example, during illness or in a state of passion.

The main characteristics of the concept of “action” are four components. First, action includes as a necessary component an act of consciousness in the form of setting and maintaining a goal. Secondly, action is at the same time an act of behavior. In this case, you should pay attention to the fact that action is a movement interconnected with consciousness. In turn, from the above one can draw one of the fundamental conclusions of activity theory. This conclusion consists of a statement about the inseparability of consciousness and behavior.

Thirdly, the psychological theory of activity introduces the principle of activity through the concept of action, contrasting it with the principle of reactivity. What is the difference between the concepts of “activity” and “reactivity”? The concept of “reactivity” implies a response or reaction to the influence of any stimulus. The stimulus-response formula is one of the main tenets of behaviorism. From this point of view, the stimulus influencing a person is active. Activity from the point of view of activity theory is a property of the subject itself, that is, it characterizes a person. The source of activity is located in the subject himself in the form of a goal towards which the action is aimed.

Fourthly, the concept of “action” brings human activity into the objective and social world. The fact is that the goal of an action can have not only a biological meaning, such as obtaining food, but can also be aimed at establishing social contact or creating an object not related to biological needs.

Based on the characteristics of the concept of “action” as the main element of activity analysis, the fundamental principles of the psychological theory of activity are formulated:

1. Consciousness cannot be considered as closed in itself: it must manifest itself in activity (the principle of “blurring” the circle of consciousness).

2. Behavior cannot be considered in isolation from human consciousness (the principle of the unity of consciousness and behavior).

3. Activity is an active, purposeful process (the principle of activity).

4. Human actions are objective; their targets are social character(the principle of objective human activity and the principle of its social conditionality).

The action itself cannot be considered as the element of the initial level from which the activity is formed. Action is a complex element, which often itself consists of many smaller ones. This situation is explained by the fact that every action is determined by a goal. Human goals are not only varied, but also of different scales. There are large goals that are divided into smaller private goals, and those, in turn, can be divided into even smaller private goals, etc. For example, you want to plant an apple tree. To do this you need:

1) choose the right place for landing; 2) dig a hole; 3) take a seedling and sprinkle it with soil. Thus, your goal is divided into three subgoals. However, if you look at individual goals, you will notice that they also consist of even smaller goals. For example, in order to dig a hole, you must take a shovel, press it into the ground, take it out and throw away the earth, etc. Consequently, your action aimed at planting an apple tree consists of smaller elements - private actions.

A goal is an idea of ​​a result that must be achieved.

See the point about motives

Action and operations.

Now it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that each action can be performed in different ways, that is, using different methods. The way an action is performed is called an operation. In turn, the method of performing an action depends on the conditions. IN different conditions Different operations can be used to achieve the same goal. In this case, conditions mean both external circumstances and the capabilities of the acting subject himself. Therefore, a goal given under certain conditions is called a task in activity theory. Depending on the task, an operation can consist of a variety of actions, which can be divided into even smaller (private) actions. Thus, operations are larger units of activity than actions.

The main property of operations is that they are little or not realized at all. In this way, operations differ from actions, which presuppose both a conscious goal and conscious control over the course of the action. Essentially, the operations level is the level of automatic actions and skills. Skills are understood as automated components of conscious activity that are developed in the process of its implementation. Unlike those movements that are automatic from the very beginning, such as reflex movements, skills become automatic as a result of more or less prolonged practice. Therefore, operations are of two types: operations of the first type include those that arose through adaptation and adaptation to living conditions and activities, and operations of the second type include conscious actions, which, thanks to automation, have become skills and moved to the area of ​​unconscious processes. At the same time, the former are practically not realized, while the latter are on the verge of consciousness.

Based on the above, we can conclude that it is difficult to distinguish a clear line between operations and actions. For example, when baking pancakes, you don't think twice about turning the pancake from one side to the other - this is an operation. But if, when performing this activity, you begin to control yourself and think about how to do it better, then you are faced with the need to perform a number of actions. In this case, turning the pancake turns into the goal of a whole series of actions, which in itself cannot be considered as an operation. Consequently, one of the most informative signs distinguishing actions and operations is the relationship between the degree of awareness of the activity being performed. In some cases, this indicator does not work, so you have to look for another objective behavioral or physiological sign.

The relationship between actions and activities.

(See the structure of activity in the paragraph of the function of motive: motivation and meaning formation)

Types and properties of operations. The principle of unity of consciousness (psyche) and activity.

(See above)

The problem of the relationship between “external” and “internal” activities.

Practical activity is visible to outside observers, but there is another type of activity - internal activities. What are the functions of internal activities? First of all, that internal actions prepare external actions. They help save human effort by making it possible to quickly select the desired action. In addition, they enable a person to avoid mistakes.

Internal activity is characterized by two main features. Firstly, internal activity has fundamentally the same structure as external activity, which differs from it only in the form of its occurrence. This means that internal activity, like external activity, is motivated by motives, accompanied by emotional experiences, and has its own operational and technical composition. The difference between internal activity and external activity is that actions are performed not with real objects, but with their images, and instead of a real product, a mental result is obtained.

Secondly, internal activity arose from external, practical activity through the process of interiorization, that is, by transferring the corresponding actions to the internal plane. To successfully mentally reproduce an action, you must first master it in practice and get a real result.

It should be noted that through the concept of internal activity, the authors of the theory of activity approached the problem of consciousness and the analysis of mental processes. According to the authors of the theory of activity, mental processes can be analyzed from the perspective of activity, since any mental process is carried out for a specific purpose, has its own tasks and operational and technical structure. For example, the perception of taste by a taster has its own perceptual goals and tasks associated with finding differences and assessing conformity taste qualities. Another example of a perceptual task is detection. We constantly encounter this problem in everyday life, solving visual problems, recognizing faces, voices, etc. To solve all these problems, perceptual actions are performed, which can be characterized respectively as actions of discrimination, detection, measurement, identification, etc. Moreover, As it turned out, ideas about the structure of activity are also applicable to the analysis of all other mental processes. Therefore, it is no coincidence that Soviet psychology spent several decades developing an activity approach to psychology.

Problems of interiorization and exteriorization.

In human activity, its external (physical) and internal (mental) sides are inextricably linked. The external side - the movements with which a person influences the external world - is determined and regulated by internal (mental) activity: motivational, cognitive and regulatory. On the other hand, all this internal, mental activity is directed and controlled by external activity, which reveals the properties of things and processes, carries out their purposeful transformations, reveals the degree of adequacy of mental models, as well as the degree of coincidence of the results and actions obtained with the expected ones.

The processes that ensure the relationship between the internal and external aspects of activity are called interiorization and exteriorization.

Interiorization (from Latin interior - internal) - transition from outside to inside; a psychological concept that means the formation of mental actions and the internal plane of consciousness through the individual’s assimilation of external actions with objects and social forms communication. Interiorization does not consist of simple movement external activities into the inner plane of consciousness, but in the formation of this consciousness itself.

Thanks to interiorization, the human psyche acquires the ability to operate with images of objects that this moment are absent from his field of vision. A person goes beyond the boundaries of a given moment, freely “in his mind” moves into the past and into the future, in time and in space.

Animals do not possess such an ability; they cannot arbitrarily go beyond the boundaries of the current situation. An important tool of internalization is the word, and a means of arbitrary transition from one situation to another is the speech act. The word highlights and consolidates the essential properties of things and ways of handling information developed by the practice of mankind. Human action ceases to be dependent on the externally given situation, which determines the entire behavior of the animal.

