Snake venom - what is the poison of different snakes. The most venomous snakes in the world. Poisonous snakes of Russia How to store snake venom

At all times, poisonous snakes have caused fear and apprehension in people. The deadly poison possessed by reptiles has been of interest to man since ancient times. Snake saliva can simultaneously kill and cure incurable human diseases. It is hard to believe that such strong poisons can be used in medicine, but it is true. The healing properties of snake venom are variously known in older cultures.

China and India believe that snake venom has very strong healing properties. Local medicine makes extensive use of venomous snakes and their venom in the treatment of patients. Preparations containing snake venom are called "snake wine" and are used to treat various types of pain.

In ancient Greece, snakes were used in healing rituals. In Greek mythology, snakes were sacred in the temple of Aesculapius. The Greeks considered snake venom to be remedial, and the shedding of skin by snakes was seen as a symbol of rebirth and renewal.

The Bible tells us that Israel attacked the snakes in the wilderness, God taught Moses how to do special tool for treatment - a stick, on top of which lay the poison of a snake. When the stick is lifted, those who are bitten look at the image of the snake and are healed. Even to this day, the symbol of medicine is a bowl, the leg of which is wrapped around a snake, embodying healing, knowledge and wisdom.

While most people think of snake venom as harmful, it can actually bring good local benefits to the skin. And these new properties of snake venom were discovered by Russian scientists. A cream based on it will get rid of wrinkles and the results are better than Botox! Accordingly, one can do without plastic surgery. Through years of research, scientists have found that snake venom (in reasonable amounts) temporarily inhibits muscle activity, which prevents and reduces the appearance of fine lines and wrinkles. Researchers also believe that snake venom could be used to produce new painkillers. Many active secretions produced by animals have been used in the development of new drugs for the treatment of diseases such as hypertension and cancer. Snake venom toxins have made a significant contribution to the treatment of many diseases.

There are many published studies describing and elucidating the anti-cancer potential of snake venom. Cancer therapy is one of the main uses of protein peptides and enzymes derived from animals of different species. Some of these proteins or peptides and enzymes from snake venom, when isolated and evaluated, can specifically bind to cancer cell membranes, influencing the migration and proliferation of these cells. Some of the substances found in snake venom show great potential as an anticancer agent. The advent of modern technologies greatly contributes to the extraction and identification of new components of therapeutic interests in a short time.

Snake venoms are complex mixtures; are mainly proteins that have
enzymatic activity. Proteins and peptides make up 90 to 95 percent of the dry weight of the venom. In addition to this, snake venoms contain inorganic cations such as sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium and small amounts of zinc, nickel, cobalt, iron, manganese. Zinc is essential for anticholinesterase activity; calcium is needed to activate an enzyme such as phospholipase. Some snake venoms also contain carbohydrates, lipids, biogenic amines, and free amino acids. Snake venoms contain at least 25 enzymes, but no venom contains all of them. A deep study of the composition and action of snake venom, in turn, can bring hope to many patients in the future.

Worldwide, 30% of snake species are venomous and only about 10% are less dangerous to humans. As always, there are exceptions, for example in Australia about 2/3 of all snakes are venomous compared to the United States where only about 10% of all species are venomous snakes.

What is snake venom?

Snake venom is a highly modified saliva of a venomous snake, a viscous and clear liquid composed of about 80% proteins and about 20% enzymes. Most of these enzymes are harmless to humans, but about 20 enzymes are known to be highly toxic to humans. Snake venom is harmless when in liquid or crystalline form after drying, and it will be excreted unchanged; it contains anti-clotting proteins. It causes toxicity only when it comes into contact with blood.

There are three types of poison according to its effects:

1. Hemotoxic poisons: they damage the cardiovascular system and cause blood clotting.

1. Cytotoxic poisons: primarily destroy cells and muscles.
2. Toxic poisons: block and damage all vital systems.

How big is the venom gland and where is it located?

The venom gland is a modified salivary gland that, compared to scientists, "looks like a small pharmaceutical company, because it has done a huge amount of evolutionary time-scale experiments with new molecules and found that it works." This gland is located right behind the snake's eye. The size of the venom gland depends on the size of the snake, namely the size of its skull. The amount of venom in a snake's venom gland (measured as the amount extracted by milking) increases exponentially with snake size and can range from 1 to 850 mg or more. In a study comparing snake venoms, researchers obtained the highest amount of venom from the eastern ctenophore (Crotalus adamanteus), more than from any other species they studied.

Some types of snakes inject their venom into the body of the victim when they bite, and some are able to splash out the poison. For example, the poisonous reptiles of the shrouds and forest regions of Africa and South Asia "shoot" a poisonous liquid directly into the eyes of the enemy. The black-necked cobra is capable of making up to 28 “shots” in a row, each time releasing about 3.7 mg of poison.

