Science and education in Russia in the second half of the 18th century. Organization of public education in the second half of the 18th century

As in previous centuries, the main subject, the main active creative element in the field of culture were representatives of the ruling class of nobles. Crushed by exploitation, the downtrodden and ignorant peasantry had neither the means, nor the strength, nor the time, nor the conditions for obtaining an education, for activities in the field of science, literature, and art. Therefore, it is quite understandable that here we will talk about achievements, mainly in the field of noble culture.

At the same time, the needs and consequences of the country’s socio-economic development were placed before science, education, socio-political thought, etc. tasks that went beyond the needs of the nobility. In the 18th century, this brought people from the urban philistinism, merchants, white clergy, state and economic peasants into active activity in some areas of culture. Since the time of Peter I, education in Russia has acquired an increasingly clear secular character and an increasingly definite practical orientation. At the same time, the traditional form of “learning to read and write” was still the most widespread and widespread. We are talking about teaching the reading of the Book of Hours and Psalms by sextons and other clergy.

2.1 Educational reform of Catherine II

The period of the highest development of school affairs in Russia in the 18th century. turned out to be the reign of Catherine II (1762-1796). Catherine showed special interest in the problems of upbringing and education. The ideas of the European Renaissance and Enlightenment were of particular interest to the Russian Empress. Having conceived the reform of the school system, Catherine turned to D. Diderot, who drew up the “University Plan for Russia.” The priority of school policy in the second half of the 18th century. was the satisfaction of the cultural and educational needs of the nobility. The nobility preferred to learn secular manners, enjoy theater and other arts. Special military educational institutions - the Land and Naval Cadet Corps - made noticeable progress. The development of education in Russia in the second half of the 18th century was influenced by the enlightened absolutism of Catherine II, which determined not only the growth of the network of educational institutions, but also the priority of the class principle in their recruitment. Catherine II carefully studied the experience of organizing education in the leading countries of Western Europe and the most important pedagogical ideas of her time. For example, in Russia in the 18th century the works of John Amos Comenius, Fenelon, and Locke's Thoughts on Education were well known. Hence, a new formulation of the school’s tasks: not only to teach, but also to educate. It was based on the humanitarian ideal that originated in the Renaissance: it proceeded “from respect for the rights and freedom of the individual” and eliminated “from pedagogy everything that is in the nature of violence or coercion” (P.N. Milyukov). On the other hand, Catherine’s educational concept required maximum isolation of children from the family and transfer of them into the hands of a teacher. However, already in the 80s. the focus was again shifted from education to learning. The Prussian and Austrian education systems were taken as a basis. It was supposed to establish three types of secondary schools - small, medium and main. They taught general education subjects: reading, writing, knowledge of numbers, catechism, sacred history, and the rudiments of Russian grammar (small school). In the middle, an explanation of the Gospel, Russian grammar with spelling exercises, general and Russian history, and a brief geography of Russia were added. The main course includes a detailed course in geography and history, mathematical geography, grammar with exercises in business writing, foundations of geometry, mechanics, physics, natural history and civil architecture. Comenius's class-lesson system was introduced, attempts were made to use visual aids, and in high school it was even recommended to encourage independent thought in students. But basically didactics came down to memorizing texts from the textbook. The relationship between the teacher and the students was built in accordance with the views of Catherine: for example, any punishment was strictly prohibited. In 1764, in Moscow, on Solyanka, the state-owned “Educational Home for Foundlings and Street Children” was opened - the first Moscow specialized institution for orphans. This institution was supposed to receive the bulk of its funds from charitable collections. The Empress herself donated 100 thousand rubles for the foundation of the building and allocated 50 thousand annual income from her funds, calling on her subjects to follow her example. Education took place according to the method of the famous teacher I.I. Betsky, who sought to create a “new breed of people” through closed educational institutions - educated and hardworking.

By the middle of the 18th century. the general level of education in Russia was low. In the orders of deputies to the Statutory Commission of 1767 - 1768, where considerations on educational issues were publicly expressed for the first time, little benefit was noted from the schools established in Russia in the time of Peter the Great. However, "education" becomes fashionable among the nobility.

Home education is becoming widespread among landowner families. But most often it was superficial and consisted only in the desire to master “French grace.”

There was virtually no primary school in the country. Literacy schools continued to be the main form of education for the tax-paying population. They were created by private individuals (“masters of letters”, usually priests). Education there was conducted mainly according to the Book of Hours and Psalms, but some secular textbooks were used, for example, “Arithmetic” by L.F. Magnitsky.

In the second half of the 18th century. A network of closed class educational institutions was created, intended primarily for children of the nobility. In addition to the famous Land Noble Corps, the Corps of Pages was founded in the late 50s, preparing nobles for court service.

In 1764, the “Educational Society of Noble Maidens” was founded in St. Petersburg at the Smolny Monastery (Smolny Institute) with a department for girls from the bourgeois class.

The development of the estate school consolidated the dominant position of the nobility in the main areas of administrative and military activity and turned education into one of its estate privileges. However, closed educational establishments left a noticeable mark on the history of Russian culture. Many famous cultural figures were educated there.

From the second half of the 18th century. vocational art schools appeared in Russia (Dance School in St. Petersburg, 1738; Ballet School at the Moscow Orphanage, 1773).

The Academy of Arts, founded in 1757, became the first state center of artistic education in the fields of painting, sculpture and architecture. The music classes of the Academy of Arts played a well-known role in the development of music education and upbringing in Russia. All these educational institutions were closed; Children of serfs were prohibited from studying there.

A qualitatively new moment in the development of education in Russia was the emergence of a comprehensive school. Its beginning is associated with the founding in 1755 of Moscow University and two gymnasiums: for nobles and commoners with the same curriculum. Three years later, on the initiative of university professors, a gymnasium was opened in Kazan.

The opening of Moscow University, as well as the Academy of Sciences, was the most important social and cultural event. The University in Moscow has become a national center of education and culture; it embodies the democratic principles of the development of education and science, proclaimed and persistently pursued by M.V. Lomonosov.

Already in the 18th century. Moscow University became the center of national education. The printing house, opened under him in 1756, was, in essence, the first civilian printing house in Moscow. Textbooks and dictionaries, scientific, artistic, domestic and translated literature were published here.

For the first time, many works of Western European enlighteners were printed in the university printing house; the first magazine for children (“Children’s Reading for the Heart and Mind”), the first natural science magazine in Russia (“Shop of Natural History, Physics, Chemistry”), and the magazine “Musical” began to be published. entertainment." Moscow University began publishing the first non-governmental newspaper in Russia, Moskovskie Vedomosti, which existed until 1917.

The undoubted merit of the university was the publication of the alphabet books of the peoples of Russia - Georgian and Tatar.

In the second half of the 18th century. In Russia, a comprehensive school system began to take shape. The Charter of public schools, approved in 1786, was the first general legislative act for Russia in the field of public education.

According to the Charter, main four-year schools were opened in provincial cities, similar in type to high school, in district schools there were two-year schools, small ones, in which reading, writing, sacred history, and elementary courses in arithmetic and grammar were taught. For the first time, unified curricula and a class-lesson system were introduced in schools, and teaching methods were developed.

Continuity in education was achieved by the commonality of the curricula of small schools and the first two classes of main schools.

The main public schools opened in 25 provincial cities, small schools, along with estate schools, a university and gymnasiums in Moscow and Kazan, thus constituted the structure of the education system in Russia by the end of the 18th century. In the country, according to data available in the literature, there were 550 educational institutions with a student population of 60-70 thousand. About one person out of one and a half thousand residents studied at the school. Statistics, however, did not take into account various shapes private education (home education in noble families, education in literacy schools, in peasant families, etc.), as well as foreigners educated abroad or who came to Russia. The actual number of literate people in Russia was obviously significantly higher.

One-year parish (church) schools were established at each church parish. They accepted children of “any condition” without distinction of “gender and age.” The charter proclaimed a continuity between schools of different levels.

However, in fact, very little was done to spread education and enlightenment among the masses of the people. The treasury did not bear any costs for the maintenance of schools, transferring this either to local city governments, or to landowners, or to the peasants themselves in the state village.

School reform has made the problem of teacher training urgent. The first educational institutions for teacher training arose in the second half of the 18th century. In 1779, the Teachers' Seminary was founded at Moscow University. In 1782, the St. Petersburg Main Public School was opened to train public school teachers. It was a closed educational institution that trained gymnasium teachers, boarding school instructors, and university teachers. Teachers at district, parish and other lower schools were mostly graduates of gymnasiums.

The appearance of new textbooks in the second half of the 18th century. associated with the activities of the Academy of Sciences, primarily M.V. Lomonosov, and professors from Moscow University. Published in 1757, Lomonosov’s “Russian Grammar” replaced the already outdated grammar of M. Smotritsky as the main manual on the Russian language. The textbook on mathematics, compiled in the 60s by a student at Moscow University D. Anichkov, remained the main textbook on mathematics in schools until the end of the 18th century. Lomonosov’s book “The First Foundations of Metallurgy, or Ore Mining,” became a textbook on mining.

An important indicator of the spread of education was the increase in book publishing, the appearance of periodicals, and interest in books and their collection.

The publishing base is expanding, and in addition to state-owned ones, private printing houses are appearing. The Decree “On Free Printing Houses” (1783) for the first time granted the right to open printing houses to everyone. Private printing houses were opened not only in capitals, but also in provincial cities.

In the second half of the 18th century. The repertoire of books is changing, the number of original scientific and artistic publications is increasing, the book is becoming more diverse in content and design.

The first public cultural and educational organizations appeared. For some time (1768 - 1783) in St. Petersburg there was a “Meeting for the Translation of Foreign Books,” created on the initiative of Catherine II. It was engaged in the translation and publication of works of ancient classics and French enlighteners. The publisher of the works of the “Collection” for some time was N.I. Novikov.

In 1773, Novikov organized in St. Petersburg the “Society Trying to Print Books,” something like the first publishing house in Russia. Many people took part in its activities famous writers XVIII century, including A.N. Radishchev. The activity of the “Society” was also short-lived, since it faced great difficulties, primarily with the weak development of the book trade, especially in the provinces.

The main centers for publishing books and journals were the Academy of Sciences and Moscow University. The academic printing house printed mainly scientific and educational literature. On the initiative of M.V. Lomonosov, the first Russian literary and scientific journal “Monthly Works for the Benefit and Entertainment of Employees” began to be published (1755). The academic printing house also published the first private magazine in Russia, “The Hardworking Bee” (1759), whose publisher was A.P. Sumarokov.

In the second half of the 18th century. Periodicals are becoming a noticeable social and cultural phenomenon not only in capital cities, but also in provincial cities. In Yaroslavl in 1786 the first provincial magazine “Solitary Poshekhonets” appeared. In 1788, the weekly provincial newspaper “Tambov News”, founded by G.R., began to be published in Tambov. Derzhavin, at that time the civil governor of the city. The magazine “The Irtysh Turning into Hippokrena” (1789) was published in Tobolsk.

A special role in the publication and distribution of books in last quarter XVIII century belonged to the outstanding Russian educator N.I. Novikov (1744 - 1818). Novikov, like other Russian educators, considered enlightenment to be the basis of social change. Ignorance, in his opinion, was the cause of all the errors of mankind, and knowledge was the source of perfection. Defending the need for education for the people, he founded and maintained the first public school in St. Petersburg. Novikov's publishing activity gained its greatest scope during the period he rented the printing house of Moscow University (1779 - 1789). About a third of all books published in Russia at that time (approximately 1000 titles) came out of his printing houses. He published political and philosophical treatises by Western European thinkers, collected works of Russian writers, and works of folk art. Magazines, textbooks, and Masonic religious and moral literature occupied a large place among his publications. Novikov's publications had a large circulation for that time - 10 thousand copies, which to a certain extent reflected the growing interest in the book.