From this it is clear that mastering the correct use of words is simultaneously the assimilation of the essential properties of things and ways of handling information. Through words, a person assimilates the experience of all humanity, that is, tens and hundreds of previous generations, as well as people and groups hundreds and thousands of kilometers distant from him.

Exteriorization (from the Latin exterior - external) is the opposite process of interiorization, it is a transition from the inside to the outside. A psychological concept meaning the transition of actions from an internal and collapsed form to the form of an expanded action. Examples of exteriorization: objectifying our ideas, creating an object according to a pre-developed plan.

Psyche as an indicative activity (an indicative “part” of activity) of a subject (P.Ya. Galperin).

He noted the lack of development of the procedural, operational content of activity in activity theory. He made this the subject of his research and studied the development of internal, mental activity. He believed that of the three components of action - orientation, execution and control - main role orientation plays. It is the correct orientation that allows you to perform a new action correctly the first time. Halperin's theory is called the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions.

Psyche is the orienting activity of a subject in problem situations based on an image. The subject of psychology is the orienting activity of the subject. The most adequate method for studying the psyche as an orienting activity is a formative experiment.

P.Ya. Galperin considered the indicative basis of activity (OOA) in connection with mental and educational activity. Galperin highlighted Various types orientations, depending on which the effectiveness and quality of the knowledge and skills acquired by the subject changes. Types:

I. Orientation to signs. Learning is slow, through trial and error, and produces poor results.

II. Focus on attributes and relationships. Features and relationships are selected empirically and are sufficient only to complete this task. The learning process is faster, but the results are limited.

III. Focus on essential properties and relationships. They are specifically identified by analyzing the internal structure of an object and its position among other objects of the same kind. The acquired knowledge and skills are easily transferred to new, changed conditions.

P.Ya. Galperin notes that the system of reference points can be complete or incomplete. Only the construction of a complete system of reference points can ensure the operation of high-quality feedback. Forming new actions on an incomplete indicative basis is an ineffective way, since it requires a lot of time, but the quality of the actions themselves leaves much to be desired.

First of all, he considers orienting activity in connection with mental reflection. Main tasks of orientation activities:

• Clarification of the existence of a problem situation;
• Identification of an item of urgent need;
• Choosing a path or method of action;
• Regulations for its execution.
• Orientation always precedes execution

P.Ya. Halperin considers orienting activity in its own psychological understanding. He makes three important points:

1. P.Ya. Halperin shares two similar concepts - the orienting reflex and orienting activity. He notes that the orientation reflex is a system of physiological components of orientation: turning to a new stimulus and tuning the senses to better perceive it. Orienting reflex - pure physiological process. The orienting reflex can be called a behavioral manifestation of orienting activity, which no longer relates to physiological processes.

Orientation is not only a study, but more often an examination.

2. Orienting activity cannot be limited to intellectual functions alone. From the psychological side, needs, will, emotions represent different forms of orienting activity.

3. Based on the fact that all forms of mental life can represent different forms of orienting activity, P.Ya. Halperin says that in this case, psychology studies precisely this side of all mental processes.

Halperin identified and described the main evolutionary levels of action:

1) Level of physical action (inorganic forms of matter)

2) Level of physiological action (organisms whose actions are regulated by physiological mechanisms)

3) Level of action of the subject (animals whose actions are regulated in terms of image)

4) Level of personal action (person, actions are regulated by both individual and social experience)

Another important concept in the theory of Peter Yakovlevich is Mental Actions. UD are various human actions performed in the internal plane of consciousness without relying on any external means (including external speech), which distinguishes UD from other types of human actions (physical, perceptual, speech). UD can be aimed at solving cognitive and practical problems.

1. Extended speech to oneself

2. Action according to the formula (the highest form of internal speech action)

3. Inner speech (abbreviated speech formula)

UD characteristics:

• Generalization measure. Identification of essential properties necessary to perform a given action
• Completeness of actual execution of operations
• Measure of action mastery

Galperin developed a theory of the gradual formation of mental actions - a doctrine of the processes and conditions that determine the formation of mental actions, and on their basis - ideas and concepts about their objects. Basic provisions of the theory:

• Performing a new action initially requires active orientation of the subject in the conditions of the action.
• Among the conditions of action, a special role is played by the means of action, which in humans are distinguished as unique instruments of mental activity (signs, standards, measures).
• The formation of actions (thinking, perception, etc.) occurs through the transition of external objective actions to the mental plane (i.e., through interiorization).

1) Creating landmarks

2) Material form – very detailed. It gets used to it and then shrinks.

3) Reliance on loud speech

4) External speech to oneself → action according to the formula

5) Inner speech

Types of human activity.

People's activities are diverse. Can be boiled down to three main activities.

1. A game is a special type of activity associated with the imitation of a person’s social-role functions, the result of which is not the production of any material or ideal product. Most often, games are of an entertainment nature and serve the purpose of relaxation.

There are several types of games: individual and group, subject and plot, role-playing and games with rules.

Individual games represent a type of activity when one person is engaged in the game, group - include several individuals.

Subject games associated with inclusion in play activity person of any objects.

Story games unfold according to a certain scenario, reproducing it in basic details.

Role-playing games allow human behavior limited to a certain role that he takes on in the game.

Finally, games with rules are regulated by a certain system of rules of conduct for their participants.

There are also mixed types of games: subject-role-playing, plot-role-playing, plot-based games with rules, etc. The relationships that develop between people in a game, as a rule, are artificial in the sense of the word that they are not taken seriously by those around them and are not the basis for drawing conclusions about a person.

Gaming behavior and gaming relationships have little effect on real relationships between people, at least among adults. However, games are of great importance in people's lives. For children, games have primarily educational value. For adults, play is not the leading activity, but serves as a means of communication and relaxation.

Children's play serves as one of the most important means of physical, mental, moral education. It involves children reproducing the actions of adults and the relationships between them. Aimed at understanding the surrounding reality.

There is also a business one - it is used in vocational training, it is reconstructed by simulating models of subject, social and ________ content in professional activity specialist A holistic context for performing an activity is set.

1. Educational is the process of acquiring, consolidating knowledge and methods of activity of an individual. Mastering objective, cognitive actions. Necessary for education and subsequent work. It is a necessary component of any activity (teaching), and represents a process of changing the subject. Teaching acts as a type of activity, the purpose of which is to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities by a person. Teaching can be organized and carried out in special educational institutions. It may not be organized and occur along the way, in other activities as a by-product, additional result. In adults, learning can take on the character of self-education. The peculiarities of educational activity are that it directly serves as a means psychological development individual.
2. Labor is a purposeful activity, the process of actively changing objects of nature, material and spiritual life, in order to satisfy human needs and create values.

Leisure is one of the types of activities aimed at satisfying the needs for relaxation, entertainment, knowledge and creativity. The inclusion of a person in activity is a necessary condition for development.

There is a concept of leading activity - this is the type of activity in which qualitative changes personality.

Action includes as a necessary component an act of consciousness V form of goal setting, and in at the same time, action is at the same time an act of behavior, realized through external actions in inextricable unity with consciousness. Through actions a person shows his activity, trying to achieve his goal. With taking into account external conditions.

Action has a structure similar to activity: goal - motive, method - result. There are actions: sensory(actions to perceive an object), motor(motor actions), volitional, mental, mnemonic(actions of memory), external subject(actions

Basics of Psychology

aimed at changing the state or properties of objects outside world) And mental(actions performed in the internal plane of consciousness). The following components of action are distinguished: sensory (sensory), central (mental) and motor (motor) (Fig. 1.6).