The snake species that bite control their injections. In about 50% of cases, the "hissing" delivers a "dry bite", that is, the poison is not injected into the victim, which means that the lucky one is incredibly lucky.

The largest venomous snake in the Americas Rhombic
rattlesnake (lat. Crotalus adamanteus) . This reptile got its name due to the presence of a kind of "rattle" on the tail. Most species of rattlesnake have a hemotoxic venom that destroys tissues, degenerates organs, and causes bleeding disorders.

Concerning vipers, then they are found almost throughout our planet, but perhaps the most poisonous is chain viper, which lives mainly in the Middle East and Central Asia, especially in India, China and South-East Asia. The deadly venom of this species is dangerous in its own way, causing symptoms that begin with pain at the site of the bite, followed by swelling of the affected limb, leading to amputation.

Black Mamba (lat. Dendroaspis polylepis)- This is a poisonous snake common in Africa. She is very aggressive and deadly. The mamba is the fastest terrestrial snake in the world, capable of reaching speeds of up to 20 km/h. This venomous reptile can strike up to 12 times in a row. It has a deadly poison - a fast-acting neurotoxin. Its bite provides an average of about 100-120 mg of poison; however, it can reach up to 400 mg. If the poison enters a vein, 0.25 mg/kg is enough to kill a person 50% of the time.

There are about 140 species of land snakes in Australia. Many of these reptiles have some of the most powerful poisons on earth.

tiger snakes is a species of venomous snake found in the southern regions of Australia, including its offshore islands and Tasmania. These snakes vary greatly in their color, usually striped like tigers. These snakes have very powerful venom. Before the advent of antivenom, the death rate from tiger snakes was 60-70%.

The owners of the third most toxic poison, among all the snakes in the world, are coastal.

And in second place, among all land snakes, is the eastern brown snake that lives in Australia. Her saliva is 40 times more toxic than the well-known cyanide. The venom of this Australian snake is so strong that only 0.002 ml is enough to kill.

Belcher (Chitulia Belcheri) - the most evil sea snake, known in the world for its several milligrams, which is enough to kill 1000 people! Less than 1/4 of bites will contain venom. Usually fishermen become its victims, as they very often encounter these types of snakes when pulling nets from the ocean. The sea snake lives in all waters off Southeast Asia and Northern Australia.

There are a large number of poisonous snakes in the world and it is difficult to say who ranks first in terms of poison toxicity - rattlesnakes or king cobras, mulga or sand efa - this list can be continued for a very long time. Which of them should be preferred? But no matter what place venomous snakes occupy, one must always remember one thing - these are incredibly dangerous reptiles and it is better for a person not to cross paths with them. But suddenly such a meeting took place, then it is necessary to behave with the snake with extreme caution - try not to move and wait until it crawls away.

Here are some of the most important things about a snakebite in the hope that this information will save the victim's life:

- under any circumstances, it is necessary to remain calm, since panic and shock will further enhance the effect of the poison;

- Never make any incisions in the bite area. Snake venom spreads quickly and efficiently through the lymphatic system. It's nearly impossible to cut deep enough;

- You can not use a tourniquet. Stiffness is extremely painful and will reduce blood flow to the injured limb. This can lead to necrosis of the limb and the need for amputation;

- you can not try to suck out the poison, as these actions can be more harmful than useful;

- it is always necessary to call an ambulance as soon as possible or get to the nearest medical facility to receive qualified assistance.

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SNAKE POISON- a specific poisonous secret of special parotid glands of some species of snakes. The venom-secreting glands are connected by ducts to the canals of the two poisonous teeth of the upper jaw, from where the poison, when bitten by a snake, enters the body of the victim and causes poisoning (see Snakes).

Composition and properties

3. I. - viscous, colorless or yellowish liquid, odorless, with a bitter taste. Its reaction is slightly acidic, bd. weight 1.030-1.090. In liquid form, it is low-resistant, easily rots and loses toxicity and many enzymatic properties in 10-20 days. Well-dried poison (desiccator, freeze-drying or vacuum drying) loses more than 3/4 of its original weight and turns into a whitish-yellow crystal-like powder that retains the main properties of the poison for many years. Dry 3. i. dissolves in water, chloroform, saline solutions.

The main component 3. I. - proteins and peptides which share apprx. 80% of its dry weight. They are carriers of the main toxic and enzymatic properties of the poison. In addition, in 3. i. contains free amino acids, nucleotides, guanine derivatives, mucin, sugars, lipids, pigments, inorganic salts, as well as impurities from the snake's oral cavity (epithelial cells, bacteria).