In the 60s - 70s of the 18th century. Satirical journalism became widespread, on the pages of which works “to correct the morals of employees” were published, and anti-serfdom educational thought was formed. Most important role in this process it belonged to Novikov’s publications “Truten” (1769 - 1770) and especially “Painter” (1772 - 1773). This bright and bold satirical magazine by N.I. Novikova contained sharp criticism of serfdom in Russia.

The development of education is associated with an expansion of the circle of readers. In the memoirs of contemporaries there is evidence that “people from the lower classes enthusiastically buy various chronicles, monuments of Russian antiquity, and many rag shops are full of handwritten chronicles.”

Books were copied, sold, and this often provided food for small employees and students. At the Academy of Sciences, some workers received their salaries in books.

N.I. Novikov contributed in every possible way to the development of the book trade, especially in the provinces, considering it as one of the sources of book distribution. At the end of the 18th century. bookstores already existed in 17 provincial cities, about 40 bookstores were in St. Petersburg and Moscow.

During this period, there were libraries at universities, gymnasiums, and closed educational institutions. The library of the Academy of Sciences continued to operate. In 1758, the library of the Academy of Arts was opened, the basis of the fund of which was donated by the curator of Moscow University I.I. Shuvalov collection of books on art, a collection of paintings by Rembrandt, Rubens, Van Dyck. From the moment of its foundation, it was publicly accessible; in the reading room, books could be used not only by students of the Academy, but also by everyone. On certain days of the week, halls of other libraries were opened for “book lovers.”

In the 80s - 90s of the 18th century. The first public libraries appeared in some provincial cities (Tula, Kaluga, Irkutsk). Paid (commercial) libraries appeared at bookstores, first in Moscow and St. Petersburg, and then in provincial cities.

The intelligentsia played a large role in the spiritual life of society. In terms of its social composition, the intelligentsia of the 18th century. was mostly still aristocratic. However, in the second half of this century, many commoners appeared among the artistic and scientific intelligentsia. Commoners studied at Moscow University, the Academy of Arts, and some closed educational institutions intended for non-nobles.

One of the features of the cultural process of Russia at the end of the 18th century. there was the existence of a serf intelligentsia: artists, composers, architects, performers. Many of them were talented, gifted people, they understood the severity of their powerless situation, and their lives often ended tragically.

The fate of the serf intelligentsia in Russia reflected the incompatibility of serfdom and the free spiritual development of the individual. The new concept of human personality developed by public consciousness came into conflict with real life.

Conclusion

The dominant trend in the development of culture in Russia in the 18th century. was similar to the European one: the separation of science from the religious-mythological worldview, the creation of a new picture of the world and new sources of knowledge.

The outgrowth of state enlightenment during the Enlightenment era in Russia proceeded differently than in Western Europe, and had a slightly different content. If for European enlightenment the main task was the development of positive scientific knowledge, then in Russia - assimilation knowledge, overcoming traditionalism with the help of other people's rational knowledge. In other words, the priority direction was not the development of science, but education, school; not writing new books, but distributing them.

The new Russian culture was created in conditions of active assimilation of Western European culture, its programs and conceptual schemes. The new Russian culture is being built as a more or less original copy of the culture of Europe. The creators of a new culture, as a rule, did not strive to be original. They acted as cultural leaders, educators, and guides of European enlightenment. They sought to imitate, assimilate, proud of the successful acquisition of knowledge, skill, and idea.

The Enlightenment in Russia turned out to be a time of inspired apprenticeship, assimilation of the ideas of the European Enlightenment in the conditions of a weak secular intellectual tradition of its own.

34) Geopolitics studies dependency foreign policy states from their geographical location. In 1904, the British scientist Halford Mackinder published his work “The Geographical Axis of History.” In Mackinder's theory, Russia was given a central place. The scientist believed that the one who has a dominant influence on Central Asia has the most advantageous geopolitical position. He called Central Asia the core land (in English, heartland). Eurasia, according to Mackinder, is a gigantic natural fortress that is difficult for maritime states to conquer. It is rich in natural resources and can rely on its own strength for economic development. According to the scientist, the unification of two continental powers - Germany and Russia - in the struggle for dominance in the world is dangerous for the oceanic powers - Great Britain and the USA. It was on Mackinder’s advice that after the end of World War I, the so-called buffer belt was created between Germany and Russia.

A buffer belt is a territory between large and powerful powers, in which small and weaker states are located, usually in a dependent position. They protect countries that are close in geographical location from clashes or, conversely, from a close political union. The buffer zone between the First and Second World Wars included the Baltic states, Poland, and Romania.

Mackinder's geopolitical formulas say: "He who controls Eastern Europe controls the Heartland. He who controls the Heartland controls the World Island. He who controls the World Island rules the World." The scientist called Eurasia the world island. Russia, according to Mackinder's theory, occupies a central and very advantageous geopolitical position.

In the 20s XX century Among Russian emigrants living in Europe, the socio-political movement of Eurasians arose. Among the Eurasian scientists were the historian Georgy Vladimirovich Vernadsky, geographer and economist Pyotr Nikolaevich Savitsky, lawyer and legal scholar Nikolai Petrovich Alekseev, as well as philosophers and theologians. Eurasians believed that Russia was not just a huge country, but a cultural and geographical world that united many peoples from the Baltic Sea to Pacific Ocean and from the Kola Peninsula to Central Asia. Eurasians called this single space Russia-Eurasia. It includes Eastern Europe, all of Northern Eurasia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia. In relation to Russia-Eurasia, the remaining parts of the continent (Western Europe, China, Iran, Japan, India) are outskirts that occupy a peripheral (i.e., marginal) geopolitical position. P. N. Savitsky considered cooperation between continental Russia-Eurasia and the oceanic powers to be very important. The scientist considered the possible political union of Russia, Germany and France as the geopolitical axis of the entire continent.

After World War II, the world was split into two parts. On one side were the United States and its allies, mainly in Western Europe, and on the other were the Soviet Union and its dependent countries in Eastern Europe. For the first time, not just one continent, but the entire globe became the arena of geopolitical rivalry. The invention of nuclear weapons made this rivalry especially dangerous. Such a geopolitical system was called a bipolar (i.e., two-polar) world, and the poles of “gravity” were the USSR and the USA.

In the 70-90s. XX century In the United States, American-centric concepts emerged, according to which the United States plays a central role in the world. The most famous proponents of this concept are American geopoliticians Nicholas Spykman and Zbigniew Brzezinski.

From Spykman's point of view, the geopolitical position of a country is determined not by its internal territories, but by its sea coasts. He identified three major centers of world power: the Atlantic coast of North America and Europe, as well as the Far East of Eurasia. By analogy with the concept of “heartland,” Spykman called these territories irschalekdoi (from the English rim - “rim”, “edge”). Therefore, according to his theory, the USA and Great Britain, as the two centers of the Rimland, should enter into an alliance. This scheme reduced the importance of Russia in the world order. The task of the Rimland powers, according to Spykman, is to prevent Russia from gaining wide access to the ocean.

In the 60-90s. The works of Zbigniew Brzezinski became very popular. In his opinion, Russia, as a huge Eurasian state with an unpredictable foreign policy, is doomed to collapse. In its place, several federal states should emerge, gravitating towards different centers of power - Europe and the Far East. In Brzezinski's theory, the United States is also a Eurasian power, that is, a state that can and should actively influence political and economic development in Eurasia.

In the 70-80s. Japan, China, India, and Germany became stronger politically and economically. After the collapse of the world socialist system, in the late 80s - early 90s, the geopolitical concept of a multipolar world arose.

According to the concept, there are several regional centers forces that must interact with each other: the USA, Western Europe, Russia, Japan, China, countries of Southeast Asia. These countries have different political and economic interests, but for the security of the whole world they need to be reconciled. Within the framework of such a concept, it is impossible to imagine the dominance of one geopolitical center or state.

All geopolitical models highlight the role of Russia. Eurasia is recognized as the center of the world, and Russia occupies key positions on this continent.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE GEOPOLITICAL POSITION OF RUSSIA

Over the centuries, Russia's geopolitical position has changed repeatedly. At the end of the 15th century, when the Russian lands were freed from the Horde yoke, the expansion of the Moscow state to the east began. The territories of the Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1556) khanates were captured, and Siberia and most of the Far East became part of the country. Borders of Russia at the end of the 17th century. very similar to its borders at the end of the 20th century. From a marginal Eastern European state, Russia has turned into a Eurasian state, rich in natural resources, with strict centralization in governance and a strong army.

However, this geopolitical situation also had disadvantages. Firstly, Russia had strong rivals: in the south - the powerful Ottoman Empire and its vassal, the Crimean Khanate, in the Far East - the Chinese Empire, which stopped the development of the Amur region by Russian explorers.

Secondly, the vast territory of Russia was poorly developed, especially in the east (in particular, the Pacific coast). And finally, the main thing is that Russia did not have access to the trading seas. In the Baltic, the road was blocked by Sweden, in the Black Sea by Turkey, and in the Pacific there was no one to trade with yet. Constant wars with Poland and Lithuania prevented the development of political and trade relations with European states. Religious differences also hampered the establishment of strong relations with them. After the fall of the Byzantine Empire, Russia remained the only Orthodox power in the world; The official religion of most European states was Catholicism and Protestantism.

The geopolitical position of our country changed again in the 18th - mid-19th centuries. Russia gained access to the Baltic and Black Seas, its borders moved west and south: the state included the Baltic states, Finland, Poland, the Southern Black Sea region, the Caucasus and Kazakhstan. Russia reached the peak of its power at the beginning of the 19th century. However, now the Russian state included areas so diverse (in culture, religious traditions, etc.) that this weakened it.

In the middle of the XIX - early XX centuries. Russia's influence in the West has diminished. The country lagged behind the leading European powers militarily and economically and could no longer play the role of first violin in the European political orchestra. But on the eastern and southern borders it continued to expand its borders. Part Russian Empire(this was the name of our state from 1721 to 1917) included Central Asia and the south of the Far East. In I860, Vladivostok was founded - the first convenient seaport on the Russian Pacific coast. During this period, the geopolitical position had both its advantages (a huge territory, access to the seas of three oceans, the opportunity to enter into political alliances with different neighbors) and disadvantages (significant cultural and natural heterogeneity of the territory and its poor economic development). Russia remained one of the leading world powers, but in terms of economic and military power and influence on world politics, it lost the palm to other countries - Germany, France, and Great Britain.

With the collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917 political map new states appeared in the world - Finland, Poland, etc. However, the core of the former empire was preserved, and in 1922 a new state was proclaimed - the Soviet Union. He inherited some of the geopolitical traditions of the Russian Empire, in particular the desire to expand territory. The socialist system that had established itself in the USSR prevented the establishment of strong political relations with Western countries. Therefore, until the outbreak of World War II (1939-1945), the USSR was in political isolation. By the end of the war, the Soviet Union had approached the borders of the Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century on almost all fronts. Its sphere of influence included all of Eastern and part of Central Europe.