Rice. 1.6. Action components and their function

Every action is a complex system consisting of several parts: indicative (management), executive (working) and control and adjustment. The indicative part of the action provides a reflection of the totality of objective conditions necessary for the successful implementation of this action. The executive part carries out the specified transformations in the action object. The control part monitors the progress of the action, compares the results obtained with given samples and, if necessary, provides correction of both the indicative and executive parts of the action.

An operation is a specific way of performing an action. The nature of the operations used depends on the conditions in which the action is performed and the experience of the person. Operations are usually little understood or are not realized by the person at all, i.e. this is the level of automatic skills.

Speaking about the fact that a person carries out some kind of activity, we must not forget that a person is an organism with a highly organized nervous system, developed sensory organs, complex musculoskeletal

Introduction to Psychology

apparatus, psychophysiological functions, which are both prerequisites and means of activity.

For example, when a person sets a goal to remember something, he can use different actions and memorization techniques, but this activity is based on the existing mnemonic psychophysiological function: none of the memorization actions would lead to desired result, if a person did not have a mnemonic function. Psychophysiological functions constitute the organic foundation of activity processes.

Sensorimotor processes- these are the processes in which perception is connected And movements. In these processes, four mental acts are distinguished: 1) the sensory moment of reaction - the process of perception; 2) the central moment of the reaction - more or less complex processes associated with the processing of what is perceived, sometimes distinction, recognition, evaluation and choice; 3) motor moment of reaction - processes that determine the beginning and course of movement; 4) sensory movement corrections (feedback).

Ideomotor processes connect the idea of ​​movement with the execution of the movement. The problem of the image and its role in the regulation of motor acts is the central problem of the psychology of correct human movements.

Emotional-motor processes- these are the processes that connect the execution of movements With emotions, feelings, mental states experienced by a person.

Interiorization- this is the process of transition from external, material action to internal, ideal action.

Exteriorization is the process of transforming internal mental action into external action.

The main types of activities that ensure the existence of a person and his formation as an individual are communication, play, learning and work.

It has already been noted that our needs push us to action, to activity. Need is a state of need for something experienced by a person. State of the organism's objective need for something that lies outside of it And constitutes a necessary condition for its normal functioning, and are called needs. Hunger, thirst, or the need for oxygen are primary needs, the satisfaction of which is vital for all living beings. Any disturbance in the balance of sugar, water, oxygen or any other component needed by the body automatically leads to the appearance of the corresponding

hychology

ing need and the emergence of a biological impulse, which seems to push a person to satisfy it. The primary impulse thus generated triggers a series of coordinated actions aimed at restoring balance.

Maintaining a balance in which the body does not experience any needs is called homeostasis. From here homeostatic behavior- this is behavior that is aimed at eliminating motivation by satisfying the need that caused it. Often human behavior is caused by the perception of certain external objects, the action of some external stimuli. The perception of certain external objects plays the role of a stimulus, which can be as strong and significant as the internal drive itself. The need for movement, for receiving new information, new stimuli (cognitive need), new emotions allows the body to maintain an optimal level of activation, which allows it to function most effectively. This need for stimuli varies depending on the physiological and mental state of the person.

The need for social contacts, to communicate with people is one of the leading needs in a person, only over the course of life does it change its forms.

People are constantly busy with something, and in most cases they decide for themselves what they will do. To make a choice, people resort to a thinking process. Can be considered motivation as a “selection mechanism” for some form of behavior. This mechanism, if necessary, responds to external stimuli, but most often it selects the opportunity that at the moment best corresponds to a physiological state, emotion, memory or thought that has come to mind, or an unconscious attraction, or innate characteristics. The choice of our immediate actions is guided by the goals and plans we have set for the future. The more important these goals are for nagas, the more powerfully they guide our choices.

Thus, there is a hierarchy of different needs from the most primitive to the most refined. The hierarchical pyramid of needs was developed by the American psychologist Maslow: from innate physiological needs (the need for food, drink, sex, the desire to avoid pain, parental instinct, the need to explore the world around And etc.) - to needs

Introduction to Psychology

in safety, then to the needs for affection, love, then to the needs for respect, approval, recognition, competence, then to cognitive and aesthetic needs (order, beauty, justice, symmetry) - and finally, the need to understand the meaning of one’s life , in self-improvement, in self-development, self-realization.

But the same need can be satisfied with the help of different objects, with the help of different actions, that is, in different ways objectified. In the process of objectifying a need, two important features of the need are revealed: 1) initially there is a fairly wide range of objects that can satisfy this need; 2) the need is quickly fixed on the first item that satisfies it. In the act of objectification is born motive as an object of need. Motive- this is an objectified need, this is the need for a given object, which encourages a person to take active action. One and the same motive can be satisfied by a set of different actions, and on the other hand, the same action can be motivated by different motives. Motives give rise to actions, that is, they lead to the formation of goals. These are motives-goals. But there are also unconscious motives that can manifest themselves in the form of emotions and personal meanings. Emotions arise only about events or results of actions that are associated with motives. The leading main motive determines personal meaning - the experience of increased subjective significance of an object or event that finds itself in the field of action of the leading motive.

A set of actions that are caused by one motive is called a special type of activity (play, study or work).

CONTROL QUESTIONS

1. What is the subject of psychology as a science?

2. List and give brief description basic views on the psyche and its role.

3. What are the main functions and manifestations of the psyche?

4. How is the development of forms of behavior and reflective function interconnected in the process of evolution? Is this development related? nervous system?

Basics of Psychology

5. Why challenging behavior Can't ants be called labor? What are the character traits labor that played an important role in the formation of human consciousness?

6. What circles of influence of nature on the psyche exist?

7. What research methods are used in psychology?

8. What connection exists between the psyche and the body, between the psyche and the brain?

LITERATURE

1. Hegel. Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences. T. 3. M., Mysl, 1977.

2. Vygotsky L. S. History of the development of higher mental functions. Collection op. T. 3. M., Pedagogy, 1983.

3. Leontyev A. N. Problems of mental development. M., 1987.

4. Godefroy J. What is psychology. In 2 vols. M., Mir, 1992.

5. Jarvilekto T. Brain and psyche. M., Progress, 1992.

6. Platonov K.K. Interesting psychology. M., 1990.

7. Shertok L. The unknown in the human psyche. M., 1982.

8. Galperin P. Ya. Introduction to psychology M., 1976.

9. Mute R.S. Psychology book. 1. M., 1997.

10. Military psychology and pedagogy. M., 1998.

11. Diligensky G. G. Socio-political psychology. M., 1996.

12. Kornilova T.V. Introduction to psychological experiment. M., 1997.

13. Fundamentals of psychophysiology. M., 1997.

14. Psychological science in Russia of the 20th century. M., 1997.

15. Psychology and pedagogy (edited by Radugin). M., 1996.

16. Rozin V. M. Psychology: theory and practice. M., 1997.

17. Rudensky U.V. Social psychology, M., 1997.

18. Shibutani T. Social Psychology. Rostov n/d, 1998.

19. Romanov V.V.

20. Research methods in psychology: quasi-experiment. M., 1998.

21. Chufarovsky Yu.V. Legal psychology. M., 1998.

PSYCHOLOGICAL

CONCEPTS

1. A brief excursion into the history of psychology

In order to more clearly understand the path of development of psychology as a science, let us briefly consider its main stages And directions.