Many poisons and their fractions have been studied in terms of their elemental and amino acid composition. It is established that toxicity and some fermental properties 3. I. give disulfide groups. Glutathione and other reducers of these groups reduce the toxicity of cobra, Russell's viper, and rattlesnake venoms by 80-90%, while almost completely eliminating their blood-clotting effect and the phospholipase activity of the last two poisons.

Biologically active principles of poisons are divided into three groups: 1) highly toxic thermostable polypeptides, or low molecular weight proteins, devoid of enzymatic properties; 2) large molecular protein-enzymes with high toxicity; 3) proteins with different enzymatic properties, but devoid of pronounced toxicity. Some of the enzymes of the last group can directly or indirectly potentiate the action of the main toxins 3. I.

Toxins of the first group, mainly related to neurotoxins, are contained in the venoms of asps, sea ​​snakes, some tropical rattlesnakes of South America and in the poison of only one representative of vipers - the Palestinian viper. In most asps and sea snakes, these neurotoxins are represented by basic polypeptides with a mol. weighing approx. 6000-7000, consisting of 61 - 62 amino acid residues in one chain with four cross disulfide bonds, in snakes p. Bungarus - larger polypeptides (71 - 74 amino acid residues with five disulfide bonds), in the Palestinian viper - from 108 amino acid residues with three disulfide bonds. Crotoxin is the most potent neurotoxin found in the rattlesnake venom. Crotalus snakes durissus terrificus, is a complex compound of phospholipase A2 and a low molecular weight polypeptide, in combination with which phospholipase A2 acquires high neurotoxicity, losing to a large extent its enzymatic properties.

In the venoms of some asps (cobras, etc.), polypeptides with cardiotoxic and cytolytic effects were also found. They are close to the low-molecular toxin of tropical rattlesnakes - crotamine. The lethal effect of cobra venom cardiotoxin is 20 times weaker than that of neurotoxin.

In the venoms of most vipers and rattlesnakes, including all vipers and muzzles of the fauna of the USSR, low-molecular neuro- and cardiotoxins are not detected. The active principles of the venoms of these snakes are thermolabile and do not dialyze proteins through semi-permeable membranes with high protease activity, hemorrhagic, necrotizing and blood-clotting effects.

The composition of the poisons of a number of Australian asps and some tropical rattlesnakes is more complex; they contain both non-enzymatic neurotoxins and powerful proteases of hemorrhagic and hemocoagulative action.

On structure of the main toxins and on the leading manifestations of intoxication 3. I. can be divided into the following main groups: 1) with a predominance of neuro- and cardiotoxins (poisons of asps, sea snakes and some tropical rattlesnakes); 2) with a predominance of toxic proteases of hemorrhagic, necrotizing and blood-clotting action (toxins of vipers and most rattlesnakes); 3) poisons of mixed composition, containing both neurotoxins and powerful enzymes of hemorrhagic and blood-clotting action (toxins of a number of Australian asps and tropical rattlesnakes).

3. i. rich in enzymes, many of which are unique in their mechanism and strength of action. It contains proteases (exo- and endopeptidases, etc.), phospholipases, acetylcholinesterases, hyaluronidase, phosphatases (phosphomono- and diesterases, etc.), nucleotidase, oxidase, dehydrogenase, catalase and other enzymes. Related enzymes of different poisons differ in their mechanism of action. So, coagulases in some poisons convert fibrinogen into fibrin (thrombin-like effect), in others they activate factor X (thromboplastin-like effect), in the third, they turn prothrombin into thrombin, etc.

Snake venoms also contain inhibitors of enzyme systems, including inhibitors of tissue respiration (cytochrome oxidase system, succinate dehydrogenase, anaerobic glycolysis enzymes), anticoagulants, etc.

Poisoning statistics

According to incomplete data published by WHO, the annual number of people who are bitten by venomous snakes is the globe OK. 500 thousand, of which 30-40 thousand (6-8%) die. More than 4/5 of all cases are registered in Asia, Africa and South America. Only in India the number of victims reaches 100 thousand people. in year.

As you move away from the tropics, the frequency and severity of bites from venomous snakes decrease. In the United States, the annual number of victims of snake bites varies, according to various authors, from 1.2 to 3.7 per 100,000 inhabitants. However, south and southwest. states on these indicators are approaching tropical countries: 10.8-

18.8 per 100,000. B Western Europe and in the central zone of the USSR, the frequency of snake bites is lower than in the United States as a whole (no more than 0.7 per 100,000); in the south of Central Asia and in the Transcaucasus, it increases by 2-3 times. After implementation modern methods treatment mortality dropped sharply: in Brazil - from 27 to 8%, in the south of Japan - from 15 to 3%, in the USA - from 3.05 to 0.21%, etc. Bites are the most dangerous snakes subtropical fauna of the USSR (gyurza, sand efa) in the past gave approx. 8% of deaths, this figure is reduced to almost zero.