In the 40-80s. The USSR was one of two world powers (along with the USA) that determined the world political order. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia has no such influence in Eastern and Central Europe. The coastal situation worsened: many Black Sea ports went to Ukraine, and the Baltic ports went to the Baltic states. At the end of the 20th century. Russia can no longer compare in military and economic power with the United States and Western Europe, but it still remains largest state Eurasia.

Over a thousand years of Russian history, the peculiarities of its geopolitical position have emerged. Our country has a stable geopolitical core - areas that have invariably been part of Russia for centuries. The regions that make up this core are inextricably linked by political, cultural, economic and simply human ties.

On the western borders there is a buffer belt - the states of Eastern Europe. For a long time, these countries separated Russia and Western Europe. They were either in the zone of Russian influence or in the zone of influence of Western powers. Russia, even during difficult periods of its history, has always had a serious impact on all geopolitical processes taking place in Eurasia.

36) Socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century

State of Agriculture

The socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century can be characterized as pre-crisis, since old, feudal, and new, market relations were intertwined in the economy in the most complex way. During these years, it became clear that the country, burdened by the system of serfdom, could not move forward, but it was necessary to take radical steps in this direction. This explains the inconsistency of many events during the reign of Alexander I and Nicholas I.

By the beginning of the 19th century, Russia occupied a vast territory from the Baltic states to the Far East. It belonged to Alaska and some other territories in North America. The country's population by mid-century was about 74 million people. It consisted of numerous peoples living on vast lands, and this also left its mark on the state of the economy.

In 1801 - 1804, at the request of the Georgian kings and princes, Georgia, which was fleeing the onslaught of Persia, became part of Russia. As a result of the war with Persia and Turkey in 1804-1813, Imereti, Guria, Mingrelia, Abkhazia, as well as Dagestan and the khanates of Northern Azerbaijan with their capital in Baku went to Russia. In May 1812, Russia signed peace with Turkey in Bucharest and Bessarabia, except for its southern part, went to Russia. As a result of the war with Persia (1826-1828), all of Armenia was annexed to Russia. After successful military operations against Sweden in 1808-1809, Finland (Grand Duchy of Finland) and the Åland Islands were annexed to Russia. Finland had greater independence as part of Russia: an elected diet, its own constitution, monetary and customs systems. A governor was appointed there on behalf of the Russian emperor. It can be said that Finland was more of a special state united with Russia by a personal union than a Russian province.

By decision of the Vienna (1814-1815) Congress of European countries that defeated Napoleon, almost all of Poland (Kingdom of Poland), which was ruled by the Tsar’s governor, was included in Russia. The body of power in Poland was the Sejm, and the constitution was in force. The Polish Corps (army) was part of the Russian armed forces. True, later, as a result of the defeat of the uprising of 1830-1831, Poland lost its constitution, the Sejm was abolished, and the Kingdom of Poland was declared an integral part of the Russian Empire.

In the first half of the 19th century, agriculture remained the main sector of the Russian economy. Approximately 90% of the country's population were peasants. The development of agricultural production occurred mainly by extensive methods, due to the expansion of new sown areas, which increased by 53% over half a century, mainly in the southern and eastern regions History of Russia: textbook / A.S. Orlov and others; Moscow State University named after. M.V. Lomonosov. Faculty of History - 4th ed., revised. and additional - M.: Prospekt, 2012 - 528 pp. The introduction of more advanced methods of soil cultivation and new varieties of agricultural crops occurred very slowly, grain yields at the beginning of the century averaged “one-three”, “one-four”, i.e. . When sowing one pood, three to four poods of grain were harvested. There were frequent crop failures, which led to mass starvation of peasants and the death of livestock. The main agrotechnical system remained the traditional three-field system; in some places, cuttings were still preserved (in Siberia), and in the steppe regions - the fallow (fallow) system. Livestock farming was predominantly subsistence in nature, i.e. livestock were raised for home consumption and not for sale.

By the middle of the 19th century, agriculture gradually began to change. The cultivation of industrial crops - hops, tobacco, flax - expanded, and in the 1840s the area under potatoes increased significantly, which became not only the “second bread” for peasants, but also a raw material for the food industry. The area under a new crop, sugar beet, also increased, especially in Ukraine and in the south of the Black Earth Region. Enterprises for its processing appeared. The first beet sugar production plant was built in 1802 in the Tula province; by 1834, 34 plants had been built, and in 1848 there were over 300.

New machines began to be introduced in the countryside: threshers, winnowers, seeders, reapers, etc. Increased specific gravity hired workers. In the 1850s, their number reached 700 thousand people, mostly coming for seasonal work in the southern, steppe, Volga provinces, and the Baltic states.

The process of specialization of individual regions in the production of various types of agricultural crops continued slowly: in the Volga region and in the steppe regions of Russia, more and more land was given over to the cultivation of wheat, in the Crimea and Transcaucasia - to viticulture and sericulture, about major cities- for commercial gardening, poultry farming. In Novorossia, Bessarabia, and the North Caucasus, fine-wool sheep breeding developed, which was carried out by large landowners with great support from the government, which was interested in supplying raw materials for factories for the production of army cloth.

In the first half of the 19th century, as in the 18th century, peasants were divided into the same categories: landowners, state and appanage (palace). Landowner peasants constituted the largest group. In the 1850s, there were more than 23 million people of both sexes, including 1.5 million household servants and 540 thousand who worked in private factories and factories of Nekrasov M.B. National history: textbook (M.B. Nekrasov 2nd ed., revised and additional - M.: Higher Education, 2010 - 378 pp..

At the beginning of the century, the share of serfs accounted for 40% of the country's total population, and by the middle of the century - 37%. The bulk of the landowner peasants lived in the central provinces, Ukraine, Lithuania and Belarus. In the north and south of the country there were much fewer serfs - from 12 to 2%. There were few of them in Siberia, and in the Arkhangelsk region there were none at all Nekrasova M.B. Domestic history: textbook (M.B. Nekrasova, 2nd ed., revised and supplemented. - M.: Higher Education, 2010 - 378 pp..

In different regions of the country, the ratio of corvee and quitrent was different, since it depended on the economic characteristics of the province. Thus, in the central region, where the level of commercial activities of peasants was high, the quitrent system became widespread - from 65 to 90%. In the Baltic states, Belarus, and Ukraine, where it was considered more profitable for the landowners to increase the lordly plowing, the peasants were predominantly in corvee labor - up to 90-95% of the peasants.

By the middle of the century, there were about 19 million souls of both sexes by state (state) peasants. Officially they were called “free rural inhabitants.” As in the 18th century, their economic situation was more stable. They were provided with land plots, for which they had to, in addition to state taxes and fees, also bear feudal duties in the form of monetary dues. Since 1801, this category of peasants was allowed to acquire land ownership. They could make a relatively free choice: engage in agriculture or handicraft production, create their own small enterprises, or move into the urban class.

But this legal status of state-owned peasants was not strong enough and guaranteed by the state. The government could transfer them to military settlements, give them ownership to a nobleman (which already happened extremely rarely in the 19th century), transfer them to the category of appanage peasants, etc. This class group was concentrated mainly in the northern and central provinces, in the Left Bank and steppe Ukraine, the Volga region, the Urals, Siberia.

The category of appanage peasants in its legal and economic status occupied an intermediate position between the other two categories. In the 18th century they were called palaces, i.e. belonged to members of the imperial family. In 1797, the Department of Appanages was created to manage the palace lands and peasants, and the peasants were renamed appanages. By the middle of the 19th century there were almost 2 million souls of both sexes. Appanage peasants paid quitrents in favor of the royal family, paid state taxes and worked off duties in kind. They lived mainly in the provinces of the Middle Volga region and in the Urals.

As for the nobles, out of 127 thousand noble families, or about 500 thousand people (1% of the country's population), in the early 1830s, 109 thousand families were landowners, i.e. had serfs. Most landowners (about 70%) had no more than 100 male serfs and were considered small-scale landowners. Among small estates, more than half had only a few serfs, on average about seven souls.

In the 1820s, it became obvious that the possibilities for the development of landowner farms based on serf labor were practically exhausted. Labor productivity in corvée was noticeably declining, and peasants were looking for all sorts of excuses to avoid it. As a contemporary wrote, peasants go to work later and later, work carelessly, just so as not to get the job done, but to waste the day. While the landowner was vitally interested in increasing the production of agricultural products for sale, and primarily grain, the peasants showed less and less effort in their work.

The crisis was also felt by those farms in which the quitrent system prevailed. As peasant crafts developed, competition among workers grew, and the earnings of peasants-obrochniks fell, therefore, they paid less and less cash rent to the landowners. Increasingly, debtor landowners began to appear who could not repay their debts to credit institutions. So, if at the beginning of the 19th century only 5% of serfs were on mortgage, then in the 1850s - already over 65%. Many estates were sold under the hammer for debts.

So, the serf system had the most detrimental effect, first of all, on agricultural production. But serfdom also held back successfully developing industry and trade. This was due to the fact that there was no labor market in the country. In addition, serfs had very low purchasing power, which significantly narrowed the scope of market relations.

Development of industry and transport

In the first half of the 19th century, the bulk of industrial products were produced not by large enterprises, but by small-scale industries. This was especially true in the manufacturing industry producing consumer goods. In the 1850s, they accounted for up to 80% of total output. Crafts were most common in the central non-black earth provinces - Moscow, Yaroslavl, Vladimir, Kaluga, etc., where in almost every village peasants were simultaneously engaged in agriculture and some kind of craft: weaving, making pottery and household utensils, sewing shoes and clothes .

Gradually, the population of many villages and fishing districts completely abandoned agricultural labor and switched entirely to industrial activity. Well-known villages are Ivanovo-Voznesensk and Teykovo in the Vladimir province, Pavlovo in the Nizhny Novgorod province, and Kimry in the Tver province, which have turned into centers of the textile, metalworking and leather industries.

Disseminated manufacturing played a major role in the development of domestic industry, in which the entrepreneur-buyer distributed work to home-based peasants. Later, these workers began to be gathered under one roof, where they worked on the basis of a detailed division of labor. Thus, capital was gradually accumulated and qualified personnel were trained for future large industrial enterprises.

Waste trades, which originated in the 17th century, remained important for the rural population. They became widespread in the central and northwestern provinces, where peasants on infertile lands could not support their families and pay taxes. By the middle of the century, up to 30-40% of the adult male population left here to work in large cities. This process served as an important factor in the formation of the labor market, as well as the growth of the urban population.

In the 1820s-1830s, serfs made up 46% of the total number of industrial workers in the country, and only by 1860 their share dropped to 18%. But even among 82% of the “civilized” workers, the overwhelming majority were serfs, released by the landowners to earn money.

The number of industrial enterprises had increased to 15 thousand by 1860, but most of them were small industries, where 10-15 people worked, most often hired workers. The share of such enterprises in their total volume reached 82% by the middle of the century.

But there were still many enterprises based on serf labor: old mining mines and factories created in the era of Peter the Great, as well as patrimonial factories founded by landowners. Many of them were in a state of crisis and were inferior in competition to enterprises based on hired labor due to low productivity, poor quality of products and their high cost. Work in patrimonial manufactories was one of the most difficult forms of corvée for peasants, which pushed them to resist. Possession manufactories also experienced an acute crisis due to their low efficiency.