1. The first ideas about the psyche were associated with animism (from the Latin “anima” - spirit, soul) - the most ancient views, according to which everything that exists in the world has a soul. The soul was understood as an entity independent of the body that controls all living things And inanimate objects.

2. Later in the philosophical teachings of antiquity they touched upon psychological aspects, which were decided in terms of idealism or in terms of materialism. Thus, the materialist philosophers of antiquity Democritus, Lucretius, Epicurus understood the human soul as a type of matter, as a bodily formation consisting of spherical, small And most mobile atoms.

3. According to the ancient Greek idealist philosopher Plato (427-347 BC), who was a student and follower of Socrates, the soul is something divine, different from the body, and a person’s soul exists before it comes into union with the body. She is the image and outflow of the world soul. The soul is an invisible, sublime, divine, eternal principle. Soul And the body is in a complex relationship with each other. By its divine origin, the soul is called upon to control the body and direct human life. However, sometimes the body takes the soul into its bonds. The body is torn apart by various desires and passions, it cares about food,

Basics of Psychology

prone to illness, fears, temptations. Mental phenomena are divided by Plato into reason, courage (in the modern sense - will) and desires (motivation).

Reason is located in the head, courage is in the chest, lust is in abdominal cavity. The harmonious unity of reason, noble aspirations and lust gives integrity to a person’s mental life. The soul inhabits the human body and guides it throughout his life, and after death leaves it and enters the divine “world of ideas.” Since the soul is the highest thing in a person, he must care about its health more than the health of the body. Depending on what kind of life a person led, after his death a different fate awaits his soul: it will either wander near the earth, burdened with bodily elements, or fly away from the earth into the ideal world, into the world of ideas, which exists outside of matter and outside of the individual. consciousness. “Isn’t it a shame for people to care about money, fame and honors, but not care about reason, truth and their soul and not think about making it better?” - Socrates and Plato ask.

4. Great philosopher Aristotle in his treatise “On the Soul” singled out psychology as a unique field of knowledge and first put forward the idea of ​​the indivisibility of the soul and a living body. Aristotle rejected the view of the soul as a substance. At the same time, he did not consider it possible to consider the soul in isolation from matter (living bodies). The soul, according to Aristotle, is incorporeal, it is the form of a living body, the cause and goal of all of it. vital functions. Aristotle put forward the concept of the soul as a function of the body, and not as some phenomenon external to it. The soul, or “psyche,” is the engine that allows a living being to realize itself. If the eye were a living being, then its soul would be vision. Likewise, the soul of a person is the essence of a living body, it is the realization of its existence, Aristotle believed. The main function of the soul, according to Aristotle, is the realization of the biological existence of the organism. The center, the “psyche,” is located in the heart, where impressions from the senses are received. These impressions form a source of ideas, which, combined with each other, result rational thinking, subordinate their behavior. Driving force human behavior is a desire (internal activity of the body) associated with a feeling of pleasure or displeasure. Sense perceptions constitute the beginning of knowledge. Save and playback

Psychological

concepts

the recording of sensations gives memory. Thinking is characterized by the formation of general concepts, judgments and conclusions. A special form of intellectual activity is nous (mind), introduced from the outside in the form of divine reason. Thus, the soul manifests itself in various abilities for activity: nourishing, feeling, rational. Higher abilities arise from and on the basis of lower ones. The primary cognitive ability of a person is sensation; it takes the forms of sensory objects without their matter, just as “wax takes the impression of a seal without iron.” Sensations leave a trace in the form of ideas - images of those objects that previously acted on the senses. Aristotle showed that these images are connected in three directions: by similarity, by contiguity and contrast, thereby indicating the main types of connections - associations of mental phenomena. Aristotle believed that knowledge of man is possible only through knowledge of the Universe and existence.

the order existing in it. Thus, at the first stage psychology acted as a science of the soul.

5. In the Middle Ages, the idea was established that the soul is a divine, supernatural principle, and therefore the study of mental life should be subordinated to the tasks of theology.

Only the outer side of the soul, which is turned to the material, can be subject to human judgment.

to the world. The greatest mysteries of the soul are accessible only V religious (mystical) experience.

6. Since the 17th century a new era begins in the development of psychological knowledge. IN connection with the development of natural

sciences using experimental methods

began to study the laws of human consciousness. The ability to think and feel is called consciousness. Psychology began to develop as a science of consciousness. It is characterized by attempts to comprehend the human spiritual world primarily from general philosophical, speculative positions, without the necessary experimental basis. R. Descartes(1596-1650) comes to the conclusion about the difference between the human soul and his body: “the body is by its nature always divisible, while the spirit is indivisible.” However, the soul is capable of producing movements in the body. This contradictory dualistic teaching gave rise to a problem called psychophysical: how are bodily (physiological) And mental (mental) processes in a person? Descartes created a theory that explains behavior based on mechanics.

Basics of Psychology

stic model. According to this model, information delivered by the senses is sent along sensory nerves to openings in the brain, which these nerves dilate, allowing the "animal souls" in the brain to flow out through tiny tubes - motor nerves - into the muscles, which inflate, which leads to withdrawal of the irritated limb or forces one to perform one or another action. Thus, there was no need to resort To soul to explain how simple behavioral acts arise. Descartes laid the foundations for the deterministic (causal) concept of behavior with its central idea of ​​reflex as a natural motor response of the body to external physical stimulation. This Cartesian dualism - a body that acts mechanically, and the “intelligent soul” that controls it, localized in the brain. Thus, the concept of “Soul” began to turn into the concept of “Mind”, and later into the concept of “Consciousness”. The famous Cartesian phrase “I think, therefore I exist” became the basis of the postulate that the first thing a person discovers in himself is his own consciousness. The existence of consciousness is the main And an absolute fact and the main task of psychology is to analyze the state and content of consciousness. On the basis of this postulate, psychology began to develop - it made its subject consciousness.

7. An attempt to reconnect the body And the soul of man, divided by the teachings of Descartes, was undertaken by the Dutch philosopher Spinoza(1632 -1677). There is no special spiritual principle; it is always one of the manifestations of extended substance (matter).

Soul and body are determined by the same material causes. Spinoza believed that this approach makes it possible to consider mental phenomena with the same accuracy And objectivity, the way lines and surfaces are viewed in geometry.

Thinking is an eternal property of substance (matter, nature), therefore, to a certain extent, thinking is also inherent in stone, And animals, and is largely inherent in humans, manifesting itself in the form of intellect and will at the human level.

8. German philosopher G. Leibniz(1646-1716), rejecting the equality of psyche and consciousness established by Descartes, introduced the concept O unconscious psyche. IN the human soul continuously undergoes hidden work of mental

Psychological concepts

forces - countless “small perceptions” (perceptions). From them arise conscious desires and passions.

9. The term “empirical psychology” was introduced by the 18th century German philosopher X. Wolf to denote a direction in psychological science, the main principle of which is to observe specific mental phenomena, classify them and establish an experimentally verifiable natural connection between them. English philosopher J. Locke (1632-1704) views the human soul as passive, but capable To perception of the environment, comparing it to a blank board on which nothing is written. Under the influence of sensory impressions, the human soul, awakening, is filled simple ideas, begins to think, that is, to form complex ideas. Locke introduced the concept of “association” into the language of psychology - a connection between mental phenomena in which the actualization of one of them entails the appearance of another. So psychology began to study how, through the association of ideas, a person becomes aware of the world around him. The study of the relationship between soul and body is finally inferior to the study of mental activity and consciousness.