The degree of snake danger (ophidism) in each given locality is determined both by the number and species composition of poisonous snakes, and by socio-demographic factors (population density, degree of urbanization, lifestyle, clothing, etc.).

The degree of danger of bites of various poisonous snakes of the fauna of the USSR is characterized by the following data: in Tajikistan, when biting a gyurza, an extremely severe form of poisoning was observed in 8.1% of cases, severe - in 40.4%, moderate - in 27.4%, mild - in 24 ,one%; in the Altai Territory, when bitten by a common viper, an extremely severe form of poisoning was not observed, severe - was observed in 6.4% of cases, moderate - in 36.2%, mild - in 57.4%.

Pathogenesis and clinic of poisoning

Pathogenesis and features a wedge, manifestations at poisoning 3. I. are determined primarily by the composition of the poison - the predominant content in it of neurotoxins, neuro-cardiotoxins or hemorrhagic coagulants. At the same time, with the bites of even the most dangerous snakes, the severity of intoxication varies. The dose and concentration of the released poison are of decisive importance. As well as secrets of other glands, 3. I. it is released either in a more or less concentrated form, and the amount of poison that enters the body of the victim can range from 0.4 to 65% of its total supply.

The severity of intoxication also depends on the age and state of health of the victim, on the location of the bite and on which tissue the poison has entered. Children, especially those under the age of 3 years, are much more difficult to tolerate poisoning than adults; bites to the head and torso are more dangerous than to the limbs, and if the poison enters directly into the blood vessel, it can cause the death of the victim in 5-10 minutes. after a bite. Intramuscular ingestion of viper and rattlesnake venom is almost twice as dangerous as subcutaneous, and intramuscular ingestion of asp venom has the same effect as subcutaneous.

Damage by poisons of predominantly neurotoxic action

Neurotoxic effect is caused by the poisons of asps and sea snakes (in the USSR - only the poison of the Central Asian cobra), Neurotoxic - by the poisons of some tropical rattlesnakes.

Poisons of asps and sea snakes block neuromuscular and interneuronal synapses, increase and then suppress the excitability of sensory and chemoreceptors, inhibit the cortex, subcortical and stem centers of c. n. With. Symptoms of defeat develop quickly since neuro-toxins 3. I. easily pass from the tissues into the bloodstream. However, these toxins are quickly eliminated from the body, appearing in large quantities in the urine after 13-20 minutes. after the introduction of poison, and in the next 16 hours. they are almost completely excreted.

Clinically, intoxication is manifested by a variety of sensory disorders, early development of impaired coordination of movements and peripheral paralysis, disorders of consciousness (stupor, coma), and in severe cases - increasing respiratory depression until it stops. Respiratory arrest is caused not only by paralysis of the respiratory muscles (curare-like effect), but also by depression of the respiratory center.

Circulatory disorders have a phase character. In the first 15-20 min. shock develops due to the intensive intake of histamine from the tissues into the bloodstream, and then the inhibitory effect of the poison on the vasomotor center. After 1-2 hours, blood pressure normalizes or even increases above the original. After 6-12 hours. the cardiotoxic effect of the poison may manifest itself: arrhythmia, atrioventricular blockade occurs, systolic and minute volumes of the heart progressively decrease, cardiogenic shock develops, sometimes pulmonary edema. In severe poisoning, the neurotoxic effect outpaces the cardiotoxic effect, and death occurs from respiratory paralysis.

The clinic of poisoning with the poison of the Central Asian cobra has been little studied due to the extreme rarity of bites by this snake. The available single observations show that it does not qualitatively differ from the picture of poisoning with the venom of the Indian cobra. Immediately after a snake bite, the victims experience acute pain in the affected area, spreading to the entire affected limb and to other parts of the body. A few minutes later, progressive general weakness, adynamia develop, then a feeling of numbness in the limbs, trunk and face, general stiffness. The coordination of movements is disturbed, and after 20-30 minutes. the patient loses the ability to move independently and stand on his feet. In the same period there are initial signs of a collapse (see). Then paresis progresses rapidly, and in severe cases - complete paralysis of the muscles of the limbs, trunk (see. Paralysis, paresis), as well as the face, tongue, larynx and organ of vision, which leads to aphasia (see), aphonia (see), diplopia (see), violation of swallowing. Disturbances of sensitivity are various: spilled painful sensations with skin hyperesthesia and paresthesias (see) are combined with feeling of constraint, numbness, sharp easing of sensitivity and proprioception. Body temperature rises to 38-39 °, heart sounds are muffled, extrasystole is possible. The most formidable sign of poisoning is progressive depression and slowing of breathing. The threat of death from respiratory arrest is especially great in the first 2-10 hours. poisoning. Then, changes in the heart progress: deafness of tones, a decrease in the voltage of ECG teeth, extrasystole, atrioventricular blockade of I-II degree. Late cardiogenic shock and pulmonary edema are possible.

