Migrations in the Middle Ages. The first “Great Migration”

More and more migrants and refugees from Africa, Asia and the Middle East continue to arrive in Europe. This flow will later go down in history as the largest mass migration of people in the era of globalization.

As one person noted: "History doesn't repeat itself, it rhymes"The current migration process is unique in its own way, but at the same time it has features that were inherent in large-scale migrations of the past.

Fleeing from poverty and wars in the hope of a better life pits the newcomer peoples against the indigenous ones, and in this collision, as always, many things are born: the shock of the invasion, the joy of finding a new home, relief after a long journey, hidden hatred of foreigners and their customs, worsening conflicts and a whole range of other human emotions, as well as long-term political and socio-economic consequences and changes.

Great Migration

"I would rather say that these are two-legged animals, and not people, or stone pillars, roughly hewn in the image of a person, which are displayed on bridges. This disgusting appearance corresponds to their habits, characteristic of cattle: they eat food uncooked and unseasoned; instead of ordinary food supplies, they are content with wild roots and the meat of the first animal they come across, which they put under their seat on the horse and soften it that way.

They live roaming among forests and mountains, hardened by cold and hunger. They wear clothing like a tunic made of linen or fur and, once they have put their head through it, they do not let it fall from their shoulders until it falls off in rags. They cover their heads with fur hats with edges and wrap their hairy legs in goatskin.

All of them, without shelter, without a homeland, without any habit of a sedentary life, wander in space, as if everyone were running further, carrying their carts behind them, where their wives work for them, give birth to and raise their children... "

Attila and his hordes invade Italy. Eugene Delacroix

This is how the ancient Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus (who, by the way, was a Syrian Greek by origin) described the Huns in his work “Acts” (Res Gestae, also known as “History” or “Roman History”), commenting on the invasion of barbarian tribes into Europe in the middle of IV century AD e.

Experts are still arguing about the reasons for the mass migration of nomads. Some talk about “global climate change”: severe droughts have led to the depletion of lands controlled by nomadic tribes. The increase in population also played a role. As a result, the barbarians began to increasingly visit the inhabitants of the European part of the Roman Empire.

The expansion of the living space of the Huns, Goths, Vandals and other tribes and their penetration deep into Europe lasted for several centuries. Increasing cultural, linguistic and religious conflicts between the Germanic tribes and the sedentary population ultimately led to the collapse of Rome and the destruction of the empire.

The newcomers arriving in Europe today do not wear goatskins or fur tunics. However, in many other respects, their invasion of modern Europe looks as stunning as the barbarian invasion looked to the citizens of the Roman Empire 15 centuries ago.

What is driving people from different parts of Africa and Eurasia today? In this crisis, it is quite difficult to distinguish between refugees and migrants. Many truly lost everything they had in the bloody chaos of the wars in Syria, Iraq, Libya and other conflicts. Others flocked to the Old World in search of new opportunities, escaping poverty in their native lands.

Intercontinental migrations

In search of new opportunities, many migrants of the past traveled even further than those fleeing to Europe today. The European and African ancestors of today's Americans, Canadians, and residents of South America followed the discoverers of new continents, from the Old World to the New.

At the same time, according to many estimates, the number of slaves imported from Africa is up to early XIX V. exceeded the number of free people. A number of historians note that in the period 1492–1776. of the 6.5 million immigrants who crossed the Atlantic and settled in Western Hemisphere, only 1 million people were Europeans. The remaining 5.5 million were slaves brought from Africa by force.

During the nineteenth century. The scale of intercontinental migration is growing - due to relative overpopulation in some countries and labor shortages in others. In addition to the main migration destinations - the USA, Canada, as well as a number of countries in South America - following exiled prisoners in search of better life people went to Australia and New Zealand.

At the same time, as during the Great Migration of Peoples in the IV-VII centuries. in Europe, conquistadors and adventurers of all stripes and the waves of migrants that followed them crushed the old order of life in those parts of the world where they came to plunder and settle their new world.

The new beginning and expansion of living space for the Old World colonists and their slaves became an apocalypse for the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Many tribes and peoples were completely exterminated, their cultures and value systems were erased from the face of the Earth.

The genocide of the Aborigines of Australia and Tasmania by British colonists also went down in history and was described by a number of contemporaries, in particular Charles Darwin, as well as military historian and correspondent Alan Moorehead.

Intercontinental migration to the Americas reached its maximum at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1900–1914 About 20 million people left Europe, approximately 3/5 of this number settled in the United States. The subsequent world wars had a serious impact on the destinies and lives of many people and migration flows.

Immediately after the First World War, the intensity of intercontinental migration fell sharply. A number of countries, in particular the USA and Australia, introduced restrictive measures for migrants at the legislative level, and after a surge in the early 1920s. Subsequently, the number of overseas migrants began to decline again.

World Wars I and II

The First World War led to massive displacement of the peoples of Europe. People were forced to flee from war zones both to other areas of their countries and to neutral countries. However, a much more serious factor was the conclusion of peace treaties and the establishment of new state borders following the results of the war. National minority groups were forced to leave their former places of residence, often involving forced deportations. In particular, over 500 thousand Germans were resettled from the territory that was transferred from Germany to Poland, and more than 200 thousand Hungarians were forced to leave the territory of Czechoslovakia. Groups of the German-Austrian population moved to Austria from areas that previously belonged to Austria-Hungary.