Locke believed that there are two sources of all human knowledge: the first source is the objects of the external world, the second is the activity of a person’s own mind. The activity of the mind and thinking is cognized with the help of a special internal feeling - reflection. Reflection, according to Locke, is “observation to which the mind subjects its activity”; it is the directing of a person’s attention to the activity of his own soul. Mental activity can proceed, as it were, at two levels: processes of the first level - perceptions, thoughts, desires (every person and child has them); second level processes - observation or “contemplation” of these perceptions, thoughts, desires (only mature people who reflect on themselves, recognize their mental experiences and states). This method of introspection is becoming an important means of studying the mental activity and consciousness of people.

10. Separation of psychology as an independent science happened in the 60s XIX century It was tied With the creation of special research institutions - psychological laboratories and institutes, departments in higher education educational institutions, as well as with the introduction of experiments to study mental phenomena. The first version of experimental psychology as an independent

Basics of Psychology

The main scientific discipline was the physiological psychology of the German scientist W. Wundt (1832-1920).In 1879, in Leipzig, Wundt opened the world's first experimental psychological laboratory.

Soon, in 1885, V. M. Bekhterev organized a similar laboratory in Russia.

In the field of consciousness, Wundt believed, a special mental causality operates, subject to scientific objective research. Consciousness was divided into mental structures, the simplest elements: sensations, images And feelings. The role of psychology, according to Wundt, is to provide as detailed a description of these elements as possible. "Psychology- it is the science of the structures of consciousness"- this direction was called structuralist approach. We used the method of introspection and self-observation.

One psychologist compared the picture of consciousness to a flowering meadow: visual images, auditory impressions, emotional states And thoughts, memories, desires - all this can be in consciousness at the same time. In the field of consciousness, a particularly clear and distinct area stands out - the “field of attention”, the “focus of consciousness”; outside of it there is an area whose contents are indistinct, vague, undifferentiated - this is the “periphery of consciousness.” The contents of consciousness that fill both described areas of consciousness are in continuous movement. Wundt's experiments with the metronome showed that the monotonous clicks of the metronome in human perception are involuntarily rhythmic, i.e. consciousness is rhythmic in nature, and the organization of rhythm can be either arbitrary or And involuntary. Wundt tried to study such a characteristic of consciousness as its volume. The experiment showed that a series of eight double metronome beats (or 16 separate sounds) is a measure of the volume of consciousness. Wundt believed that psychology must find the elements of consciousness, decompose the complex dynamic picture of consciousness into simple, further indivisible parts. Wundt declared individual impressions or sensations to be the simplest elements of consciousness. Sensations are objective elements of consciousness. There are also subjective elements of consciousness, or feelings. Wundt proposed 3 pairs of subjective elements: pleasure - displeasure, excitement - calmness, tension - discharge. All human feelings are formed from a combination of subjective elements, for example, joy is pleasure and opportunity.

Psychological

concepts

awakening, hope - pleasure and tension, fear - displeasure and tension.

But the idea of ​​decomposing the psyche into its simplest elements turned out to be false; it was impossible to assemble complex states of consciousness from simple elements. Therefore, by the 20s of the XX century. this psychology of consciousness practically ceased to exist.

11. Functionalist approach. American psychologist W. James proposed to study the functions of consciousness And its role in human survival. He hypothesized that the role of consciousness is to enable a person to adapt to different situations, either repeating already developed forms of behavior, or changing them depending on circumstances, or mastering new actions if the situation requires it. "Psychology- it is the science of the functions of consciousness,” according to functionalists. They used methods of introspection, self-observation, and recording the time spent solving problems.

James reflected in the concept of “stream of consciousness” - the process of movement of consciousness, the continuous change of its contents and states. The processes of consciousness are divided into two large classes: some of them occur as if by themselves, others are organized And directed by a person. The first processes are called involuntary, the second - voluntary.

12. I.M. Sechenov is considered the founder of Russian scientific psychology (1829-1905). In his book “Reflexes of the Brain” (1863), basic psychological processes receive a physiological interpretation. Their scheme is the same as that of reflexes: they originate in external influence, continue with central nervous activity and end with response activity - movement, action, speech. With this interpretation, Sechenov attempted to “snatch” psychology from the circle of man’s inner world. However, the specificity of mental reality was underestimated in comparison with its physiological basis, and the role of cultural and historical factors in the formation and development of the human psyche was not taken into account.

13. An important place in the history of Russian psychology belongs to G. I. Chelpanov(1862 -1936). His main merit is the creation V Russian Psychological Institute (1912). The experimental direction in psychology using objective research methods was developed by V. M. Bekhterev (1857-1927). Efforts I. P. Pavlova (1849-1936) were aimed at studying conditionally

Basics of Psychology

reflex connections in the activity of the body. His work fruitfully influenced the understanding of the physiological foundations of mental activity.

13. Behaviorist approach.

American psychologist Watson proclaimed in 1913 that psychology would gain the right to be called a science when it applied objective experimental methods of study. It is possible to objectively study only human behavior that arises in a given situation. Each situation corresponds to a certain behavior that should be objectively recorded. "Psychology- It's the science of behavior." and all concepts related to consciousness should be expelled from scientific psychology. “The expression “a child is afraid of a dog” does not mean anything scientifically; objective descriptions are needed: “the child’s tears and trembling increase when a dog approaches him.” New forms of behavior appear as a result of the formation of conditioned reflexes (conditioning) (Watson). Any behavior is determined by its consequences (Skinner). Human actions are formed under the influence of the social environment; a person is completely dependent on it. A person is also inclined to imitate the behavior of other people, taking into account how favorable the results of such imitation may be for himself (Bandura). We will consider the main ideas of behaviorism in the following sections.

The important merits of behaviorism are: the introduction of objective methods of recording and analyzing externally observable reactions, human actions, processes, events; discovery of patterns of learning, formation of skills, behavioral reactions.

The main disadvantage of behaviorism is the underestimation of the complexity of human mental activity, the rapprochement of the psyche of animals and humans, ignoring the processes of consciousness, creativity, and self-determination of the individual.

14. "Gestalt psychology" originated in Germany thanks to the efforts T. Wertheimer, W. Köhler and K. Levin, put forward a program for studying the psyche With point of view of holistic structures (gestalts). Gestalt psychology opposed the associative psychology of W. Wundt and E. Titchener, which interpreted complex mental phenomena as built from simple ones according to the laws of association.

The concept of Gestalt (from German “form”) originated in the study of sensory formations, when the “per-

Psychological concepts

the identity" of their structure in relation to the components (sensations) included in these formations. For example, although a melody, when performed in different keys, evokes different sensations, it is recognized as one and the same. Thinking is interpreted similarly: it consists of discretion, awareness of the structural requirements of the elements of a problem situation and actions that correspond to these requirements (W. Koehler). The construction of a complex mental image occurs in insight - a special mental act of instantly grasping relationships (structures) in the perceived field. Gestalt psychology also contrasted its positions with behaviorism, which explained the behavior of an organism in a problem situation by going through “blind” motor tests that only accidentally led to success. The merits of Gestalt psychology consist in the development of the concept of psychological image, in the approval systematic approach to mental phenomena.

15. At the beginning of the 20th century. a direction arose in psychology psychoanalysis, or Freudianism. 3. Freud introduced a number of important topics into psychology: unconscious motivation, protective mechanisms of the psyche, the role of sexuality in it, the influence of childhood mental trauma on behavior in adulthood, etc. However, his closest students came to the conclusion that it is not primarily sexual desires, but feelings inferiority and the need to compensate for this defect (A. Adler), or the collective unconscious (archetypes), which has absorbed universal human experience (K. Jung), determine the mental development of the individual.