Local changes in the bite zone in case of damage by asps and sea snakes are negligible: two points of skin puncture by the snake's teeth and slight swelling around them are visible. Hyperemia, hemorrhages, hemorrhagic edema, blisters, lymphadenitis and vein thrombosis, inherent in poisoning with viper and rattlesnake venoms, never happen, which has a differential diagnostic value.

With a favorable course of intoxication, all nevrol, disorders regress after 2-5 days, but muscle weakness, numbness and aching pain in the limbs, deafness of heart sounds can persist for several weeks.

When poisoned with neurotoxic poisons of tropical rattlesnakes, respiratory paralysis does not develop, muscle paresis is combined with convulsive twitches, even convulsions; in a pathogeny and a wedge, a picture of intoxication the phenomena of heavy shock prevail.

Damage by poisons with a predominantly hemorrhagic and blood-clotting effect

These lesions are caused by the poisons of most vipers and rattlesnakes, including the toxins of all vipers and muzzles of the fauna of the USSR.

The pathogenesis of intoxication is dominated by local tissue destruction and edematous-hemorrhagic reaction to the poison, a systemic increase in vascular permeability, general hemorrhagic phenomena, disseminated intravascular coagulation with the subsequent development of hypo- or afibrinogenemia (thrombohemorrhagic syndrome), hypovolemia, shock, acute post-hemorrhagic anemia and dystrophic changes. in parenchymal organs.

Local changes in the zone of poison injection are pronounced, progress rapidly and largely determine the degree of general intoxication. Already in the first minutes after a snake bite, causing slight pain and a burning sensation, hyperemia, multiple hemorrhages and rapidly spreading hemorrhagic edema occur around the injection site of the poison. In severe forms of poisoning, edema and multiple spotted hemorrhages capture the entire affected limb and often spread far to the trunk. The limb acquires a purple-cyanotic color, blisters with serous-hemorrhagic contents may appear on the skin, lymphangitis, lymphadenitis and thrombosis of the outlet veins often occur. This reaction reaches its maximum development after 8-36 hours. after inoculation of the poison, when the volume of the affected limb increases sharply and abundant hemorrhagic impregnation of all soft tissues is determined. The exudate differs little from whole blood in terms of hematocrit, erythrocyte, hemoglobin and protein content. Thus, in the affected part of the body there is a huge decrease in the vascular bed of blood, which largely determines the development of hypovolemia, shock, hypoproteinemia and anemia. Wounds at the site of the bite sometimes bleed for a long time; later, ulcerations and necrosis may form here, the appearance of which is facilitated by improper provision of first aid to patients (application of a tourniquet, cauterization of the bite site, etc.).

The general picture of intoxication is dominated by shock phenomena: weakness, dizziness, pallor of the skin, nausea, vomiting, sometimes repeated fainting, a small and frequent pulse, and a decrease in blood pressure. In the early stages of intoxication (during the first hour), shock is associated mainly with the entry of histamine and other shockogenic substances into the bloodstream, as well as with disseminated intravascular coagulation (hemocoagulation shock), and later with abundant internal blood and plasma loss and hypovolemia (posthemorrhagic shock). ). Blood clotting in the first 30-90 minutes. rises sharply; deposition of fibrin in the capillaries and multiple microthromboses are noted. Then comes a long phase of hypocoagulation with severe hypofibrinogenemia and bleeding (nasal, gastrointestinal bleeding, hematuria, hemorrhages in organs, meninges, serous membranes, etc.). Thrombohemorrhagic syndrome lasts 1 - 3 days and is accompanied by signs of acute posthemorrhagic anemia (see).

In milder forms, general toxic symptoms are mild, local edematous-hemorrhagic reaction to the poison prevails. Damage to the body by hemorrhagic poisons is often complicated by the formation of necrotic ulcers in the bite area and gangrene of the affected limb, which delays the recovery time and can lead to disability in some of the victims. In uncomplicated cases, recovery occurs 4-8 days after the snakebite.