The Second World War further accelerated the movement of population groups of one nationality from one country to another. Before the start of the war, more than 12 million Germans lived in the countries of Eastern and South-Eastern Europe, in the territories of Hungary, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.

Those who did not return to Germany with the retreating German troops were resettled in Germany in the years after World War II under the decisions of the Potsdam Conference of 1945. Many countries in Eastern Europe also exchanged national minorities, again due to changes in state borders following the war.

At the same time, the Second World War led to a new intensification of intercontinental migrations. In particular, during the repatriation of the Japanese from areas of China, Korea, and other areas of Asia, about 6.3 million people were resettled to Japan.

Great Depression in the USA

An example of large-scale flight from poverty was migration within the United States during Great Depression and series dust storms 1930s

By some estimates, more than 1 million Americans, impoverished by the economic and environmental crises, have traveled across the continent in search of work.

The reality of poverty and desperation, as well as the contempt with which desperate migrants in the western states were met, was described by John Steinbeck in The Grapes of Wrath:

"And in the eyes of people there is a feeling of powerlessness and despair, in the eyes of the hungry anger is brewing. In the souls of people, grapes of anger are pouring and ripening - heavy grapes, and now they will not ripen for long".

Populations in some rural counties in Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas have dropped by more than 25%. At the same time, in a number of districts in western states (California, Nevada), the population has almost doubled. Los Angeles County's population grew by more than 500,000 people, the largest increase of any county in all American states in the period 1930–1940

From all over the world to Israel

The very emergence of Israel as a separate state after a long period of time since quite ancient times, the resettlement of Jews around the world and the persecution to which they were subjected in various countries - this issue will most likely be the subject of all sorts of disputes and conspiracy theories for a very long time.

One way or another, the migration of Jews in a series of so-called “aliyahs” to the territory of the future state of Israel and their repatriation after the official creation of the country in 1948 became a finding of home (perhaps the most long-awaited in history) for some and a disaster for others. According to some estimates, after the division of Palestine in 1947, more than 700 thousand Palestinian Arabs were forced to flee the territories occupied by Israel.

Since the founding of the State of Israel, surrounded Arab countries, is fighting for existence and capturing more and more new territories. The ongoing practice of demolishing Palestinian settlements in territories captured after the Six Day War in 1967 is just one example of what giving one ethnic group a home has meant to others.

Resettlement 2.0: changing the face of Europe

What conclusions can be drawn from these and many other similar migration processes?

Firstly, migrants are fleeing to Europe not only from the countries of the Middle East or specifically from Syria, as a number of political figures are trying to present.

Migrants from African countries, as well as Central Asia (in particular, Afghanistan) also represent a fairly significant share of those eager to enter the EU.

Data: EU External Border Security Agency, graphics: BBC

Secondly, the migration crisis did not begin this year. The flow of migrants, measured in tens of thousands in 2012, has grown significantly over the past few years. The late reaction of the authorities indicates their low ability to analyze further migration trends.

Thirdly, statements by Prime Ministers of Britain and France David Cameron and Manuel Valls about the need to “remove Assad with the help of military force“- in 2015, after since 2011 the authorities of these countries have done virtually nothing to destroy the Islamists tearing Syria and Iraq apart, they speak of their inability to understand the cause-and-effect relationships in the current crisis.

After the “humanitarian” bombing of Libya during NATO’s Operation Unified Protector and the subsequent virtual political and economic collapse of Libya, the flow of migrants to Europe only intensified. Will it become smaller after the complete destruction of the remnants of statehood in Syria?..

In addition, statements by European Commission President Jean-Claude Juncker that another 160 thousand migrants planned for resettlement in EU countries represent "only 0.11% of Europe's population", also call into question the EU authorities' ability to resolve the current crisis.

Data: UN Refugee Agency, Graphics: BBC

If Brussels could predict social stability society, calculating the growing share of migrants in Europe, then it is possible that European Commissioners could see some connection between the ethnic riots that occurred in Sweden in 2014 and the increase in incoming migrants.

Europe is on the verge of a new round of worsening social tension. At the same time, the growth of nationalist sentiments is most likely inevitable, which will strengthen the positions of parties that openly criticize the continuation of European integration and the loss of national sovereignty and control of individual countries over their borders.

There are already open questions about what will happen to the Schengen agreements on free movement within the EU. But what will happen to the very future appearance of Europe? Will the future face of the average European become a little more Syrian-Iraqi? Or will the Malian-Somali features emerge more strongly?..

There is a certain non-zero and growing risk that while Brussels is calculating interest and distributing quotas for the resettlement of migrants, not everyone will want to wear masks of tolerance.

Individual law-abiding citizens of Europe may in the future decide to stop being such and, without waiting for the moment when Messrs. Cameron, Waltz, Juncker and others deign to “find a solution,” they themselves will begin to “solve problems” - and with exactly the same methods that the European authorities propose for Syria and other countries.

The Great Migration of Peoples is considered a unique phenomenon in the history of the transition period. This era (no longer Antiquity, but not yet the Middle Ages) was limited by time and territorial boundaries. In the period from the 2nd to the 7th century, the interaction between civilization and barbarism began to develop intensively in Africa, Asia, and Europe. As a result, a new

The Great Migration of Peoples determined the further direction of the development of Europe and gave a powerful impetus to the formation of new nationalities, states, and languages. A spiritual and socio-psychological atmosphere, morality and ethics began to emerge.