We will consider the main provisions of Freudianism in the following sections.

The psychoanalytic direction has paid increased attention to the study of unconscious mental processes. Unconscious processes can be divided into 2 large classes: 1 - unconscious mechanisms of conscious actions (unconscious automatic actions and automated skills, phenomena of an unconscious attitude); 2 - unconscious stimulants of conscious actions (this is what Freud intensively studied - impulses from the unconscious area of ​​the psyche (drives, repressed desires, experiences) have strong influence on the actions and states of a person, although the person does not suspect this and often does not know why he performs this or that action. Unconscious ideas hardly pass into consciousness, practically remaining unconscious due to the work of two mechanisms:

Basics of Psychology

mov - mechanisms of repression and resistance. Consciousness resists them, i.e. the person does not miss V consciousness of the whole truth about yourself. Therefore, unconscious ideas, having a large energy charge, break into a person’s conscious life, taking on a distorted or symbolic form (three forms of manifestation of the unconscious - dreams, erroneous actions - slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue, forgetting things, neurotic symptoms).

16. Connect the nature of the unconscious core of the human psyche With the social conditions of his life tried K. Horney, G. Sullivan And E. Fromm - reformers of Freudian psychoanalysis (neo-Freudians). A person is driven not only by biological predetermined unconscious impulses, but also by acquired aspirations for security and self-realization (Horney), images of himself and others formed in early childhood (Sullivan), and the influence of the socio-economic structure of society (Fromm).

17. Representatives of cognitive psychology U. Naisser, A. Paivio and others point to the behavior of the subject the decisive role of knowledge (from Latin cognito - knowledge). For them, the question of organizing knowledge becomes central. V memory of the subject, about the relationship between verbal (verbal) and figurative components in the processes of memorization and thinking.

18. Humanistic psychology- its most prominent representatives G. Allport, G. A. Murray, G. Murphy, K. Rogers, A. Maslow consider the healthy creative personality of a person to be the subject of psychological research.

The goal of such a person is not the need for home-ostasis, as psychoanalysis believes, but self-realization, self-actualization, growth of the constructive principle of the human “I”. A person is open to the world, endowed with the potential for continuous development and self-realization. Love, creativity, growth, higher values, meaning - these and similar concepts characterize the basic needs of a person. As V. Frankl, the author of the concept of logotherapy, notes, in the absence or loss of interest in life, a person experiences boredom, indulges in vice, and is struck by severe failures.

19. Spiritual (Christian) can also be considered a unique branch of humanistic psychology. psychology. Considering it unlawful to limit the subject of psychology to phenomena of mental life, she addresses

Psychological concepts

to the realm of the spirit. Spirit is the power of self-determination for the better, the gift of strengthening And overcome what is rejected. Spirituality gives a person access to love, conscience and a sense of duty. It helps a person overcome the crisis of the groundlessness and illusory nature of his existence.

20. Transpersonal psychology considers man as a spiritual cosmic being, inextricably linked with the entire Universe, space, humanity, with the ability to access the global information cosmic field. Through the unconscious psyche a person is connected with unconscious psyche other persons With"the collective unconscious of humanity" With cosmic information, with the “world mind”.

21. Interactive psychology considers man as a being main characteristic which is communication, interaction between people. The goal of psychology is to study the laws of interaction, communication, relationships, conflicts (E. Bern).

22. Significant contribution to the development of psychology of the 20th century. contributed by our domestic scientists L. S. Vygotsky (1896-1934), A.N. Leontyev (1903-1979), A. R. Luria (1902-1977) And P.Ya. Halperin (1902-1988). L.S.Vygotsky introduced the concept of higher mental functions (thinking in concepts, rational speech, logical memory, voluntary attention) as a specifically human, socially determined form of the psyche, and also laid the foundations of the cultural-historical concept mental development person. The named functions initially exist as forms of external activity, And only later - as a completely internal (intrapsychic) ​​process. They come from forms of verbal communication between people and are mediated by language signs. The system of signs determines behavior to a greater extent than surrounding nature, since the sign, the symbol contains a program of behavior in a collapsed form. Higher mental functions develop in the process of learning, that is, the joint activity of a child and an adult.

A.N. Leontyev conducted a series of experimental studies revealing the mechanism of formation of higher mental functions as a process of “growing” (interiorization) of higher forms of instrumental-sign actions into the subjective structures of the human psyche. A.R. Luria paid special attention to the problems of cerebral localization of higher mental functions and their disorders. He revealed

Basics of Psychology

being one of the creators of the new field psychological science- neuropsychology.

P. Ya. Galperin considered mental processes (from perception to thinking inclusive) as the orienting activity of the subject in problem situations. The psyche itself, in historical terms, arises only in a situation of mobile life for orientation on the basis of an image and is carried out with the help of actions in terms of this image. P. Ya. Galperin is the author of the concept of the gradual formation of mental actions (images, concepts). The practical implementation of this concept can significantly increase the effectiveness of training.

Having briefly examined the history of the formation of psychology, let us analyze in more detail the main directions, basic concepts and theories of psychology:

Psychoanalysis,

Behaviorism,

Cognitive Psychology,

o humanistic psychology,

We will also get acquainted with such particular applied psychological concepts as Assagio’s psychosynthesis, Grof’s research, and Teutsch’s concept of victimology, which can be united under the ideas of transpersonal psychology.

Rice. 2.1. Schematic representation of personality structure according to Freud

Psychological concepts

2. Freudianism, psychoanalysis

No other direction has become so famous outside of psychology as psychoanalysis. His ideas influenced art, literature, medicine and other areas of science related to man. This concept is called “Freudianism” after its founder Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Based on the ideas of Freud, but supplementing and clarifying them, a whole psychological direction of “psychoanalysis” was gradually formed (psychoanalytic theories also include the theories of Horney, Adler, Jung, Fromm, Reich, etc., although each of them introduced their own new and original ideas ).

The term “psychoanalysis” has three meanings: 1 - theory of personality and psychopathology; 2 - method of treating personality disorders; 3 - a method of studying a person’s unconscious thoughts and feelings.

Freud used a topographical model, according to which mental life Three levels can be distinguished: consciousness, preconscious, unconscious. The level of consciousness consists of the sensations and experiences that you are aware of at a given moment in time. Consciousness encompasses only a small percentage of all information stored in the brain, with certain information being conscious for only a short period of time and then quickly relegated to the preconscious or unconscious level as the person's attention moves to other cues.

The area of ​​the preconscious, sometimes called "accessible memory", includes all experiences that are not currently conscious, but can easily return to consciousness spontaneously or as a result of minimal effort. The deepest and most significant area of ​​the human psyche is the unconscious. The unconscious is a repository of instinctual urges plus emotions and memories that are so threatening to consciousness that they have been repressed and repressed into the unconscious, but it is this unconscious material that largely determines a person's daily functioning, although he is not aware of it. Unconscious experiences are completely inaccessible to human consciousness, but to a large extent determine the actions of people.