The development of Russian industry was uneven. Cotton production developed at the fastest pace. In the 1850s, Russia ranked fifth in the world in the production of cotton fabrics. Noticeable successes were observed in the wool industry, while the production of linen and silk fabrics was in a state of stagnation. If in 1804 there were 285 linen manufactories in the country, then by 1845 their number had decreased to 156. The state of depression also affected metallurgy. During the first half of the 19th century, cast iron production only doubled - from 9 to 18 million poods, and at the same time England increased cast iron production 30 times. Russia's share in world metallurgy fell from 12% in 1830 to 4% in 1850. This was the result of technical backwardness and low labor productivity of serf workers. Russian metallurgy survived only thanks to a strict system of customs tariffs on the import of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

In the 1830s and 1840s, large enterprises began to be created in industry - factories - based on machine technology, i.e. the industrial revolution began. The transition to factory production meant the emergence of completely new social groups population: entrepreneurs and employees. This process began first of all in the cotton industry, where already in 1825 94.7% of workers were wage earners, and most recently in the mining industry. This is explained by the fact that textile enterprises, faster than others, began to be equipped with various machines, the maintenance of which required more trained workers not related to agriculture.

The first enterprise based on machine technology was the state-owned Alexander Cotton Manufactory in St. Petersburg (1799). In 1860, in the Moscow province alone there were already 191 such enterprises, and in St. Petersburg - 117. By this time, special equipment was widely used in the spinning and calico printing industries.

One of the indicators of the industrial revolution can be considered the emergence and development of Russian mechanical engineering. And although until the 1860s, the national economy used mainly foreign-made machines, it was during these years that the first machine-building factories were built in St. Petersburg: the Berda plant, the Nevsky Machine-Building Plant, the Aleksandrovsky State Plant, which produced steam engines, steamships, steam locomotives, etc. In 1849, a plant was built in Sormovo (near Nizhny Novgorod), which began to produce river boats. Agricultural engineering has developed in the Baltic states and Ukraine. From 1804 to 1864, labor productivity in industry increased almost fivefold, despite the presence of serf labor in the country. Nevertheless, factory production began to occupy a dominant position in all industries only after the reforms of the 1860-1870s.

It should be noted specific features, which were inherent in pre-reform employees and entrepreneurs. Hired workers, as a rule, were also serfs who went on quitrent, but were still associated with agriculture. They depended, on the one hand, on the manufacturer (breeder), and on the other, on the landowner, who could at any time return them to the village and force them to work as corvee labor. And it was quite expensive for the manufacturer to hire such a worker, since in addition to the worker’s wages, he had to compensate the landowner for his rent. The state (state) peasant who went to the city was also not completely free, because he was still connected with the community by certain relations.

The Russian pre-reform bourgeoisie was characterized by other features. It came primarily from guild merchants or from among the “trading peasants” who received “tickets” (special certificates for the right to trade) and managed to found an enterprise. Most often they combined trading and entrepreneurial functions. In the middle of the century, the number of merchants of all three guilds was 180 thousand, and approximately 100-110 thousand were “trading peasants”.

But most of the entrepreneurs and trading peasants still remained serfs. And although many of them already had large capital and owned factories, they, as in the 18th century, continued to pay considerable amounts of quitrent to the landowners, who were in no hurry to release the rich entrepreneurs because of this.

For example, the owner of a large silk weaving factory in the Moscow region, I. Kondrashev, remained a serf of the Golitsyn princes until 1861. As an example, we can also cite the manufacturer S. Morozov, who in the 1820s bought his freedom from the landowner Ryumin for 17 thousand rubles. - an amount equal to the annual rent from two thousand serfs. Several dozen factory owners from the village of Ivanovo were bought from Count Sheremetev for more than 1 million rubles.

One of the indicators of the degree of development of new economic relations there was an increase in urban population. If at the end of the 18th century the population of cities was 2.2 million people, then by the middle of the 19th century it increased to 5.7 million people, which accounted for only 8% of the total population of the country. Over half a century, the number of cities increased from 630 to 1032, and 80% of these cities were very small, with up to five thousand inhabitants each. The shopping centers of the Volga region grew especially quickly, as well as the commercial and industrial villages turning into cities: Ivanovo-Voznesensk, Pavlovo-on-Oka, Rybinsk, Gzhatsk, etc. In 1811, the population of only 19 cities exceeded 20 thousand, and only St. Petersburg and Moscow were really big cities. Moscow has grown over half a century from 270 thousand to 460 thousand, and St. Petersburg - from 336 thousand to 540 thousand inhabitants.

In the first half of the 19th century, Russia remained a country with no roads, which greatly hampered its economic development. The main modes of transport in Russia at that time were water and horse-drawn transport. The main cargo flows moved along the rivers - the Volga, Dnieper, Northern and Western Dvina, Neman, Don: grain, agricultural raw materials, metallurgical products, building materials, timber, etc. At the beginning of the century, canals were put into operation that connected the Volga with Northern Dvina and the Baltic basin, the Dnieper was connected by canals with the Vistula, Neman, and Western Dvina, but their capacity was small. In 1815-1817, the first steamships appeared on the rivers, and by 1860 there were already about 340 of them, mostly foreign-made. Cargoes were floated along the rivers on rafts, barges, or using horse and barge traction. In 1815, the first Russian steamship Elizaveta opened regular flights from St. Petersburg to Kronstadt. The ship's speed was 9.5 km per hour.

If waterways were used in the summer, then in winter a more convenient form of transport was transportation by horse along a sleigh route. The roads were mostly dirt and practically impassable during muddy times. In cities, streets were often paved with cobblestones. In the first half of the century, highways began to be built between St. Petersburg and Moscow, Warsaw, Yaroslavl, Nizhny Novgorod, etc. By 1860, there were 9 thousand versts of highways throughout the country, which was, of course, very small for the vast Russia (1 verst = 1. 07 km).

In the 1830s, construction of railways began. The first railway, which had almost no economic significance, was built in 1837 between St. Petersburg and Tsarskoe Selo; its length was only 25 versts. In 1843-1851, a 650-verst railway connected St. Petersburg and Moscow, which was of great economic and strategic importance for the country. Construction was carried out with government money.

For the gauge of this railway, a width of 1524 mm was approved, which was 89 mm narrower than the European gauge. This difference in width (still preserved) was adopted solely as a protectionist measure. It was believed that a direct railway connection with Europe would lead to an influx of cheap European products, with which it was very difficult for Russian goods to compete. Let us note that Russia is still suffering unjustified losses of time and money on the border change of wheeled bogies of all trains.

At the same time, a railway from St. Petersburg to Warsaw was built using private funds. In total, by 1861, Russia had only about 1.5 thousand miles of railway lines, and in terms of this indicator the country was extremely behind Western Europe. In England at that time the length of railways was 15 thousand miles.

But, despite the urgent need to create new means of communication, not everyone in society understood the feasibility of their development. Even in the government there were opponents to the construction of railways, who argued that in Russia there would supposedly be no cargo or passengers for them. Minister of Finance Yegor Frantsevich Kankrin (1774-1845) stated that railways“incite frequent unnecessary travel and thus increase the fickleness of the spirit of our era.” He said that connecting Moscow and Kazan by rails is possible only in 200-300 years.

This position of the country's chief treasurer led to the fact that the underdeveloped Russian infrastructure was unable to provide the Russian army with food and weapons during the Crimean campaign of 1853-1856, and this played a role in Russia's defeat.

Trade, money circulation, finance

Domestic trade in the first half of the 19th century was almost no different from trade in the 18th century, either in structure or content. The bulk of domestic trade continued to be in agricultural products and handicrafts. And only by the middle of the century the share of products of large industrial enterprises, especially textile and leather goods, increased. The role of wholesale trade centers—fairs—has noticeably increased. The largest ones, with a turnover of over 1 million rubles, were few, only 64: Nizhny Novgorod, Rostov (Yaroslavl province), Korennaya (near Kursk), etc. In addition, almost 18 thousand fairs were medium and small.

The largest fairs remained the core of Russian entrepreneurship. In the mid-19th century, large international transactions were concluded here with the assistance of many foreign wholesalers. At the fairs, in addition to the trading process itself, technical innovations were demonstrated, business contacts were established, and partnerships and joint-stock companies were created. Fairs acted as a sensitive barometer of the country's economic life; spontaneous regulation of the balance of supply and demand and coordination of the economic mechanism took place there.

As in the 18th century, peddlers and ofeni walked through remote villages, carrying fabrics, haberdashery, small items everyday life, often not selling them for money, but exchanging them for raw materials (linen, linen, etc.).

By the middle of the 19th century, trade had ceased to be the privilege of the guild merchants. In 1842, laws were repealed that prohibited industrialists from engaging in retail trade themselves, as a result of which guild merchants lost their monopoly position in the market. Following the industrialists, “trading peasants” literally poured into city markets and fairs, pushing aside the merchants in some places. Thus, in Moscow in the 1840s, peasants already made up almost half of all traders.

Russia's foreign trade was built mainly with an orientation towards the Western European market, which accounted for up to 90% of all foreign trade turnover. England continued to be the main trading partner - over 30% of Russia's trade turnover was accounted for by this country. France and Germany played a significant role in turnover. Western countries bought bread and agricultural raw materials from Russia, and sent cars, raw cotton, paints, etc. what was necessary for Russian industry. But if for Western countries Russia was a supplier of raw materials and semi-finished products, then for the countries of the East, and especially Central Asia, Russia acted as a supplier of industrial products, mainly textiles and metal products. During the first half of the 19th century, the volume of foreign trade increased significantly. The average annual export volume in 1800-1860 increased almost fourfold: from 60 million to 230 million rubles, and imports more than five times: from 40 million to 210 million.

After a series of battles in Europe with French troops, the Peace of Tilsit (1807), which was unsuccessful for Russia, was concluded, according to which Russia was obliged to follow France in many international affairs, which noticeably limited its independence. In 1808, France forced Russia to join the continental blockade, i.e. refuse trade with England. This caused significant damage to the Russian economy, since it was losing the capacious English market, where Russian landowners exported their agricultural products and from where industrial products came to Russia. In addition, as a result of the blockade, prices for colonial goods (sugar, tea) increased enormously. This economic union with Napoleon brought noticeable financial losses and led to a further depreciation of the domestic currency - banknotes.

E. Kankrin paid much attention to customs policy, believing that strict protectionism would not only support domestic producers, but would also bring large revenues to the treasury. Since Russia significantly weakened import tariffs in 1816-1821, one of Kankrin’s first steps as Minister of Finance was to increase customs duties. Tariffs were mainly imposed on cheap British goods (especially textiles and iron), up to a complete ban on their import. As a result, treasury revenues from tariff duties increased in 1824-1842 from 11 million to 26 million rubles.

Later, after E. Kankrin left his ministerial post, Russia began to reduce tariffs, and in the 1850s began to support the policy of free trade. Many previously established import bans were lifted, and by 1857 tariffs remained on only seven goods: sugar, iron, alcoholic beverages and some others.

Speaking about the financial system of Russia, it should be noted that its condition was greatly influenced by the Patriotic War of 1812, which caused significant material damage. During the hostilities, more than 100 thousand people were killed and wounded. The fire of Moscow destroyed almost the entire city, many others were injured settlements, industrial enterprises. In addition, Napoleon literally flooded Russia with counterfeit money. By 1814, the banknote rate had reached a very low level: in one paper ruble they gave 20 kopecks. silver The amount of issued banknotes reached astronomical figures; in 1818 it amounted to 836 million rubles. During the first decades of the 19th century, the rate of banknotes fluctuated constantly, even in different regions of the country it differed markedly.