The Great Migration of Peoples began at a time when the southern and western parts of Europe were occupied by ancient civilization. It existed within the framework of the Roman state. Central and Eastern European territory was inhabited by tribes of Balts, Finno-Ugric peoples, Germans, Slavs and other peoples who did not have

The Germans began the Great Migration. Following them, numerous nomadic tribes and associations began to move to Europe from Asia. This resulted in movements among the local population.

Many tribes left their inhabited places and went on wanderings. This became the reason for the formation of the peoples of ancient and modern Europe. The barbarian tribes rushed mainly into the region, which at that time was experiencing internal contradictions.

Researchers divide the Great Migration into three stages.

The first is considered the Germanic period. It lasted from the 2nd to the 4th centuries. This era covers the time from the Marcomannic battles to the Battle of Adrianople.

The second period, the Hunnic, lasted from the 4th to the 5th century - the time between the Battle of Adrianople and the Battle of Catalaunian fields.

The third stage (from the 6th to the 7th century) is called Slavic. This period is associated with the movement of Slavic tribes in Central, South-Eastern and Eastern Europe.

Each period had its own characteristics. The stages were different ethnic composition, the position of the tribes, the direction and result to which the Great Migration led.

The Slavs were a vast people. The tribes were not isolated, they developed intensively and established interethnic contacts. That time was characterized by both peaceful neighborhood and confrontation. The compositions changed over time, nationalities mixed with each other and with other peoples. Along with the perception of the new culture, old traditions were preserved. The Great Migration contributed to the division of tribes. At the same time, new nationalities with new names were formed.

The Slavs began moving south. Their migration was completed by the 7th century. Having settled, they began to unite with the Celts, Illyrians, and Thracians. The Turkic-speaking Bulgars “dissolved” in their midst. The Slavs established contacts with the Greeks and Epirotes, thus laying the foundation for the development of South Slavic ethnic groups.

It is necessary to note two interrelated components in the ethnic space of resettlement. The first, undoubtedly, are the peoples and tribes who were the real participants in the movements. The second component is the idea of ​​these nationalities, embodied both in ancient literature and in modern national historiography.

The causes of the Great Migration consist of various factors. The main impetus for the beginning of the movement of tribes is considered to be a qualitative shift in economic life. Within the Germanic and Slavic tribes there was a growth and a fairly large number of people free from productive labor. The elite sought wealth. Campaigns in the Roman Empire became a means of obtaining wealth. At the same time, the ground was being prepared for subsequent resettlement.

Our civilization knows many facts about the great migration of peoples. The first millennium was a time of great migration of the peoples of Europe and Asia. It would later be called the “Great Migration” or “ethnic revolution.” As a result of large-scale movements of people, the boundaries of settlements changed, entire states disappeared, ethnic components mixed, and new nationalities were formed. Historians believe that this migration of people became the basis of the ethnopolitical situation of the modern world.

Researchers are confident that the reason for most mass movements of people is leaving impoverished and unfavorable regions in order to find lands attractive for living. One of the main reasons for the mass exodus of people from inhabited territories in 535-536 was climatic cooling. In this regard, the population from cold regions rushed to areas with a warmer and milder climate.

Subsequently, numerous migrations of people were associated with the Arab conquests, Norman expeditions, Mongol campaigns and the creation of the Ottoman Empire. Large-scale migrations can rightfully include the mass emigration of people from the European continent to the USA, Australia and Canada in the 19th and 20th centuries. And also the resettlement of Jews to Palestine in the 20th century. IN modern world migration flows go from poor or war-torn countries to rich, comfortable conditions life.

Man, as a rational being, has achieved power on Earth, but it is not unlimited. Society cannot control floods, tsunamis, earthquakes, is unable to prevent drought, volcanic eruptions... The result of these natural disasters: death of people, destruction of housing, water sources, rendering fertile areas of land unusable. The consequence of these disasters is the migration of people from the affected areas. But, since the indigenous population of the regions where the flow of refugees is sent is not always happy to accept them, it is possible that uninvited migrants will come not asking for help, but with. Humanity spends too wastefully and thoughtlessly Natural resources. It is likely that it may begin fierce fight for the mastery of territories rich in natural resources. And it’s not just natural resources, oil and gas - a war could start because the attackers lack drinking water or food.

If we analyze the conflicts taking place in the world, we can conclude that in the future the world will face a fierce struggle for the possession of hydrocarbon raw materials with the use of armed violence. Research by the British Petroleum company states that proven sources of oil are sufficient to supply the planet, but the need for them in the last five years has significantly exceeded the level of the 90s. Currently, humanity consumes about 85 million barrels of oil every day. IEA experts believe that by 2030, oil consumption per day will be 113 million barrels. Total oil reserves are estimated at 15 trillion. barrels. The severity of the oil problem is created by the fact that the sources of production have an uneven geographical distribution.

An equally tense situation has arisen in the market natural gas. For the European Union and developing China, uninterrupted supplies of blue fuel are vital. The population of these countries requires their leadership to take steps to ensure a guaranteed supply of this natural fuel in the required volumes and at a price favorable to citizens and corporations.

But the most pressing problem facing humanity in the future will be the shortage of drinking water - by 2030, half of the world's population will not have enough of it.