Based on many years of clinical observations, Freud formulated a psychological concept according to which the human psyche and personality consists of 3 structures,

Basics of Psychology

levels: “IT”, “I”, “SUPER-I” (structural model of mental life). “IT” is the unconscious part of the psyche, a seething cauldron of biological innate instinctual drives: aggressive and sexual. “IT” is saturated with sexual energy - “libido”. A person is a closed energy system; the amount of energy in each person is a constant value. Being unconscious and irrational, “IT” obeys the principle of pleasure, i.e. pleasure and happiness are the main goals in human life. The second principle of behavior is homeostasis - the tendency to maintain approximate internal balance. The “I” (EGO) level of consciousness is in a state of constant conflict with “IT” and suppresses sexual desires. The level of consciousness is formed under the influence of society. The “I” is influenced by three forces: “IT”, “SUPER-I” and society, which makes its demands on a person. The “I” tries to establish harmony between them, obeying not the principle of pleasure, but the principle of “reality”. The “SUPER-I” serves as the bearer of moral standards; it is that part of the personality that plays the role of critic, censor, and conscience. If the “I” makes a decision or takes an action to please “IT”, but in opposition to the “SUPER-I”, then it experiences punishment in the form of feelings of guilt, shame, and remorse.

The relationship between the structural and topographical models of mental life can be depicted as follows: the “IT” sphere is completely unconscious, while the “I”-EGO and the “SUPER-I” operate on all three levels.

“I”-EGO is responsible for making decisions. The EGO strives to express and satisfy the desires of the “IT”-ID in accordance with the restrictions imposed by the rules of society, the outside world, i.e. the EGO helps ensure the safety and self-preservation of the body, it is the EGO that analyzes, reasons, and makes decisions.

The formation of the psyche, especially the “SUPER-I” in a child, occurs through overcoming the Oedipus complex. In the Greek myth about King Oedipus, who killed his father and married his mother, hidden, according to Freud, is the key to the sexual complex that supposedly gravitates over every man from eternity: the boy is attracted to his mother, perceiving his father as a rival, causing both hatred and fear , and admiration, the boy wants to be like his father, but he also wants him to die, and therefore feels guilty and is afraid of his father. Fearing castration, the child overcomes sexual attraction to his mother, overcomes Eddie

Psychological concepts

Mastering the ability to use language, and later other sign-symbolic means, in various types of activities and communication, ensures the formation and development of the child’s internal plan of mental actions. Often this mental formation in psychology is called consciousness. Mentally, a person can perform actions on ideas and concepts in the absence of real objects or phenomena. According to S. V. Malanova , while the internal plan of mental actions underlies the totality of all human skills and abilities that are associated with abstract forms of thinking, with arbitrary forms of regulation and planning of one’s behavior and activities, with the ability to acquire various knowledge based on verbal communication, etc. Skill fulfill simple steps in the internal, mental plane, it is considered one of the necessary conditions for a child’s readiness for educational activities.

The content of mental images, ideas, concepts and their mental transformations are generated during the implementation of various types of external objective practical actions, as well as perceptual actions as they move into the internal plane of thinking (consciousness). Both subject content and methods of acting with it can be transformed into mental form. Numerous psychological studies on the formation of visual, auditory, tactile images and ideas have convincingly shown that external practical objective motor-executive actions based on perceptual actions, which are implemented by the senses, seem to be likened to the structural features of perceived objects and phenomena. Next, the sequence of motor and perceptual actions and operations unfolded in time is collapsed into a simultaneously observable structure - an image. Following this, such a structure, already as a representation, begins to serve as an indicative basis for performing a certain range of actions.

As S. V. Malanov points out, the formed images become the source material for more high level psychological orientation in the internal plane of ideas. An abbreviated fixed sequence of perceptual cognitive-orienting actions and operations “to oneself”, voluntarily reproduced by a person, becomes a method of internal mental orientation and is subjectively perceived as a representation.

The formation of sign-symbolic functions and their inclusion in mental orientation leads to the formation and development of an internal plan of action. It is believed that this occurs as a person masters speech. Speech, and later other sign-symbolic means, begin to denote holistic, rather discrete figurative structures and their characteristics, as well as methods of their transformation and ways of establishing connections and relationships. Sign-symbolic means allow:

1) abstract individual elements from perceptual experience (images and ideas) and arbitrarily establish connections and relationships between them on various grounds; this leads to the formation of concepts of a higher level of generalization;

2) carry out subsequent psychological orientation, organized by sign-symbolic means.

In psychology, there are effective methods of teaching, the basis of which is the voluntary and controlled use of sign-symbolic means, and which allow the child to intelligently and purposefully form and develop the ability to perform actions in the internal mental plane. Such methods of teaching various actions were developed under the guidance of P. Ya. Galperina and were called the systematic step-by-step formation of mental actions. The basic principles of this method are used with great success to understand and practice knowledge in the process of teaching children various skills. The basis of the method is the organization of consistent mental orientation. Such orientation occurs first in an external perceptual-motor form, using either real objects, the knowledge of which students acquire, or relying on sign-symbolic means that replace them. In this case, the central role is given to speech pronunciation, in which the sequence of perceptual-motor actions performed and the connections and relationships established on their basis are recorded in the most detailed form. When this method of external detailed orientation begins to be performed without difficulty and is quite reliably fixed in speech form, it is gradually replaced by orientation in terms of ideas, removing external objects and sign-symbolic supports, but at the same time maintaining external speech pronunciation.

Mental orientation organized by speech, i.e., a system of speech actions that allows one to establish properties, connections, relationships, is then gradually reduced, comes under the control of speech “to oneself,” and then ceases to require reduced speech control for its implementation. A mental action is formed, which takes on an abbreviated, schematized (simultaneous) form and includes in its composition the methods and results of performing perceptual-motor and speech orientation. Automation of the performance of such a mental action leads to the formation of a mental operation, a mental skill, a mental scheme, which become methods of preliminary orientation in performing certain actions, as well as an intellectual means of performing various other mental actions.

This psychological mechanism for the formation of mental actions is called interiorization. The process of internalization can occur both spontaneously, unorganized, and relatively purposefully regulated by the subjects of educational activity. In connection with this general psychological pattern of the formation of mental actions, already in childhood they usually strive to teach children to use speech as a means of transforming the external form of orientation into mental action. To do this, play and educational interactions with children include joint stories with adults, as well as the child’s independent stories:

1) about the various actions performed following their execution;

2) about the actions and sequences of their implementation before the implementation of such actions;

3) strive to indicate the main, essential guidelines that are important for the correct execution of certain actions (Based on materials from S. V. Malanov).

CONCEPT

This concept is most fully reflected in the psychological theory of activity, which is associated with the names of L.S. Vygotsky, SL. Rubinshteina, A.N. Leontyeva, A.R. Luria, P.Ya. Galperin and described in the book by A.N.

Leontyev “Activity. Consciousness. Personality."

Activity is considered in psychology in two functions: as a subject of research and as an explanatory principle.

Activity as a subject of research involves considering it from the point of view of concept and structure.

Activity is the external and internal activity of a person, regulated by a conscious goal. External activity is objective, material activity, and internal activity is the activity of memory, thinking, etc.

Considering activity as a subject of research, A.N. Leontiev identified its structure, which includes:

1. Subject content:

a) need - a need, a state of tension that encourages search activity, in the process of which the object of need is found (fixed);

b) motive - the stimulator of activity. With the appearance of a motive, all behavior changes dramatically, it becomes directed;

c) goal - what the activity is aimed at. The goal is always realized by the individual before the start of the activity itself (anticipation);

d) conditions - external (material, objective) and internal (level of development of cognitive processes), on which the result and quality of activity depend.