Treatment and prevention of poisoning

When providing first aid to victims, constriction of the affected limb with a tourniquet, cauterization of the bite site with gunpowder, to-tami, alkalis, boiling oil, etc., local injections of strong oxidizing agents (potassium permanganate, etc.) are categorically contraindicated. All these methods not only do not weaken or delay the action of the poison, but, on the contrary, significantly increase both general and local manifestations of intoxication, contribute to the occurrence of a number of serious complications (necrotic ulcers, gangrene, etc.).

First aid should begin with immediate vigorous suction of the contents of the wounds, which makes it possible to remove, as proven experimentally and clinically, from 28 to 46% of the total poison introduced into the body. If the wounds have dried up, they are first “opened” by pressing on the skin fold. Suction can be done by mouth (it does not cause intoxication if it gets on intact mucous membranes) or with the help of a rubber pear, breast pump, etc. It should be continued for 15-20 minutes. (in the first 6 minutes, about 3/4 of the entire extracted poison is removed), after which the wounds are treated with brilliant green, iodine or alcohol. When providing first aid, the affected limb is immobilized and the victim is provided with complete rest in a horizontal position, which reduces the outflow of lymph containing poison from the affected part of the body.

Plentiful drink (tea, coffee, broth) is useful. Alcohol in any form is contraindicated. Of the medicines, antihistamines, sedative drugs and those that affect vascular tone are prescribed.

Fast delivery of patients in the nearest to lay down is important. an institution where the earliest therapy is possible with immune mono- and polyvalent anti-venom sera (PS) - antigyurza, antiefa, anticobra, etc. Treatment is carried out according to the general rules of serotherapy (see). In severe forms of poisoning, the dose of PS is from 80 to 130 ml or more, with moderate poisoning - 50-80 ml (M. N. Sultanov, 1963, etc.).

PS is administered intramuscularly, and only in case of extremely severe poisoning and late delivery of patients for health reasons is it possible to administer one dose of it intravenously. Homologous PSs are used, however, due to the similarity of the antigenic structure of snake venoms belonging to the same genus, cross-use of PSs is also acceptable. So, antigyrza serum can also be used for bites of other vipers of our fauna (except for poisoning of the sandy efa, belonging to another genus of the viper family). Treatment of PS can be complicated by allergic reactions - urticaria, Quincke's edema, serum encephalitis, severe anaphylactic shock (according to Campbell, 3% of cases), etc. Therefore, serotherapy, as a rule, should not be used for bites of common and steppe vipers, muzzles and other low-dangerous snakes , in which a quick cure can be achieved by pathogenetic and symptomatic means. Even with gyurza bites, the introduction of PS is not resorted to in all cases. PS concentrated and purified from ballast proteins are more effective and somewhat less dangerous than native ones. To prevent and mitigate the complications of serotherapy, it is recommended to administer intravenously glucocorticoids (hydrocortisone, prednisolone, etc.), antihistamines and blood transfusions simultaneously with PS.

Pathogenetic therapy depends on the type of poison that has entered the body. In case of damage by poisons of hemorrhagic-coagulative action, massive jet and then drip transfusions of blood and plasma, as well as blood substitutes, are most effective and quickly improve the condition of patients. In case of severe poisoning, 800-1500 ml of blood preparations are administered on the first day, and 200-600 ml each in the following days. With milder poisoning and in the treatment of children, the doses are reduced by 2-4 times. The rest of the treatment is carried out according to the general rules for the treatment of posthemorrhagic shock (see). Symptomatic therapy includes the appointment of anti-inflammatory drugs, tetracycline antibiotics, antihistamines, antianemic drugs.

Pathogenetic therapy of poisoning with neurotoxic poisons of asps (cobras) and other snakes consists in the use of anti-shock drugs along with PS and, in the event of respiratory paralysis, artificial respiration apparatus. The latter method is very important, because pharmacol, respiratory stimulants do not prevent or stop respiratory paralysis caused by cobra venom.

For snake bites of all types, prophylactic administration of tetanus toxoid is necessary.

Individual prevention of bites of poisonous snakes is provided by the protection of the limbs with high leather shoes and tight clothing, a thorough examination of the places of parking or lodging for the night. Usually snakes are not aggressive and bite only in self-defense, therefore, bites are mainly experienced by persons trying to catch or kill a snake, more often children and adolescents. In this regard, clarification of the dangers of chasing snakes is necessary; non-specialists, especially teenagers, should not be involved in catching poisonous snakes. Children's institutions (pioneer camps, etc.) should not be located in the centers of accumulation of snakes. Herpetologists can carry out the relocation of snakes from such places to reserves or nurseries.