The Earth's biological resources are being depleted: soil, forests, water. They don't have time to reproduce naturally. Disagreements in the field of ecology can lead to violent actions by some entities against others in order to reduce the risks of man-made disasters.

From the above, it is clear that military conflicts and mass population movements are possible in the future due to changes in climatic conditions in certain regions of the planet.

Let's remember the earthquake in Haiti in 2010: more than 200 thousand people died, 3 million residents lost their homes. Currently, the number of migrants from Haiti annually amounts to 6% of the country's total population.

At the request of the Pentagon, futurologists prepared a report on possible conflicts in the future due to natural disasters.

Here is some data from this report:

2015 will bring Europe clashes over food, energy and drinking water. Only Russian help can save Europeans from energy shortages.

In 2018, perhaps China will undertake military operation against Kazakhstan with the aim of taking control of oil and gas pipelines passing through the territory of this Central Asian country.

2020 will bring another problem to Europe - an increase in the flow of migrants, which will exceed the existing shortage of drinking water. Note that back in 2006, the World Council on water resources noted that 41 million Europeans lack drinking water, and 80 million Europeans have neither sewerage nor drainage systems.

2022 – a conflict between France and Germany over the Rhine River is likely. Rhine is not only the most large river Europe, but also the natural border between Liechtenstein and Switzerland, Germany and France, Austria and Switzerland. These countries now face the difficult task of keeping the Rhine waters free from pollution, since this river is their main source of drinking water. The fate of millions of Europeans depends on whether the parties reach an agreement.

In 2025-2030, the collapse of the European Union is possible, which will lead to the migration of Europeans to the southern Mediterranean. Relocation rates could reach 10% of Europe's population. The large-scale transition of the peoples of Northern Europe to the south will be facilitated by climate change - it will become much more severe. Migrants from Turkey, Tunisia and Libya will also flock to the south of Europe. It is now difficult to imagine how the situation in the European south will develop in this case.

By 2030, relations between Japan and China may worsen over raw material sources.

As for the United States, this country is threatened by a flow of migrants from the Caribbean islands, and starting in 2015, Europeans will immigrate en masse to America.

It is expected that due to a significant increase in oil prices by 2020, a number of serious conflicts will arise between the leading world powers. And sooner or later it is in the area Persian Gulf There will be a conflict between the United States and China in the struggle for oil sources.

The governments of China, Pakistan and India will make every effort to maintain power. And to do this, they can plunge their peoples into a large-scale military conflict. Crowds of hungry people will seek refuge in other countries of the world.

It is believed that the grain-producing regions of the world will be able to maintain a stable position in the event of a global climate catastrophe - these are Argentina, Russia and the USA.

Some countries will unite in the face of the possibility of an external threat: Mexico, Canada and the USA will create single state. The main task of which will be the fight against uncontrolled migration from Europe and Asia.

The unification of Korea will benefit both countries: the entire Korean population will have access to Newest technologies, which Seoul previously possessed. A unified Korea will become a nuclear power.

In Africa, in the future, constant military conflicts are possible, so the resettlement of Europeans or Asians there is unlikely to happen.

The report of American scientists indicates that Russia, having become part of a united Europe by 2030, will become a supplier of energy resources, food and fresh water to Europeans.

UN specialists also prepared a report on possible migration processes and regional conflicts in the future.

According to their forecasts, Africa faces the spread of AIDS, a water crisis and an avalanche-like migration of the population to Europe. By 2025, an armed conflict will arise between the states located on the banks of the Nile.

The mass migration of people from many countries to the south of Europe could provoke a revolt against dark-skinned foreigners. Europeans will be forced not only to finance famine-stricken countries, but to create camps for refugees.

The current increase in droughts in Latin America will lead to an agricultural crisis in the future. For example, last year in Brazil, a drought that affected its northeastern regions caused a difficult food situation in more than 1,000 cities in the country. Fights over water have become more frequent in rural areas. The water crisis has led to bankruptcy of many farms. More than half of the livestock was lost. There has already been a reduction in the harvest of legumes, soybeans and grain crops. UN experts believe that in the future the ecological balance of the Amazon may be completely disrupted and Latin America will face an intensifying struggle for the possession of fertile lands.

The Asian region will not have problems with drinking water, but this part of the planet is threatened in the future by powerful cyclones and rising water levels.

Pakistan's rivers may dry up. This will lead to tension throughout the region. And it is possible that a war will break out between India and Pakistan. What the opponents of this confrontation have nuclear weapon, will further worsen the situation throughout the world.

China will face a very difficult situation: the south of the country will suffer from heavy rainfall, and the northern regions will turn into desert due to severe drought. The Chinese coast will be devastated by typhoons. Thousands of refugees will head to the south of the country to escape climate disaster. The Chinese government will try to cope with the chaos with the help of the army, possibly using weapons.

The United States will try to block the flow of migrants into its territory from its southern border. In border cities, the crime rate will increase due to crowds. Thus, according to currently available information, the majority of illegal migrants ended up in the United States by crossing the border with Mexico: 90% of them are of Mexican origin.

According to a forecast report by UN experts, American cities could be destroyed by severe hurricanes. If the American oil production infrastructure is destroyed, the United States will be forced to use its strategic reserve, which will significantly weaken the country.

We must pay tribute to the US leadership: they took information about possible climate disasters in the world very seriously. The Pentagon has already developed a military training program to provide assistance to the affected regions. New “desert” diets have been introduced for soldiers, the necessary uniforms have been prepared, and new types of weapons have been created.