In 1839 E. Kankrin conducted monetary reform, according to which the silver ruble was again declared the main monetary unit. It was found that 350 rubles. paper money equals 100 rubles. silver, and this meant the devaluation of banknotes. By 1843, they were completely withdrawn from circulation and replaced by credit notes, freely exchangeable for silver. But during the Crimean War and after its defeat, the government more than once resorted to issuing money. As a result of this policy, the exchange rate of the credit ruble constantly decreased compared to the rate of the silver ruble, so free exchange was abolished. The country was actually threatened with financial collapse. During 1853-1856, the budget deficit grew from 57 million to 307 million rubles, inflation rose to 50% per year.

State finances of the first half of the 19th century were constantly under great strain, the state budget deficit increased from year to year, since the main source of state revenue remained taxes from the tax-paying population, mainly from peasants, while the nobility and clergy paid almost no personal taxes , the merchants paid only small fees. But these revenues could not cover the needs of the state. Thus, before the reform of 1861, the lower tax-paying strata paid 175 million rubles. per year from total amount direct taxes of 191 million rubles.

The credit and banking system of Russia has hardly changed since the time of Catherine II and continued to remain in the hands of the state; there were practically no commercial credit institutions in the country. The bulk of bank loans were used for very preferential lending to noble households. Very insignificant amounts were spent on lending to trade and industry, since for these purposes loans were subject to a number of conditions.

A specific feature of Russia was that the initial accumulation of capital took place under conditions of serfdom. The most important source of accumulation was feudal rent, received by large landowners in kind and in cash. But basically the process of accumulation ended after the abolition of serfdom, when the nobles, having received huge redemption sums, sent some of them to the production sector.

The redemption process also brought great income to the state, which withheld from the landowners all the debts incurred on the estates pledged to the treasury. And by 1860, the landowners had about 400 million rubles of such debts. Later, in 1871, of the total amount of redemption payments, almost 250 million rubles. went to pay off the bank debts of the nobility.

Merchant capital was mostly created through extremely profitable government contracts and farm-outs, especially for the wine monopoly. In 1860, wine farmers paid 128 million rubles to the treasury, and their own income from wine trading was several times higher. In the middle of the century, up to 40% of all budget revenues came from the so-called drinking income - from the wine trade. Private capital also grew due to unequal trade with the Russian outskirts, the rapid growth of the gold mining industry in Siberia, etc.

social economic industry trade

Socio-economic development of Russia in the pre-reform period

The palace coup of 1801 was the last in the history of Imperial Russia. Alexander I, who ascended the throne, immediately announced that he would follow the laws of Catherine II. He restored the “Grants of Letters” to the nobility and cities, abolished by Paul I, abolished corporal punishment for nobles and other reactionary and punitive decrees introduced during the reign of Paul I. Officials and officers expelled without trial - approximately 10 thousand people - were returned to service. All those arrested and exiled by the “secret expedition”, i.e., were released from prison and returned from exile. without a court decision. It was allowed to open private printing houses, import foreign literature from abroad, and free travel was again allowed Russian citizens abroad.

For the socio-economic reform of the country, the new emperor formed a Secret Committee of young noblemen: P. Stroganov, V. Kochubey, A. Czartoryski, N. Novosiltsev. At meetings of this committee during 1801-1803, projects of government reforms were discussed, including the abolition of serfdom. With the direct participation of these advisers, some liberal reforms were carried out in Russia. Upon his accession to the throne, Alexander I proclaimed that from now on the distribution of state-owned peasants into private hands, which was very common in the 18th century, would cease. Thus, an end was put to the expansion of serfdom throughout the country. According to the decree of 1801, the long-awaited purchase of land by non-nobles was allowed: merchants, burghers, and state-owned peasants. True, according to this decree, the landowner peasants who were engaged in business did not receive such permission. They received this right only in 1848.

On February 20, 1803, a decree “On free cultivators” was issued, which provided for the possibility of freeing serfs and their families with land plots, entire villages or settlements, but with the obligatory consent of the landowner. However, in practice this decree was applied very rarely. Under Alexander I, only 47 thousand male souls, or 0.5% of all serfs, became free cultivators, and during all the years of this decree (1803-1858) only 152 thousand, or approximately 1.5%, were able to take advantage of it. serfs.

In 1802-1811, a reform of the highest government bodies was carried out. First of all, eight ministries were created to replace the old Peter's collegiums: military ground forces, naval forces, foreign affairs, justice, internal affairs, finance, commerce, public education (later their number increased to 12). It should be noted that all economic departments were brought together under the auspices of the Ministry of Finance: the Ministry of Commerce, the Department of Manufacturing and Foreign Trade. The preparation of a unified state budget began, information about which, due to its scarcity, was strictly classified. All responsibility for matters to be resolved fell solely on the ministers, which was more convenient for management. But at the same time, the bureaucratic essence of the state apparatus intensified. The ministerial system in this form existed in Russia without changes until 1917.

One of the outstanding statesmen of the first years of the reign of Alexander I was undoubtedly Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky (1772-1839). He was the son of a poor rural priest, graduated from the Theological Academy, where he became a professor. Then he moved to the civil service in the State Council, and later to the Ministry of Internal Affairs under Count Kochubey.

Thanks to his outstanding abilities, energy, and desire to serve the benefit of the fatherland, he quickly became one of the most prominent politicians of the early 19th century. Beginning in 1802, he drafted or edited the most important laws and decrees. In 1808, on behalf of Alexander I, Speransky began work on an extensive plan for government reforms. At the same time, he intended to use some norms of French legislation from the so-called Napoleon Code. By October 1809, the project was developed and presented to Alexander I under the title “Introduction to the Code of State Laws.” The main goal of the document was to streamline outdated and chaotic legislation that had been developed over many decades, as well as to bring closer legal norms to the requirements of developing market relations, taking into account the European changes of that time. Of course, it was assumed that the reform would be carried out from above, in the interests of the autocracy and the preservation of the class structure of society.

For effective legislative work, it was envisaged to create a bicameral parliament consisting of the State Council and the State Duma. The State Council under the emperor was supposed to prepare and discuss bills, then they should be considered by the emperor, then they were submitted for discussion to the Duma, and after their adoption in the Duma, they were finally approved by the emperor.

This principle of government received the approval of Alexander I, who was ready to approve Speransky’s project. But as a result of the intrigues of senior court officials who considered the project extremely radical, the document was rejected by the sovereign. Alexander I decided to go only to create a legislative advisory State Council (1810), which included all the ministers and senior dignitaries appointed by him. And the convening of the State Duma took place only at the beginning of the 20th century - in 1906.

Further, fate was unkind to M. Speransky. Particular dissatisfaction with the “popovich,” as he was called at court, increased due to a decree of 1809, which prohibited advancement through the government ladder without a university education or passing a special exam. In addition, Speransky’s French sympathies aroused hostility in high society, where a hostile attitude towards Napoleon was already forming, and everyone understood the inevitability of war with France. The reason for Speransky's imminent resignation was also the introduction of new direct taxes in the country: the poll tax from peasants and townspeople increased from a ruble to two rubles, and a tax was also introduced on noble estates and landowners' lands. This caused irritation among various segments of the population.

At the beginning of 1812, following a false denunciation, he was removed from office and exiled first to Nizhny Novgorod, and then to Perm, where he stayed for more than four years. Later, disgrace was lifted from him, he was appointed governor of Penza, then governor-general of Siberia, where he carried out a number of administrative reforms. In 1821, he was returned to the capital and appointed a member of the State Council, but no longer played a significant role in government.

Some transformations took place at the beginning of the century in the field of education. In all educational institutions the principle of classlessness and free education at the lower levels was proclaimed. A coherent education system of four levels was formed: parish one-class schools, district schools, gymnasiums and universities. In 1802-1804, universities were opened in the cities of Vilno (Vilnius), Dorpat (Tartu), Kazan, Kharkov, and in 1819 the Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg was transformed into a university. In 1811, a famous lyceum was opened in Tsarskoye Selo, which prepared a whole galaxy of outstanding people, and above all A.S. Pushkin, many Decembrists. The university charter of 1803 provided higher educational institutions with broad rights and independence in their internal life: election of the rector and professors, their own court, non-interference by administrative authorities and the police in the affairs of these educational institutions, etc.

After the successful end of the Patriotic War of 1812 and the foreign campaign of the Russian army in 1813-1814, Russia's international authority grew significantly. In 1815 it was created Holy Alliance, which set as its goal to maintain the existing borders in Europe unshakable, strengthen monarchical dynasties, and suppress all kinds of revolutionary uprisings. Decisions were even made on the right to intervene in the internal affairs of states to suppress revolutionary movements.

Until the early 1820s, the domestic policy of Alexander I had not yet experienced a clear tightening, since he did not immediately become a supporter of absolutism. In 1818, several dignitaries were instructed to prepare draft decrees to abolish serfdom on fairly moderate and favorable terms for landowners. But the nobility expressed resistance to such intentions of the emperor, and he did not dare to continue this process.

However, in the Baltic region (Latvia and Estonia) the government has taken some steps in this direction. Starting from 1804-1805, there was gradually carried out

Question to point I. Remember what educational institutions appeared in Russia in the first half of the 18th century. What new types of educational institutions appeared in the second half of the 18th century? To educate which classes were they organized?

In the first half of the century, there were secondary specialized educational institutions in Russia (Artillery and Engineering schools, Medical School, Naval Academy, etc.), as well as gymnasiums and universities (for most of the century there was only one university).

Under Catherine II, public schools, educational homes, soldiers', mining and sailing schools appeared. That is, the state began to care about the education of the common people, and not just the upper strata of society. Women's education also advanced - in 1764 the Smolny Institute was created. Vocational education also developed. For example, medical-surgical schools appeared, which already under Paul I in 1798 were transformed into Medical-Surgical Academies.

Question for point II. What is the connection between the development of education and science? What new can be noted in the scientific life of Russia in the second half of the 18th century?

With the development of enlightenment, science also developed, although the connection is not direct - many scientists, like other nobles, went to Europe to complete their education, therefore the level of education in their homeland did not directly influence them. But these processes developed in parallel, and therefore had common trends. The number of scientists expanded, as did the number of educational institutions. In the middle of the century, Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov became a leading specialist in many fields of science because there were few other specialists. During the reign of Catherine II, we already see a whole galaxy of Russian scientists, each of whom worked in his own field of science.

Question to point III No. 1. What, in your opinion, is the connection between the development of the educational system and technical thought in the second half of the 18th century?

Not only nobles, but also people from the people played a big role in the development of technical thought. Therefore, education for the lower strata of society played a big role, for example, public schools, which appeared precisely in Catherine’s era.

Question to point III No. 2. Why have not all the technical innovations of Russian inventors been brought to life?

In Europe, many technical innovations were used by entrepreneurs. They wanted to reduce production costs so that in times of crisis they would not be left without profit. In Russia there was no layer of free entrepreneurs, and the nobles who owned factories during the years of crisis simply transferred the peasants back to cultivating the land. Therefore, technical innovations sometimes aroused interest, but there was no need for new inventions.

Question to paragraph No. 1. What trends in the development of education and science were common for Russia and European countries during the Enlightenment? What made them different?