The use of snake venom in medicine

3. i. used in medicine:

1) for the preparation of toxoids and immunization of animals in order to obtain anti-venom sera;

2) as independent to lay down. drugs;

3) as reagents for laboratory diagnostics of certain diseases;

4) for experimental modeling of a number of patol, syndromes (neurotoxic, hemorrhagic, disseminated blood coagulation and afibrinogenemia, etc.).

Apply 3. i. how to treat remedy started in the 16th century; as a therapeutic agent it was promoted by Paracelsus. Wide practical application 3. I. started in the 20th century.

Rattlesnake venom has been used to treat epilepsy (with a problematic effect). Cobra venom and its neurotoxic fraction have a pronounced analgesic, antispastic and anticonvulsant effect; the cytolysins contained in it have a resolving effect on granulations and on the cells of some tumors. A weakened cobra venom neurotoxin has been shown to reduce the effects of the polio virus and probably other neuroviruses.

A number of preparations from viper venoms with thromboplastic action are used as a local hemostatic agent. For the prevention and treatment of thrombosis, the defibrinating component of the Malay muzzle venom is used - Arvin or Ancrod (Arvin, Ancrod). This is a glycoprotein that cleaves peptides A (but not B) from fibrinogen and causes incomplete polymerization of fibrin monomers without simultaneous activation of the fibrin-stabilizing factor. These loose fibrin monomer complexes rapidly undergo fibrinolysis with the formation of a large number of protein fragments with a pronounced anticoagulant effect. After a single intravenous injection of ancrod, a sharp hypo-coagulation occurs, which persists for approx. 24 hours, blood viscosity decreases.

Remains unexplored opportunity to lay down. the use of anticoagulants contained in the venoms of asps and some other snakes.

Venoms of snakes are widely used in laboratory diagnostic practice, Ch. arr. to recognize various bleeding disorders. Thus, samples with the venom of Russell's viper (stipven) or gyurza (lebetox) are used for the differential diagnosis of deficiency of factors VII and X (venoms contain an analog of factor VII), as well as for the quantitative determination of factor X and factor 3 of platelets. Prothrombin is determined using the venom of the Australian taipan snake or sand efa. Reptilase (a preparation from the venom of Brazilian rattlesnakes) is used to control blood clotting and the content of fibrinogen in it against the background of heparinization (its action, unlike thrombin, is not blocked by heparin), and together with the thrombin test, to differentiate various antithrombins, etc. d.

3. i. serves as a source of obtaining a number of enzymes used to study the structure and function of biol, systems, to obtain biologically active substances (bradykinin, etc.) and other purposes.

snake venom preparations

Vipraksin (Vipraxinum) - an aqueous solution of dry venom of the common viper. It is prescribed as an analgesic and anti-inflammatory agent for neuralgia, myalgia, polyarthritis, myositis. Also used for the treatment of gynecol, inflammatory diseases, along with antibiotics.

The mechanism of action of vipraksin, as well as other drugs 3. Ya, has not been studied. Assume that along with specific action of the main components of poison to lay down. the effect is associated with reflex reactions (irritation of receptors), with the absorption of biogenic amines formed in tissues during the local action of the poison, with the effect on the body's immune responses, as well as with stimulation of the pituitary-adrenal system.

The drug is administered intradermally, subcutaneously or intramuscularly in the area of ​​greatest pain. Begin treatment with an injection of 0.2 ml. Usually, swelling appears at the injection site, significant pain is felt; chills, fever, headache, nausea, vomiting are also possible. After 3-4 days, when the general and local reactions disappear, the same dose is re-introduced (if the local reaction was pronounced) or increased to 0.3 ml. With absence side effects 10 injections are prescribed per course of treatment with an interval of 3-4 days at the same dose, and if the drug is well tolerated, the dose can be increased to 0.4 ml and the interval between injections is reduced to 1 day. The maximum single dose is 1 ml. In one place, no more than 0.4 ml should be injected, with a larger single dose, the drug is injected into 2-3 places. To prevent the drug from losing activity, use a chilled syringe free of alcohol.

Usually vipraksin is well transferred, however, as well as on other preparations 3. I., individually increased reaction is possible.

Vipraksin is contraindicated in active tuberculosis, insufficiency of coronary and cerebral circulation, lesions of parenchymal organs and in febrile conditions.

Release form - 1 ml ampoules. Store in sealed ampoules in a cool dark place; list A.

Viperalgin (Viperalgin) - Lyophilized sterile sand viper venom containing neurotoxin, hyaluronidase. By action, indications and contraindications, it is close to vipraksin. Enter intradermally, subcutaneously or intramuscularly, starting with a dose of 0.1 ml, with a gradual increase in it (by 0.1 ml each time) until a noticeable local reaction appears. Produce several injections with an interval of at least 1 day. By the end of treatment, the dose of the drug is gradually reduced.