Russia also changed its priorities regarding types of weapons, significantly reducing purchases of traditional weapons, and began building frigates and landing ships. Consequently, the Russian military plans in the future to switch to a “gunboat policy” in relation to a potential enemy. The decline in the country's population and the decline in the power of the armed forces do not add optimism to the future Russian state. The optimal strategy for Russia is to strengthen the state’s armed forces while simultaneously solving the demographic problem of increasing the country’s indigenous population.

Materials used:
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http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C2%E5%EB%E8%EA%EE%E5_%EF%E5%F0%E5%F1%E5%EB%E5%ED%E8%E5_%ED %E0%F0%EE%E4%EE%E2

The era of migration of peoples also represents a period of searching for land. The end of the Middle Ages and almost all of the new centuries are devoted, at least in Europe, mainly to the creation of people's states and laws suitable for economic and industrial development.

Having touched on the past migration of peoples, which so changed the picture of the whole world, with the exception, perhaps, of only China, I cannot help but dwell at least for a moment on the current and future situation of this subject, because its significance, without a doubt, is higher than many other things considered very important.

Of course, the resettlement of peoples is the fault of Stalin and his political circle. At the same time, it should be recognized that among the deported peoples there were renegades. So, in 1943, dozens of armed groups, hundreds of fascist collaborators, thousands of deserters were neutralized (Bugai N.F. Why people were resettled.

In the USSR, the forced resettlement of peoples to the east. In 1941-42, 13 thousand Germans arrived in Bashkortostan.

Strangely wedged into the panorama of the migration of peoples, the story of Slavic literacy continues. And its chronicle dates back to the time when the Slavs lived already baptized.

There is no doubt that the Germans, right up to the migration of peoples, were organized into clans. They seem to have occupied the territory between the Danube, Rhinenot, Vistula and the northern seas only a few centuries before our era; the migration of the Cimbri and Teutons was then still in full swing, and the Suevi settled firmly only during the time of Caesar. Of the latter, Caesar definitely says that they settled in clans and related groups (gentibus cognationibusque) 141, and in the mouth of the Roman from gens Julia this word gen-tibus has a very definite and indisputable meaning.

There is no doubt that the Germans, right up to the migration of peoples, were organized into clans. They apparently occupied the territory between the Danube, Rhine, Vistula and the northern seas only a few centuries before our time; the migration of the Cimbri and Teutons was then still in full swing, and the Suevi settled firmly only during the time of Caesar.

News of Byzantine historians, explaining the Russian history of ancient times and the migration of peoples.

This ancient so-called tribal nobility for the most part perished during the migration of peoples or shortly after it. Military leaders were elected regardless of origin, solely on the basis of ability. Their power was small, and they had to influence by example; Tacitus definitely attributes the actual disciplinary power in the army to the priests.

Interregional migration is also characterized by forced migration from Chechnya (200 thousand people), resettlement repressed peoples and ethnic migration (mostly Russians) from the national republics of the Russian Federation.

The Federal Migration Service was created in June 1992. Its main tasks are: formation of the migration policy of the Russian Federation; forecasting migration processes; protecting the rights of migrants; development of migration programs; organization of external labor migration and migration control; providing information to migrants (through authorities state power And local government) O populated areas recommended for permanent residence, about employment opportunities in them; finalization and adjustment of the long-term Migration program aimed at solving the problems of refugees, internally displaced persons, resettlement of repressed peoples, migrants from third countries; conclusion of annual agreements with the former union republics on quotas for entry into the Russian Federation, on the rights of national minorities, principles for determining citizenship, and property rights of migrants. In its activities, the Federal Migration Service is guided by the laws of the Russian Federation on refugees and forced migrants.

They are home to about 1 billion people and produce almost a third of the harvest of many agricultural crops. Forced migrations of peoples to the interior of continents are fraught with military conflicts and social upheavals.

Forced migration is associated with tragic, in most cases military, events. In these cases, there is a massive resettlement of people. Displaced people are forced to leave their once inhabited places and become refugees. The problem of forced migration leads to acute, difficult to resolve socio-economic and political conflicts. The reasons for this kind of migration are events in Chechnya, Tajikistan, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan and other places.

During the Middle Ages, the foundations of Western European civilization were laid, which, as most researchers believe, is the fruit of a synthesis of ancient and barbarian societies. They began to actively interact during the so-called great migration of peoples in the 4th-6th centuries.

la to the Hellenization of many “barbarian” peoples.

Migrations in Ancient Rome. On the territory of modern Italy, the first migrations are associated with the Etruscan tribes, who originally lived between the Tiber and Arno rivers. In the 7th century BC e. The Etruscans began to spread their influence to neighboring regions - Campania, the north of the Apennine Peninsula and the Po River valley. The Etruscans founded the cities of Capua, Nola, Mantua, Spina, and some believe Rome.

Further migration of the Etruscans to the south of the Apennine Peninsula was hampered by the presence of Greek colonies. However, the influence in the territories they conquered was so great that the Etruscan dynasty seized power in Rome for some time. But in 509 BC. e. The Etruscans lost their dominant position in Italy. From the very beginning of its existence, Rome waged constant wars with its neighbors either to maintain independence or for new lands.