Both in Russia and in Europe, education was dominated by the ideas of the Enlightenment. It was believed that a person is born as if Blank sheet, his beliefs are laid down by his upbringing. Therefore, anyone can be raised into a hardworking and decent person, as well as a free citizen, you just need to properly organize the education system. Moreover, in Russia these ideas reigned supreme. In Europe there was a struggle against the systematization of the formation of monastic orders, primarily the Jesuits. In Russia there was no such heritage of previous centuries.

Question for paragraph No. 2. Prepare a report about one of the Russian scientists of the second half of the 18th century. Describe his contribution to the development of scientific knowledge and education Russian society.

Apollos Apollosovich Musin-Pushkin was born in 1760 in the family of a prominent official Apollos Epaphroditovich Musin-Pushkin, who rose to the position of president of the Berg College (he was from 1767 until his death in 1771). Therefore, Apollos received the best education for his time.

The future scientist lost his father at the age of 11, but his father’s connections remained, so the young man had no problems with patronage. His father-in-law's connections also helped - Apollos Apollosovich married a representative of the influential Golitsyn family, the granddaughter of Field Marshal Mikhail Mikhailovich Golitsyn. During his relatively short life, he became a captain of the horse guards, an actual chamberlain and a privy councilor (that is, he rose to the very high rank IV). Was awarded the Order of St. Anna I degree. But, as befits a high-ranking official of that time, he did not perform any duties in connection with most of the positions he held; he really only worked in the Mining Collegium.

Apollos Apollosovich conducted extensive scientific research in chemistry, mineralogy and a little botany. He was especially interested in platinum. In particular, he found a way to apply platinum amalgam. He was elected a member of the academies of sciences in St. Petersburg, Berlin, Stockholm and Turin, as well as the Royal Society of London.

In the first years of the 19th century, the scientist went on a mineralogical expedition to Georgia, which had recently been annexed to Russia. On the affairs of the Mining Collegium, he was looking for new deposits of ores of various metals, but the scientific program of the expedition was much broader, even including botany. Musin-Pushkin sent a large collection of minerals with scientific explanations to the Academy of Sciences.

During this expedition, the scientist fell ill and died in Tiflis in 1805 at the age of 45.

The development of education in Russia in the second half of the 18th century was influenced by the enlightened absolutism of Catherine II, which determined not only the growth of the network of educational institutions, but also the priority of the class principle in their recruitment. Catherine II carefully studied the experience of organizing education in the leading countries of Western Europe and the most important pedagogical ideas of her time. It was based on the humanitarian ideal that originated in the Renaissance: it proceeded “from respect for the rights and freedom of the individual” and eliminated “from pedagogy everything that is in the nature of violence or coercion” (P.N. Milyukov). On the other hand, Catherine’s educational concept required maximum isolation of children from the family and transfer of them into the hands of a teacher. However, already in the 80s. the focus was again shifted from education to learning. The Prussian and Austrian education systems were taken as a basis. It was supposed to establish three types of secondary schools - small, medium and main. They taught general education subjects: reading, writing, knowledge of numbers, catechism, sacred history, and the rudiments of Russian grammar (small school). In the middle, an explanation of the Gospel, Russian grammar with spelling exercises, general and Russian history, and a brief geography of Russia were added. The main course includes a detailed course in geography and history, mathematical geography, grammar with exercises in business writing, foundations of geometry, mechanics, physics, natural history and civil architecture.

Comenius's class-lesson system was introduced, attempts were made to use visual aids, and in high school it was even recommended to encourage independent thought in students. But basically didactics came down to memorizing texts from the textbook. The relationship between the teacher and the students was built in accordance with the views of Catherine: for example, any punishment was strictly prohibited.

In 1764, in Moscow, on Solyanka, the state-owned “Educational Home for Foundlings and Street Children” was opened - the first Moscow specialized institution for orphans. This institution was supposed to receive the bulk of its funds from charitable collections. The Empress herself donated 100 thousand rubles for the foundation of the building and allocated 50 thousand annual income from her funds, calling on her subjects to follow her example. Education took place according to the method of the famous teacher I.I. Betsky, who sought through closed educational institutions create a “new breed of people” - educated and hardworking. The level of the educational process in the Orphanage was high; The institution was popular in the city, so it is no coincidence that it was under it that “French classes” were opened to train future governesses.

In 1764, a decree was issued on the founding of the Educational Society of Noble Maidens for 200 people at the Smolny Convent in St. Petersburg - the Institute of Noble Maidens.

Girls from the age of 4-6 were taken from home for 15 years. Education was mainly humanitarian, but mathematics and physics were also taught; pupils were intensively taught foreign languages, music, home economics, and handicrafts. The graduates of the institute turned out to be educated teachers, wives and ladies-in-waiting. In 1765, the first public school for women in Russia, the Smolny Institute, was opened in St. Petersburg. Before this, girls were raised in families, monasteries or private boarding schools.

In 1779, with the money of Prokopiy Akinfievich Demidov, the Moscow Commercial School was opened for the children of merchants and commoners.

In 1786, the Charter on public schools was issued, according to which two levels of public schools were established in each provincial city. The first stage was represented by “small schools” with a two-year period of study, the second by “main” schools, consisting of four classes. In the “small” schools literacy, reading, arithmetic and the Law of God were taught. “The main schools were intended to train teaching staff for “small” schools. The first “main” public school was opened in Moscow on October 5, 1786. Teachers had to be trained for the secondary school system. For this purpose, in 1783, the Main Public School was opened in St. Petersburg, from which three years later the teacher’s seminary was separated - the prototype pedagogical institute. Until the end of the 18th century, there were no pedagogical educational institutions in Russia. Only at the end of the century, in 1786, the Main Public Schools were established in provincial cities, in which teachers for district schools were trained. Catherine's reform was not completed, but, nevertheless, it played a significant role in the development Russian education. The school reform of the 1780s was the first attempt to create a state system of public education. The basis new school the principles of all-class and free education were laid down. But there were not enough necessary funds to create an education system and, most importantly, there was still no need for education among the general population.

Development of pedagogical thought in Russia in the second half of the 19th century (N.A. Korf, Bunakov, Tikhomirov)

The most significant development of pedagogical thought in modern Russia occurred in the second half of the 19th century. The government is seriously engaged in restructuring the school system. Pedagogical journalism is being formed, scientific pedagogical societies and pedagogical journals are being created.

In November 1855, new rules for admission and study at universities were adopted, where restrictions on the number of applicants to universities were abolished. However, they did not suit students and teachers. Students insisted on the right to create independent corporations. In 1856, the Academic Committee was restored, which began preparing new school charters. The work of the committee was influenced by the activities of N.I. Pirogov and K.D. Ushinsky. In June 1863, a new university charter was approved. Universities received greater autonomy, and university management was transferred to the Councils of Professors. The charter rejected class and estate discrimination in education. The determining condition for admission to gymnasiums is financial status. Students were required to pay tuition fees.

Children of low-income parents were exempt from fees. In Russia at the end of the 1850s. Sunday schools, schools for children from the people, schools based on new pedagogical ideas and principles appear. D.A. Tolstoy Minister of Education from 1866 to 1880 was the head of the Holy Synod. He curtailed the autonomy of universities, seeking to establish tight government control over universities and other educational institutions. Changes took place that served as an impetus for the development of women's education in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv, and Kazan. In the second half of the 19th century, both in Russia and a number of Western countries, there was an intensive development of pedagogical thought.

In Russia, with the abolition of serfdom, various laws were issued on free education for peasants and social elements of the lower class. In addition, the rules for teaching in schools and universities are being developed, regarding the rights of pupils, students and teachers. A number of laws are also being adopted regarding the power of management of educational institutions. A number of improvements in the education system allow us to judge the high level of development of leading teachers who developed these improvements.

N.F. Bunakov is a teacher who shared the principles of an organic connection between school work and people’s life, attention to the student and trust in the personality and work of the people’s teacher. A characteristic, “indisputable motive in the life of a modern person is his national peculiarity: to recognize himself as a citizen of a famous country and to strive for the benefit of his fatherland as for personal gain is one of those venerable qualities that no one will dispute. “The school... must maintain a sense of nationality in its students,” the scientist formulated, emphasizing the importance of teaching native nature, national geography, history, native language and literature in nurturing the national feeling. It is possible to influence the souls of children with an ideal, and there is nothing bad or unreasonable in this, the educator believes. Student and teacher in a public school. These problems interested N.F. Bunakova. From the very first days of admitting students, school should be made a “serious,” “interesting, entertaining” affair for them. The student not only works, absorbing new experience, but works independently. Reflecting on the existence of a student and a teacher at school, N.F. Bunakov comes to the view of the public school, already noted in domestic pedagogy, as something holistic and moral - living at the same time. A condition for maintaining the moral “structure of school life” is the teacher’s knowledge of the life of each of his students. Let us conclude by addressing the legacy of N.F. Bunakov with his thought about the unnecessary or even harmful use of “punishments and rewards” in school. Punishments and rewards have a bad effect on both the student and the teacher. With the “sublime” and “beneficent” ideal (fatherland, goodness, conscience, work, people, and this is the whole human universe) the comprehension and development of children’s spirituality, the cultivation of a sense of conciliarity in the human soul (conciliarity, preserving the right of the individual to question and answer God with his will ), presenting life to children as a serious, independent spiritual action-feat (teaching as an analogue of such life), trusting and following the child’s soul in its desire to joyfully, with interest, peer into the world created by God; the existence of the school as a living communal spirituality (teachers and children), which follows the rules, but obeys only the heart - the teacher and the child; view of the teacher as living phenomenon Russian culture (and science, in particular); understanding a student’s education through the prism of absolute values ​​- these ideas were introduced into domestic pedagogy by N.F. Bunakov.

The education system in Western Europe during the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. Jesuit education system

In the 16th century In Western and Central Europe, a broad social movement of the Reformation unfolded, which took the form of a struggle against the Roman Catholic Church. The Reformation formulated its understanding of the nature and ways of human education, which differed from the views of Renaissance humanists and Catholic orthodoxy. The religious anthropologism of the reformist teachings ran counter to the secular humanism of Renaissance pedagogy. Unlike the Roman Catholic Church, which professed truth as an unchanging reflection of divine providence, the Reformation intended to complement truths that were divine in origin.

The Reformation proclaimed the principle of individuality, the “self” of a person bearing personal responsibility before God. The critical and humanistic spirit of the Reformation had important consequences for school and pedagogy. In essence, the Reformation merged with the Renaissance in its desire to move the human personality to the center of education, to introduce it to the national culture, language, literature, and to encourage secular education.

The Reformation movement featured moderate and radical currents. The leader of the latter, Thomas Münzer (1490 - 1525), advocated the destruction of the old school, which impeded the people's access to education. The Catechism in German was declared the main teaching aid for the public school. Luther himself translated the Catechism. Education in educational institutions of elementary education took place within the framework of religious dogmas (Roman Catholic or Protestant). Clericalism was a significant obstacle to the development of school education.

There was no hint of physical education. The children were constantly being hit. They flogged everyone without exception. Verbal mnemonic teaching reigned in elementary schools.

There were virtually no teaching aids designed specifically for children until the 16th century. The spread of elementary education was slow and difficult. Elementary education could only be obtained in cities. Ignorance reigned in the countryside. Complete primary education was available only to the top of society. A significant part of the children did not even receive the rudiments of education. Educational institutions of advanced general education of the 15th - first third of the 17th centuries. genetically, in one way or another, were connected with previous city and church schools.