2. Operational part:

a) actions are relatively completed elements of activity aimed at achieving a specific, intermediate, conscious goal. The purpose of the action is usually realized. If this is not the case, then the action is called impulsive. Actions can be external (for example, motor, external speech) or internal (for example, mnemonic, mental, sensory, perceptual, etc.). External and internal actions are interconnected and can transform into each other.

The transition of external action to internal action is called internalization. For example, the child first performs the action of addition

It harasses with the help of external actions, on sticks, and only then do they become internal mental actions. The transition of internal action to external action is called exteriorization. For example, a child’s reasoning about how he performed the act of counting is the translation of his internal actions (thoughts) to external ones (external speech). Control and self-assessment actions are important for achieving performance results;

b) actions consist of elements called operations - these are ways of performing actions. The goals of the operations are not understood. Operations can also be external and internal (external - take, move, drop; internal - analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, abstraction, concretization).

Activity is a property of all living things. The activity of the individual is manifested in its conscious, selective actions.

Activity is a specifically human activity regulated by consciousness, generated by needs and aimed at understanding and transforming the external world and the person himself.

A goal is something that fulfills a human need and acts as an image of the final result.

Anticipation is the presentation of the result of an action in a person’s mind before it is actually carried out.

Action is a relatively completed element of activity aimed at achieving a certain intermediate, conscious goal.

The action can be either external, performed in an expanded form with the participation of the motor apparatus and sensory organs, or internal, performed in the mind.

Impulsive actions are actions performed involuntarily and not sufficiently controlled by consciousness.

Perceptual actions are the main structural units of the perception process, including the detection of an object of perception and its correlation with memory patterns.

Mnemonic actions are actions of memorizing, retaining and recalling any material.

Control actions - actions of comparison with a sample.

Mental actions are various human actions performed in the internal plane of consciousness. It has been experimentally established that mental actions necessarily include motor components.

Interiorization is the process of transforming external, objective actions into internal, mental ones.

Exteriorization is a transition from an internal, mental plan of action to an external one, implemented in the form of techniques and actions with objects.

ACTIVITY AS AN EXPLANATORY PRINCIPLE

The category of activity as an explanatory principle is used in the study of cognitive processes, motivation, will, emotions, personality, etc. This means that the psyche can be considered as mental activity with all its structural elements, and not just as a mental process. Thus, considering memory as a mental activity, we must highlight: the purpose of this activity, motives, mnemonic actions, as well as actions of control and self-esteem. This allows us to consider memory from a completely different perspective, and therefore, to highlight other previously unknown aspects of it and to understand this mental function more deeply and thoroughly. The explanatory principle underlies the principles of analysis of the psyche in psychology: 1) the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity; 2) the principle of unity of structure of external and internal activities; 3) the principle of interiorization - exteriorization as a mechanism for assimilating socio-historical experience; 4) the principle of dependence of mental reflection on the place of the reflected object in the structure of activity, etc.

The concept of activity extends to a wide range of problems (development, training, professional activities). However, in scientific world it is still questionable as a defining principle of psychology.

Activity, on the one hand, is a condition for the development of personality and the manifestation of its qualities. On the other hand, the activity itself, in turn, depends on the level of development of the individual, acting as the subject of this activity.

PHYSIOLOGICAL BASES

The implementation of activity is carried out on the basis of psychophysiological mechanisms studied in line with the “physiology of activity” by N.A., Bernstein, the theory of “functional systems” by P.K. Anokhin and ideas about the systemic organization of higher cortical functions of A.R. Luria.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF SPECIES

There is a huge variety of human activities. In psychology, it is customary to distinguish the main types of activity: play, learning and work.

A game is a form of activity in conditional situations aimed at recreating and assimilating social experience, fixed in socially fixed ways of carrying out objective actions, in subjects of science and culture.

Game (children's) is a type of activity that involves children reproducing the actions of adults and the relationships between them, aimed at understanding the surrounding reality. I. serves as one of the most important means of physical, mental and moral education.

A business game is a special type of game used in vocational training. The essence of a business game is to recreate, with the help of simulation and game models, the subject, social and psychological content of the joint, professional work of a specialist, setting the holistic context of his professional activity.

Learning is the process of acquiring and consolidating knowledge and methods of activity by an individual. Teaching is a necessary component of any activity and represents a process of changing its subject.

Labor is a purposeful human activity aimed at changing and transforming reality to satisfy one’s needs, creating material and spiritual values.

According to another classification, there are: individual, group activities and socio-historical practice.

Individual activity is the activity of an individual.

Group activity - joint activity of a group of people

Leading activity is a type of activity in which qualitative changes in personality are formed in a given period, for example, play during preschool childhood.

PROPERTIES AND REGULARITIES

The main characteristics of activity are objectivity and subjectivity. Objectivity means that objects of the external world do not directly influence the subject, but only after being transformed in the process of activity, due to which they

greater adequacy of their reflection in consciousness is achieved. Objectivity is unique to human activity. The subjectivity of activity is expressed: in the conditioning of the mental image by past experiences, needs, attitudes, emotions, goals and motives that determine the direction and selectivity of activity, as well as in the personal meaning attached to various events, actions and deeds.

Human activity is social, transformative in nature and cannot be reduced to simply meeting needs, but is largely determined by the goals and requirements of society.

DEVELOPMENT IN ONTOGENESIS

It has been established in psychology (P.Ya. Galperin and others) that, in its origin, internal activity (mental, mental) is derived from external (objective) activity. Initially, the child performs objective actions and only then, as experience accumulates, he acquires the ability to perform the same actions in his mind (interiorizes). However, then the actions in the mind undergo a reverse transformation (exteriorization). The process of forming a mental action takes place in several stages: 1) the stage of external, objective action, 2) external speech, 3) internal speech and 4) mental action.

VIOLATIONS

Disturbances in activity are associated with violations of its structural components (goal setting, motivation, conditions, immaturity of skills and abilities, etc.).

Violation of the target structure of activity can manifest itself in a discrepancy between real and ideal goals or in their convergence.

Movement disorders may result from brain injuries.

MASTERING ACTIVITIES

Mastering an activity involves:

1) mastering goal setting, which includes motivation;

2) mastery of actions specific to a particular activity. The formation of actions and operations occurs in two ways: through imitation and through automation of actions.

twee. Automation can be performed at different levels - at the level of skill, skill and habit. Skills, abilities and habits are formed through repeated exercises.

Depending on the nature of the activity in which the skills are used, they are distinguished: household, industrial, sports, gaming, educational, labor, etc. Based on the form of mental reflection, they are distinguished: sensory, perceptual, mnemonic, mental, etc. skills.

The process of developing skills different people can occur with “positive” or “negative” acceleration. If the formation of a skill proceeds slowly at first and then quickly, the skill is formed with “positive” acceleration. If it is formed quickly at first and then slows down, then they say that the skill is formed with “negative” acceleration.

In the process of skill formation, old and new skills can interact. If the skills are similar, the old one can help form the new one (transfer phenomenon). Thus, the skill of playing the piano helps to develop the skill of typing on a typewriter. If the skills are different, then the old skill interferes with the formation of a new one (the phenomenon of interference). Moving the electrical switch in an apartment to another wall makes it difficult to find for some time. Indicators of skill development are the elements of the skill structure:

1) change in execution techniques (several actions are combined into one, the time to perform the action is reduced, unnecessary movements disappear);

2) changing the method of control (visual is replaced by tactile, for example when touch typing);

3) changing the methods of central regulation (attention is transferred to the goal).

If a skill becomes a need, then it is called a habit.