By the 3rd century. BC e. almost all of Italy came under the rule of Rome, then more and more new territories were included in the state, which were proclaimed provinces: in the 3rd century. BC e. Corsica, Sardinia and Illyria were captured; in the 2nd century BC e. Rome established itself in Greece, Asia Minor, Numidia (Eastern Algeria), and Scandinavia. Constant commercial migrations contributed to the spread of elements of Etruscan and Greek culture among the settlers.

Germanic tribes originally lived in Northern Germany between Ames and Oder and in the

pax Harz, in southern Sweden and Jutland (the Romans called “Germans” all the tribes living in Europe beyond the border of the Roman Empire, which ran along the Rhine and Danube). They were characterized by active migration processes.

At the end of the Bronze Age - around 800 BC. e. - The Germans began migrating to the areas inhabited by the Celts. Overpopulation in the upper reaches of the Rhine and Danube, as well as the threat from the north from the Germans, forced the Celts to migrate through the Alps to Northern Italy - to the Padanian Plain. The Celts made repeated attacks on Roman territories in the 3rd century BC. e. In eastern central Europe, the Celts advanced into the Balkans and Greece. Migration destroyed the unity of the Celtic La Tène culture.

The Germanic tribes were characterized by increased migration mobility, which is associated with several reasons: a sharp deterioration in climate, the encroachment of the sea on land, the lack of a culture of rational land use, overpopulation of the territory, and rumors about the wealth of Rome.

Around 105 BC e. The Germanic tribes of the Cymri, Teutons and Ambrones, who originally lived on the Jutland Peninsula and in northeastern Germany, began to move. They won several victories over the Romans and migrated into the Roman Empire. The Cymry reached Spain, and the Teutons settled in Gaul.

Around this time, around 100 BC. e., another Germanic tribe - the Lombards - moved from the island of Gotland to the south of the Baltic Sea, where they encountered the Vandals. The Germanic tribe of Suevi, who lived on the Elbe River, migrated further south to the Main River area and southern Germany. The deserted territories were inhabited by vandals.

In the 1st century BC e. Rome annexed Gaul to its possessions, having won a series of victories over the German tribes of the Suevi, Helvetii, Belgians, Aquitans, Arverni, Bithuringi, etc. The new border of the Roman Empire now ran along the Rhine-Main line.

Weser-Maas. Gradually, the Germans became Romanized, adopting some elements of the culture of the Romans. Gradually in Europe, Roman culture replaced Celtic culture, which was facilitated by mass migration of the population.

Migrations in the Middle Ages

The Middle Ages were characterized by an intensification of the migration movement, due to which the ethnic, cultural and political appearance of the European continent changed.

Great Migration- the conventional name for the era of mass migrations of Hunnic, Germanic, Alan and other tribes in Europe between the 2nd and 7th centuries, which captured almost the entire continent and radically changed its ethnic, cultural and political appearance. The period of the Great Migration of Peoples consists of three main stages.

The first stage of the Great Migration, called “Germanic”, began in the 2nd century. with the resettlement of the Goths, who migrated from the territory of Central Sweden along the Vistula to the Black Sea coast. In 238, the Goths crossed the border of the Roman Empire on the Lower Danube, and their squads raided Black Sea coast. Around 269, the Goths split into the Ostrogoths, who occupied vast areas in the Northern Black Sea region, and the Visigoths, most of whom moved to the Balkans. In addition, from the 3rd century. German tribes invaded the Roman Empire: Alemanni, Vandals, Saxons, and Franks. The end of the first stage dates back to 378 - the Battle of Adriano-Polish.

Second stage of the Great Migration began in 378, with the invasion of Europe by the Huns - nomads

from the steppes Central Asia Turkic or Mongolian origin. At the beginning of the migration, the Huns subjugated the Alans, then defeated the Ostrogoths, and pushed the Visigoths to the west. And although the Romans managed to stop the expansion of the Huns in 451 in the territory

modern France, this invasion set in motion the tribes bordering the Roman Empire, hastening its conquest and collapse. The Huns themselves “dissolved” among the later migrating tribes. The Visigoths migrated to Greece in 400 and then moved to Italy; in 410 they captured Rome. After this, they settled in the south of Gaul and penetrated the Iberian Peninsula, where they created their own kingdom.

To fight the Visigoths, the Romans were forced to withdraw their troops from Gaul, which was taken advantage of by the Vandals and Suevi, who migrated initially to Gaul and then (in 409) to Spain. The Suevi formed their own kingdom in the west of the Iberian Peninsula. The Vandals first settled in Andalusia in the south of the Iberian Peninsula, and in 429 they crossed to North Africa and created a German kingdom with its capital in Carthage. The Alemanni tribes crossed the Rhine and occupied southwestern Germany, Alsace, and most of Switzerland, but they were later conquered by the Franks. The Ostrogoths crossed into Italy in 488, taking possession of the entire Alpine region. northeastern part Roman province of Illyria on the Balkan Peninsula. Ravenna became the capital of the Ostrogothic kingdom, which included Italy, Pannonia and Illyria. In 555 the kingdom fell under the blows of Byzantium.