The struggle for the unity of faith increased interest in school as an apparatus for educating the masses not only in the Protestant reform movement, but also in the Catholic one that replaced it, from the late 50s of the 16th century. The Counter-Reformation emerged as a force opposing Lutheranism. The Catholic reaction was directed not only against reformation religious movements, but also against secular humanistic culture. The founder of the Jesuit order, a well-educated Spanish religious figure, former officer Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556), based on the practice already existing in history, believed that success in the cause he championed could be achieved through comprehensive educational activities. The Counter-Reformation began to create public free primary schools in European countries. And in order to attract the ruling classes, she launched active activities in the direction of secondary and higher schools. The Jesuit education system, having gained great popularity, lasted for quite a long time. Many of its elements are preserved in schools in Western countries today. Of interest in their system of education and upbringing were such methods as inter- and intra-class competition, competitions, theatrical performances, school self-government and much more. The Jesuits combined all this with a sophisticated system of lying down and playing on human passions, authoritarianism and formalism. Developing fanatical devotion to the Roman Catholic religion, the Jesuit education system, despite certain achievements in the field of education, turned out to be essentially reactionary, leading a person away from the ideal of a self-developing creative personality.

In its own way, only the Renaissance became the most unique of eras, raising man to unprecedented heights. In its own way, interpreting the ancient view of human development and education, Renaissance humanism had a significant influence on determining the type of education in modern times. Within the same historical period, the Renaissance and the Reformation defined the relationship between the individual and society in different ways. If humanism preached the harmonious development of a free personality, through which it sought to transform society, which the Age of Enlightenment later inherited from it, then the Reformation was based on the ideal of a community subjugating the individual. And if the humanists sought to dominate the minds of people through education, then the reformers of the church managed to dominate the people themselves with the help of education. By the end of the 16th century. The humanistic worldview was almost completely pushed aside by the ideology of the Reformation and was revived only during the Enlightenment.

The Jesuit Order (“Society of Jesus”) became the fighting body of the Counter-Reformation. This order was founded by Ignatius of Loyola in 1540. Jesuits, unlike monks of other orders, lived in the world, often being politicians, diplomats, courtiers, educators and teachers, and doctors.
The fight against the Reformation in Spain was led by King Philip II himself.

Peter I and his reforms widened the horizon of Russian life. During the reign of Catherine II, this process accelerated. Russia moved further and further away from its medieval culture, largely isolated from the rest of the world, and turned into an enlightened European state.

Ideas of European Enlightenmentists, state practice enlightened monarchs became the property not only of the imperial court and the enlightened elite of Russia. They penetrated into wide circles of the population - the nobility, the growing middle class and even the peasantry. And if the previous major turns in the history of European civilization - the Renaissance and Reformation - largely passed Russia by, then the Age of Enlightenment became its own era. The attitude towards man, his place in the system of society and nature, and the goals and objectives of society has changed.

But feudalism reigned in Russia, absolutism reached its peak, serfdom, class privileges and restrictions formed the unshakable basis of human relations. This led to acute contradictions between the old world, still powerful in Russia, and new phenomena in culture. And yet the new stubbornly made its way.

One of the features of the development of Russian culture at this time was the interpenetration of the achievements of Russian culture of the 17th century. and new cultural trends.

The Christian worldview remained fundamental for the Russian people. Both Peter I and Catherine II were deeply religious people, but showed complete indifference to church rituals, traditions, and rules. Freed from this constant church influence and pressure, Russian culture in all its manifestations became increasingly secular.

Culture contributed to the formation of Russian society, it brought people together as a nation, and awakened national self-awareness.

Members of this society and this nation were the empress, and nobles, and provincial nobles, and city residents, and the Cossacks, and the peasantry, including the serf intelligentsia (actors, musicians, painters). Of course, there was an insurmountable gulf between the upper strata of society and its lower classes, but culture imperceptibly threw bridges across this gulf. Only the k|nost peasantry turned out to be rejected in this new coming world.

The emergence of new cultural values ​​acquired an international character in the conditions of multinational Russia. New cultural values ​​and educational ideas were superimposed on the cultural traditions and achievements of the three peoples of Russia and made them involved in the destinies of the country. They began to feel like Russians, residents of a colossal and multinational power.

The bearers of new scientific and cultural traditions were primarily the nobility. But this did not mean that Russian culture was purely noble. The nobility created and nurtured a universal human culture in Russia.

The creators of Russian science and culture of the 18th century. people also came from abroad. Throughout the century, foreigners had a strong influence on the formation of Russian civilization. They participated in the creation of the education system, stood at the origins of the organization of the Academy of Sciences, and made a huge contribution to the development of Russian architecture, sculpture, painting, theater, and music. For the most part, these were talented and passionate people who brought a lot of benefit to Russia, passing on their experience and their skills to the Russian people. But domestic talents gradually gained strength and influence.

Education and enlightenment of the people

Education and enlightenment of the people by the end of the 18th century. has achieved significant success.

Education was mainly class-based. This meant that each class had its own education system, closed from others. And the higher and more privileged the class was, the higher the level of education.

In the 1730s. The Land Noble Corps opened, and in the 1750s the Marine Noble Corps opened. Thus, the army and navy were replenished with highly qualified personnel, and at the same time, noble children were given the opportunity to begin serving as an officer immediately after training, and not, as under Peter I, pull the burden of a soldier. This was the privilege of the nobility.

Other closed educational institutions were the Artillery and Engineering gentry corps.

Many private noble boarding houses appeared in Moscow, St. Petersburg and other cities. Noble children lived and studied in such boarding houses. At the same time, homeschooling became fashionable.

However, education in boarding schools and at home needed to improve its professional and general humanitarian level. This could only be provided by higher educational institutions of a civilian type. Due to the lack of modern higher educational institutions in Russia, a completely natural step by the authorities was to open two universities in Russia at once.

One, at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, trained domestic scientists. This goal limited the influx into the university of those who wanted to get a university degree, i.e. universal, general education. In addition, entering the university was preceded by studying at an academic gymnasium.

With the opening of Moscow University in 1755, the situation changed significantly. At first there were three faculties - philosophy, law and medicine. At the Faculty of Philosophy they studied mathematics, mechanics, physics, geography, and philology. At the Faculty of Medicine, a significant place was devoted to the study of chemistry and biology.

Moscow University became the first and only one in Europe in the 18th century. a university that did not have a theological faculty and did not teach theological sciences. The new educational institution in Russia was based entirely on secular principles of education.

It is not for nothing that Moscow University bears the name of the great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov (1711 - 1765). He was the initiator of its creation, developed a project for the university, and insisted that teaching there be conducted in Russian, which was also unusual at a time when Latin was widely used in teaching. M.V. Lomonos tried to transform the university into a public, that is, inaccessible, educational institution.

It is no coincidence that within the walls of the university in the 18th century. studied by people from families of commoners. The teaching staff was formed from them. The university charter prohibited corporal punishment of students. The university was an autonomous, self-governing organization and did not depend on local authorities. He was subordinate to the Senate.

There was a gymnasium at the university. One of its networks was intended for the children of nobles, the other for the children of commoners. A huge role in the creation of the university I.I. Shuvalov played the favorite of Elizabeth Petrovna - I. I. Shuvalov (1727-1797). It was with his active support that M.V. Lomonosov realized his plans.

Along with educational institutions for the nobility, the network of religious educational institutions expanded in the country.

A network of secondary schools gradually developed. In the 1780s. For the first time in the history of the country, a public education system was introduced. In the St. Petersburg province, and later in another 25 provinces of the country, two-class and four-class public schools were opened. At first, children were taught reading, writing, penmanship, drawing, and the Law of God. Secondly, teaching of grammar, arithmetic, geometry, mechanics, physics, geography, history, natural science and architecture was added.

Catherine II sought to bring the education system to the European level. She wanted broad-minded, humane, enlightened people to appear in the country. And not only among the nobles, but also among other classes. For this purpose, it was planned to create closed educational institutions - separately for nobles, merchants, and other ordinary people. Education there was supposed to be carried out on the basis of the principles of education - through persuasion, without punishment or coercion.

Closed educational institutions appeared primarily in St. Petersburg. In 1767, the Institute of Noble Maidens (Smolny Institute) was opened. Girls from the bourgeois class studied there in separate groups.

The science

The Academy of Sciences with its three departments - philosophical, physical and historical - remained at the center of Russian science. At first, only scientists invited from abroad were members of the Academy. After the accession of Elizabeth Petrovna and the end of German dominance in many spheres of the country's public life, the situation at the Academy began to change. Scientific research has moved forward, and Russian scientists have appeared among scientists. In the 1740-1750s. The leading role in the Academy belonged to Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov.

For Russian science, Lomonosov became a whole era. It seems that there was no branch of knowledge into which he would not have penetrated and where he would not have left his remarkable mark. He created the first chemical laboratory in Russian history. It was through a series of chemical experiments that he came to the discovery of the law of conservation of matter and motion. He is responsible for the development of the atomic-molecular theory of the structure of matter. He also explained the phenomenon of heating bodies: it is not the mythical caloric, as previously thought, but the movement of body particles that causes this process. Astronomers call Lomonosov the father of their science. It is he who holds the honor of discovering the atmosphere on the planet Venus. Lomonosov did a lot in the field of geology, mineralogy, mining, and geography. He substantiated the great importance for Russia of the Northern Sea Route, along which ships still sail to the northeastern ports of the country.

M.V. Lomonosov was never an armchair scientist. He achieved amazing results in many applied sciences and made a number of discoveries that were of practical importance. Thus, he came up with the idea of ​​lightning rods that protect people from atmospheric electricity and lightning. He became the founder of domestic scientific meteorology. He worked a lot in the production sector - in the development of new varieties of porcelain, glass, paints, creating mosaics from which he made magnificent paintings.

M.V. Lomonosov was a genius not only in the field of natural sciences, but also an outstanding humanitarian. He contributed huge contribution in the formation of the Russian literary language and became the author of Russian grammar. His poetic works, in particular odes in honor of Elizabeth

11strovny, victories of Russian weapons, were a model for many writers of the 18th century. Finally, M.V. Lomonosov proved himself to be a brilliant historian. His Ancient Russian History is a work filled with pride in the history of the Slavic world.

In the second half of the 18th century. Technical thought also stepped forward. Heating engineer I. I. Polzunov (1728-1766) developed a project for a universal steam engine. Self-taught mechanic I.P. Kulibin (1735-1818) invented many different mechanisms, among them the amazing I.P. Kulibin clock. He proposed a project for a single-arch bridge across the Neva with a length of almost 300 m.

Research expeditions became an important part of scientific activity. If the 17th century was the century of great Russian discoveries in the east, then the 18th century. became the time of their research and development. I was interested in everything - communication routes, climate, mineral resources, sea ​​currents, geographical outlines of the Eurasian continent, its population.

From 1733 to 1741, with the support of the Senate, the Admiralty, and the Academy of Sciences, the Second Kamchatka Expedition of V. Bering and A. I. Chirikov took place, during which the strait separating America from Asia was discovered and named after the discoverer - the Bering Strait. The expedition opened Northwestern America to the world. Members of the expedition explored and described the shores of Kamchatka, the Kuril and Aleutian Islands, and Northern Japan.

Expeditions were also sent to Southern Siberia, the Lower Volga region, the Urals and the Urals, Bashkiria, the North Caucasus, the Crimea, and Lake Baikal.

A special research expedition sailed to Alaska. The materials of these expeditions were widely published in Russia and abroad.