In the III-IV centuries. Franks (“brave”) from the right bank of the Rhine gradually migrated to Gaul. In the 5th century King Clovis expanded the Frankish possessions all the way to the Pyrenees. In 486, the Frankish Kingdom was formed on the territory of Gaul, the main ethnic groups in which were the Franks and Gallo-Romans. Gradually, the Franks captured almost all the possessions of the Visigoths and Burgundians, and subjugated the Germans who lived beyond the Rhine - the Thuringians, Alamans, and Bavarians. Initially, the Franks settled isolated from the Gallo-Roman population, but a process of ethnic mixing gradually took place, the pace of which varied greatly in different parts of the country.

Saxons, Angles and Jutes began to migrate from the Jutland Peninsula. Some of the Saxons penetrated far into

south - to lower Saxony, Westphalia and Thuringia. Another part of the Saxons, together with the Angles and Jutes, migrated in the V-VI centuries. to the British Isles, where several German state formations arose in the 9th century. became a single kingdom. Germanic settlers pushed the Celtic tribes of the Picts and Scots into the highlands in the west of the island (Wales and Cornwall), and some moved to the continent

- to the Brittany Peninsula. Anglo-Saxon migration to Britain largely ended in the 7th century. The final events of the second stage are considered to be the invasion of the Lombards into the territory of modern

As a result of intensive migrations in Europe, a synthesis of ancient and barbarian cultures began. It took place most actively in northeastern Gaul. The process of ethnic and cultural mixing depended on several factors:

■ the synthesis proceeded faster in areas where the Romans were numerically superior to the Germans;

■ on the nature of the settlement of barbarians on the territory of the empire, i.e. if they settled isolated from the Romans, this slowed down the rate of mixing;

■ the cultural level of the newcomer and local population played a significant role;

■ the adoption of Christianity by some Germans and the possibility of marriage with the Romans significantly accelerated the process of their cultural assimilation;

■ harsh conditions had a certain influence on slowing down the pace of cultural synthesis climatic conditions(for example, in Scandinavia).The third stage of the Great Migration associated with the invasion of Slavic tribes on Balkan Peninsula and the territory of Byzantium. The ancestral home of the Slavs extended from the Carpathians to the area between the Vistula and the Dnieper. In the north it bordered on the territory occupied by the Baltic tribes; in the southeast, in the Lower Volga region, the neighbors of the Slavs in ancient times were the nomadic tribes of the Iranian group - the Scythians, Sarmatians and Alans. From the 5th century a separate movement began

ny Slavic tribes to the west, beyond the Vistula. Another stream of migrants moved to the lower reaches of the Danube and to Byzantium; in 636 the Slavs reached the coast of the Adriatic Sea. Somewhat later, under the onslaught of the Avars, the Slavs continued their migrations to Eastern Europe. Some of them settled in Pannonia, others in Moravia and the Czech Republic, others moved to the Balkan Peninsula, and then even to Asia Minor. In the Balkans, the Slavs assimilated the local tribes, while further south the Slavs themselves merged with the indigenous population. As a result of these migrations, the Slavs occupied vast territories in Eastern Europe.

Sometimes the Arab conquests of the 7th - 11th centuries, the campaigns of the Normans at the end of the 8th - 11th centuries, and the settlement of Pannonia by the Hungarians at the end of the 9th century are considered the third stage of the Great Migration.

It is difficult to estimate the number of peoples who participated in the resettlement. According to some sources, the Visigoths, who occupied the Roman province of Moesia in 376, numbered 15 thousand people; the Vandals who moved to Italy in 406 - presumably from 200 to 400 thousand people; Slavs who crossed the river in 557

Danube to the Balkans, there were up to 100 thousand people.

So, thanks to intensive migrations during the era of the Great Migration of Peoples of Europe, not only the ethnic “face” changed dramatically, but also the pace of socio-economic and social development accelerated.

Arab migration

The Arabs are a Semitic people who originally lived in the Arabian Peninsula, they were engaged in nomadic camel breeding (Bedouin) and caravan trade, making seasonal migrations.

In the 620s. Islam arose among them and the rulers began an active policy of conquest in relation to neighboring territories. Arab Caliphs conquered the countries of the Near and Middle East, North Africa, South Western Europe. During the Arab conquests, the Caliphate was created - a theocratic state.

The Arabs actively assimilated the culture of the peoples they conquered, in turn passing on to them their language, writing, religion, etc. The interaction of the Arabs and the conquered peoples led to the formation of medieval Arab culture.

The liberation struggle of the peoples of Central Asia, Iran, Transcaucasia (2nd half of the 9th - 10th centuries), as well as Spain (Reconquista, 8th - 15th centuries) led to their liberation from Arab rule. Subsequently, Arab states were formed in large areas of the Near and Middle East and North Africa.

Reconquista

Reconquista was the name given to the process of return and colonization by the peoples of the Iberian Peninsula of territories occupied by Muslims; all population groups of Christian states were interested in it. Quite intensive migrations on the Iberian Peninsula are associated with this process.

The Reconquista lasted almost 8 centuries and had its own characteristics various stages history of Spain. Until the middle of the 8th century. The Reconquista was characterized by the resettlement of people from the south to the north, the development of the interior of Spain by people from devastated regions and emigrants - Mozarabs. Subsequently (until the middle of the 9th century), the settlement of the uninhabited border lands of Spain was carried out by peasants, and later the state took part in the resettlement. The Franks made a special contribution to the Reconquista, who in the 8th century. conquered Catalonia from the Arabs, and in the 9th - 10th centuries. - north of the peninsula (County of Aragon and Kingdom of Navarre).

Despite the successful completion of the Reconquista in Spain, Arabs began to occupy a significant place in the total population. In addition, one of the consequences of the Arab conquests was the spread of Islam, Arab culture and philosophy.

Migrations of "barbarian" peoples

The ancient Greeks called barbarians peoples who did not speak English. Greek. These included the Scythian nomads who migrated from the Central Asian steppes in the 9th-8th centuries. BC e. and settled in the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region. Later (about 650 BC) the Scythians invaded Western Asia and reached Egypt. Their migrations were mainly in the nature of military campaigns or were associated with nomadic cattle breeding.

IN VIII century BC e. Western and Central Europe were inhabited by Celtic and Germanic tribes. The Celts occupied the territory of modern Southern Germany, central part Czech Republic and France. They dominated Western and Central Europe between 1000 and 500 BC e. and created a culture known as La Tène. The Celts traded from the Mediterranean to Palestine, Syria, Egypt and Persia.

IN VIII century The Arabs conquered North Africa and conquered almost the entire Iberian Peninsula and Southern France. In the 9th century. they captured Crete, Sicily and southern Italy. Transcaucasia was conquered in the east, Central Asia, Iran, Afghanistan, India and China.

The local population sometimes accepted the Arabs as liberators from Byzantine and Persian rule, and some conquered peoples converted to Islam. Other peoples, while maintaining their religion, adopted the culture of the Arabs - these were called Mozarabs, or “Arabized.”

Viking Age

The Vikings were warlike tribes that lived in Scandinavia and carried out sea predatory and trading expeditions to various countries from the 8th century. (in France the Vikings were called “Normans”, in England - “Danes”, in Germany - “Ascemanns”, in Rus' - “Varangians”, and in Byzantium - “Varangs”,

in the rest of Europe - “northern people”).

The main reason for the Viking migration was the severe shortage of land in Scandinavia (not just their warrior spirit). England, Ireland, as well as cities in Europe were attacked. Gradually the Vikings gained a foothold on the coast of northern England, from the 10th century. The Vikings launched a massive and organized attack on Europe: Rus', Byzantium, France, Spain, Italy were attacked, they conquered Naples and the island of Sicily. In 1066 they seized royal power in England. They served as mercenaries in Rus' and Byzantium. (some domestic historians believe that since 862 the Varangian princes - the Rurikovichs - began to rule in Rus').

In addition to seizing populated lands, the Vikings also carried out peaceful colonization of undeveloped territories. In 874 they discovered and settled Iceland, in the 80s. X century - Greenland, and in 986 they crossed to America.

The Vikings were also engaged in trade - it was they who discovered the famous route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” along the rivers Ancient Rus'. Gradually their onslaught on Western Europe weakened, in the 11th century. Scandinavia developed its own kingdoms, and the Vikings - the conquerors of Normandy, England, Italy, Ireland and Sicily - gradually mixed with local population these territories.

Some researchers tend to see the Viking campaigns as the last wave of the Great Migration. Like the Germans, they did not limit themselves to attacks, but moved to conquered countries. The Vikings provided big influence to change the social, political and demographic structure of Europe.

Commercial migration during urban growth

In most countries of Western Europe, urban settlements mainly appeared in the 11th century. Their appearance is associated with commercial migrations and the development of trade. As a rule, urban settlements in Western Europe arose around merchant trading posts.

The migration of peasants and artisans played an important role in the formation of medieval cities. Among other types economic activity, widespread in the Middle Ages, an important place belonged to transit trade, which in the XI - XV centuries. in Europe centered around two “trade crossroads”. The first was the Mediterranean region - trade routes from Spain, France and Italy to the countries of the East, Byzantium and the Black Sea region passed through it. The Great Silk Road, which connected China with Central and Western Asia and Europe, played a significant role in this process. Development of trade along the Great silk road contributed to the economic and cultural development of many states.

The second area of ​​trade was the Baltic and North Sea- merchants from Rus', Poland, the Eastern Baltic, Northern Germany, the Netherlands, England and Scandinavia traded here. The connection between these trading regions passed through the Alpine passes to the Rhine.

To protect their interests, unions of participants in commercial migration emerged. The most famous association in the 14th century. became Hanseatic League German merchants trading in the Baltic region. Commercial migration of this time became one of the most important sources of initial capital accumulation in Europe.

Crusades

The Crusades were a large-scale military colonization movement in the Eastern Mediterranean from 1096 to 1270. The Catholic Church gave them a religious character - the struggle of Christianity with Muslims.

The reason to start crusades became the need to liberate Jerusalem and provide assistance to Constantinople, which was invaded by the Seljuk Turks in the 11th century. The main reasons for the Crusades were economic factors - overpopulation and the spread of poverty in Europe,

the need to expand the possessions, trade influence and income of the organizers and participants of the campaign. A total of 8 crusades took place, which led to the migration of colossal masses of

personal social and ethnic groups from Western Europe to the Middle East. However, these migrations were temporary, since the states formed by the crusaders did not last long: in the 13th century. Most of the Crusader states fell. Many participants in the crusades were forced to return to their homeland - Europe.

The spiritual knightly orders were rather closed organizations, and their influence was rather political and economic, since they had practically no influence on the demographic structure of the population of the occupied territories. One of the main consequences of the Crusades was the strengthening of the position of European merchants in the Eastern Mediterranean.