Literature and art

Literature of the second half of the 18th century. becomes more and more secular, leaving the influence of the Church. The Russian literary language is being formed, freed from the old church speech. The Church Slavonic language remained only in religious texts and in worship. Big influence language reform was first influenced by M.V. Lomonosov, and later the writer and historian N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826), whose Peter I. He creates prose and poetic works, translates ancient and modern European classics into Russian. Among the works of classicism are the odes of M.V. Lomonosov and V.K. Trediakovsky (1706-1768), as well as the tragedies and comedies of A.P. Sumarokov (1717-1777), the father of Russian drama, according to contemporaries.

Russian literature developed quickly. And before classicism had time to blossom, it was replaced by a new style- sentimentalism, with its interest in inner world, the experiences not of an outstanding hero, but of ordinary townspeople and peasants. A bright representative N. M. Karamzin, whose story “Poor Liza about the love experiences of a modest girl that ended in tragedy, was read throughout literate Russia,” became this trend.

XVIII century does not end yet, and the principles of realism, under the sign of which literature of the entire 19th century existed, are imperiously intruding into Russian literature.

Realistic motifs are felt in the poetic works of G.R. Derzhavin (1743-1816), in the plays of D.I. Fonvizin (1745-1792). His comedy “The Minor” brings to the stage that part of the nobility that did not want any innovations, any progress and firmly clung to serfdom and its privileges.

Folk art was an integral part of Russian culture. In folklore of the second half of the 18th century. events and national heroes of those years were reflected - Emelyan Pugachev and Salavat Yulaev, heroes of past glorious events, for example Bogdap Khmelnitsky and Maxim Krivonos. The famous “Lament of the Serfs, created among the people, spoke of hatred ordinary people to serfdom.

Many wonderful architectural monuments, a true decoration of Russian cities, were created in the 18th century. What are St. Petersburg, Tsarskoe Selo, Pavlovsk, Peterhof worth, which have become the pride of Russia and world architectural masterpieces!

The name of V.V. Rastrelli (1700-1771), an Italian sculptor who worked in Russia, is associated with the appearance of the Baroque style in our country. In this style, he created the famous Winter Palace, the no less famous Catherine Palace in Tsarskoe Selo, the complex of buildings of the Smolny Monastery, the Stroganov Palace and other buildings in St. Petersburg.

Following Baroque, classicism came to Russian architecture with its strict proportions, slender colonnades, monumentality, and harmony. A prominent exponent of this style was the court architect of Catherine II, the Scot Charles Cameron (1730s - 1812). He is the author of the ensemble of the palace and park buildings in Pavlovsk near St. Petersburg, the gallery in Tsarskoe Selo, and other buildings.

The famous Italian architect G. Quarenghi (1744-1817) left a noticeable mark on the capital's architecture. It was he who created the Hermitage, the Smolny Institute, the Exchange building, the magnificent palaces in Peterhof (Grand Palace) and in Tsarskoe Selo (Alexander Palace). Everyone who has been to Moscow has seen the towering monumental and airy Pashkov House (the current one) opposite the Kremlin on a hillock State Library). This is the creation of the wonderful Russian architect V.I. Bazhenov (1738-1799). He owns the projects of the Grand Kremlin Palace in Moscow and the Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg, the imperial palace in the village of Tsaritsyn near Moscow, and other buildings. IN AND. Bazhenov was elected professor of the Roman Academy and a full member of the Bologna and Florence academies.

M. F. Kazakov (1738-1812) left a rich architectural heritage. His main works are the building of Moscow University on Mokhovaya, the building of the Golitsyn Hospital in Moscow (now the 1st City Hospital), the House of the Noble Assembly in Moscow (now the Hall of Columns of the House of Unions), other buildings in Moscow, Tver and other cities.

The pride of Russian architecture of the 18th century. became the work of I. E. Starov (1745-1808). His best creations are the Tauride Palace of G. A. Potemkin and the Trinity Cathedral of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra in St. Petersburg.

In the last decades of the century, powerful estate construction began in Russia. Wooden architecture also continued to develop. A striking example of it was the Sheremetev Palace in Ostankino, built by Russian masters P. I. Argunov, G. E. Dikushin and A. F. Mironov.

Russian painting also flourished. This flourishing was expressed in an increasing transition from the conventions of icon painting to realistic canvases. In the 18th century Portraiture developed. The soldier's son A.P. Antropov, serf artists I.P. Argunov and F.S. Rokotov, immigrants from Ukraine D.G. Levitsky and V.L. Borovikovsky created a brilliant gallery of portraits of Russian monarchs, nobles, statesmen, and generals.

Historical painting with biblical and ancient Russian themes, as well as genre painting, appeared. The peasant theme has become a phenomenon of the times here. The artist I. A. Eremeev in his canvases showed the life of the common people, peasants. Everyday paintings on a peasant theme were created by the serf artist M. Shibanov.

Sculpture and music became part of the general development of Russian art. It was in the second half of the 18th century. in Russia there is a transition from applied, ornamental sculpture to monumental and portrait sculpture. An example of the first is the famous Bronze Horseman - a monument to Peter I, built on the instructions of Catherine II by the French sculptor E. M. Falconet (1716-1791) in 1775, as well as the monument to Minin and Pozharsky in Moscow, the author of which was the sculptor I. P. Martos (1754-1835).

Another direction in sculpture was demonstrated by F. I. Shubin (1740-1805). He came from Pomeranian peasants and was a friend of M.V. Lomonosov. His chisel belongs to the busts of Catherine II, Paul I, Lomonosov, Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin.

Among the remarkable cultural figures of the second half of the 18th century. There is also an amazing figure of the founder of the Russian theater F.G. Volkov (1729-1763). The son of a Yaroslavl merchant, he became the first Russian actor and the founder of the Russian national theater. At first he worked in Yaroslavl, then moved to St. Petersburg and founded the first professional theater here.

The musical arts were still dominated by visiting opera and ballet troupes, but the time had already come for the approval of original Russian talents. The composer I. E. Khandoshkin (1747-1804) wrote his music for folk instruments, whose works are still performed. The creator of amazing church chorales was D. S. Bortnyansky (1751-1825).

Russian life

The most dramatic changes in the life of the population occurred in St. Petersburg, Moscow and some other large cities of the country. Petersburg, on Palace Embankment, Nevsky Prospekt, along the canals and rivers flowing into the Neva, nobles built luxurious palaces for themselves. The banks of the Neva were dressed with granite embankments. This was done on the instructions of Catherine I. The idea of ​​​​building the famous lattice of the Summer Garden belonged to her.

The palaces were rich and elegant. Aristocrats tried to make them look like imperial ones. There were large halls, living rooms furnished with European furniture, and comfortable rooms. Tiled stoves radiated even, dry heat throughout the room in winter. Candles in chandeliers and candelabra perfectly illuminated the rooms, corridors and passages.

In these palaces balls thundered and high society receptions were held. What was the cost of the famous ball given by G. A. Potemkin in his Tauride Palace in honor of the Empress! Three thousand guests, a performance by a choir, ballet, pantomime, a reception in a hall turned into a garden with a fountain and a booth of flowering trees, with the singing of live nightingales and a temple with a statue of Catherine. Dinner until 2 am, dancing until the morning. 140 thousand lamps and 20 thousand candles illuminated this action.

By the end of the 18th century. In St. Petersburg it became fashionable to maintain aristocratic salons. French speech was heard here, and debates about politics, literature, and art raged. Russian literary celebrities began to shine in such salons.

Dapper carriages drove past luxurious mansions along Nevsky Prospekt, guards officers and smartly dressed townsfolk strolled.

Moscow also changed. Although there was not such wealth and splendor here as in St. Petersburg, the Moscow nobility did not want to lag behind the demands of the time. The evidence was aligned. The chaotic development of the city has stopped, although it is dying out.

Rich nobles and merchants built, as a rule, two- and three-story manor-type houses. Such a house was separate from the street with a garden, lawns, and paths. It stood in the depths of the space, fenced off from the street by a cast-iron or iron lattice; only the wings of the outbuilding faced the street. Such manor houses of the 18th century. There are still many preserved in Moscow.

Next to them stood the houses of other rich people - stone, elegant buildings with columns. There were up to 7-8 rooms - living rooms, a sofa room, a bedroom, an office, a children's room, a dining room, and a dance hall. Here, too, there were furniture sets that came into fashion at that time, sofas and sofas. Gone are the benches and rough-hewn tables. Chairs, armchairs, elegant tables with curved legs, and shelves for books appeared. The walls were covered with wallpaper.

In the evenings, many Russian cities were illuminated by lanterns in which hemp oil burned. In the centers of cities, cobblestone, and more often wooden, pavements were laid, as in St. Petersburg.

City hospitals appeared. Medical personnel were trained in hospital schools and medical-surgical schools. By the end of the century, a unified system of medical institutions for the population was created. Each provincial town had to have one doctor in service, and in district towns - one doctor. Pharmacies have opened. Of course, this was insignificant and small for a vast and multimillion-dollar country. Hospitals were also built using private funds. After some time, rich people gave them to the city.

Small Russian cities were more like large villages. Apart from two or three stone buildings, the rest of the houses were wooden. Unpaved streets overgrown with grass, puddles after rains, and dirt in autumn and spring became an integral part of such cities.

On the outskirts there were workers' barracks, where newcomers from local factories and various artisans lived. These were cramped, dirty, stuffy rooms with bunks instead of beds. In such a barracks, sometimes several dozen people lived in a common room. Families also lived here. Only later did the interiors of the barracks begin to be separated by partitions.

Cities and urban life with its innovations, of course, were of great importance for the overall civilizational development of the country. Here, like nowhere else, the latest European achievements in architecture, education, enlightenment, lifestyle, clothing, nutrition, recreation, and entertainment took root. Combined with Old Russian traditions, customs and habits, they determined the main directions of life of the Russian population in the 18th century.

But this did not mean that innovations were taking over the entire country. On the contrary, they only emphasized the general stagnation, traditionalism, and poverty of Russian life.

A huge area of ​​Russian life remained outside of urban civilization - the village, the village, the rural population. Here, as in the cities, there were big differences in living conditions and everyday life. On the one hand, part of the rural population was the nobility. After the decree on the freedom of the nobility and the Charter of the nobility, which freed nobles from mandatory state and military service, a significant part of the nobles settled on their estates, took up farming, and began to organize their rural life.

Of course, there were great differences between representatives of the rural nobility. Rich landowners, owners of tens of thousands of serf souls, are one thing. These rich people had luxurious estates with magnificent ice houses, built according to the designs of famous architects. Another thing was the small-scale Lebanese people, who owned one and a half dozen serfs.

And yet, the bulk of the nobility were middle-class landowners, owners of rural estates. Such Chnoryans were not separated from peasant life by an insurmountable wall. They constantly communicated with the peasants; courtyard people and servants from those peasants lived in their estates. Masters and servants spent years side by side, came into contact with the origins of the same folk culture, traditions, customs, beliefs, were treated by the same healers, drank the same infusions and steamed in the bathhouse with the same birch brooms. In addition, a significant part of the nobility, like Fonvizin’s Mrs. Prostakova, was illiterate or semi-literate. The rural estates of such nobles were an integral part of Russian rural life.

The latest innovations in everyday life bypassed peasant life. Only a small part of the peasants became people. They built good, clean huts in the villages with Dutch ovens, used new household items (dishes and furniture), bought good-quality clothes and shoes, and diversified their food.