Release form - ampoules containing 0.1 mg of dry poison, ampoules with a solvent (1 ml of isotonic sodium chloride solution), the drug is dissolved immediately before use. Stored as a drug of list A. Produced in Czechoslovakia.

Viprosal (Viprosalum) - an ointment containing viper poison (16 mouse units per 100 g of ointment), with the addition of camphor, salicylic acid, fir oil, petroleum jelly, glycerin, paraffin, emulsifier and water. Creamy mass of white or slightly yellow color, with the smell of camphor and fir oil.

Applied externally for neuralgia, lumbago, myositis, arthralgia as an anesthetic. Apply to painful places 5-10 g 1-2 times a day and rub dry. When applied, local allergic reactions are possible, disappearing after discontinuation of the drug.

Release form - tubes of 20, 30, 40 and 50 g. Store in a cool dry place.

Viprosal may contain, instead of viper venom poison, the amount of common viper venom corresponding in activity.

Vipratox (Vipratox) - liniment containing the venoms of various snakes (0.0001 g), methyl salicylate (6 g), camphor (3 g) and the basis for liniment (up to 100 g). Apply externally.

Indications and method of application are the same as for viprosal. Release form - tubes of 45 g. Produced in the GDR.

Bibliography: Barkagan 3. S. and Perfiliev P. P. Poisonous snakes and their poisons, Barnaul, 1967, bibliogr.; B er d y e-in and A. T. To the pathogenesis of intoxication with poisons of Central Asian snakes of gyurza and cobra, Ashgabat, 1972, bibliogr.; she, Snake venoms, their toxic effect and measures to provide assistance with snake bites, Ashgabat, 1974, bibliogr.; Valtseva I. A. Pathophysiological features of the action of snake venoms living in the USSR, and some questions of experimental therapy, M., 1969; Mashkovsky M. D. Medicines, part 2, p. 108, Moscow, 1977; With a x and b about in D. N., Sorokin V. M. and Yukelson L. I. Chemistry and biochemistry of snake venoms, Tashkent, 1972, bibliogr.; Poisonous animals of Central Asia and their poisons, ed. G. S. Sultanova, Tashkent, 1970; Venomous animals and their venoms, ed. by W. Biicherl a. E. F. Buckley, N. Y.-L., 1971.

3. S. Barkagan; V. A. Babichev (farm.).

bee venom - it is a product of the secretory activity of the poisonous glands of the bee and is a means of protection.

Bee venom is a colorless, thick liquid with a sharp characteristic odor reminiscent of honey and a bitter, burning taste. Bee venom is acidic. It hardens in air, in a dry form for a long period does not lose its basic properties. The poison is rapidly inactivated by digestive enzymes and bacteria.

AT chemical composition poison includes proteins, enzymes, free amino acids, acetylcholine, histamine, lipids, sterols, mineral compounds.

bee venom for medical purposes receive by irritating the bees with an electric current: the bee gets on the poison-selective frame of the device and closes the current. Under the influence of an electric current, the insect releases a sting. From the tip of the sting, poison is poured onto the glass (about 0.085 mg from one bee) and dries up after 10-15 minutes. Then the poison is removed from the glasses.

When bees sting healthy people, the poison does not have any harmful effect. A general toxic reaction often occurs with a large number of stings (300-500). At the site of the sting, there is a burning pain, blanching, and then redness and swelling, the temperature rises. With a general action, a person feels a headache, dizziness, weakness, sometimes nausea, vomiting, salivation and lacrimation, and nervous excitement. There are people with hypersensitivity to the action of bee venom and people with allergic reactions. For them, even single stings by bees can be fatal.

Mechanism of action the venom of bees and snakes has not been studied enough. The effect is due to irritation of receptors and reflex reactions, as well as the specific action of highly active substances (histamine, enzymes, etc.) that affect the regulatory processes of the body, immunological reactions, microcirculation, blood clotting, etc. The presence of hyaluronidase and phospholipase enzymes in poisons facilitates their penetration through the skin.

Bee venom renders local and general action on the patient's body: it is used in the treatment of rheumatic diseases (arthritis), radiculitis, neuralgia, trophic ulcers, sluggishly granulating wounds, obliterating endarteritis, thrombophlebitis, atherosclerosis of the lower extremities, diseases of the trigeminal, sciatic nerves, and allergic diseases (urticaria, hay fever, etc. .).

General contraindications to the use of bee venom preparations: individual intolerance, diseases of the kidneys, liver and pancreas, neoplasms, tuberculosis, severe infectious diseases, sepsis, circulatory failure with decompensation, mental illness, diabetes mellitus, lesions of the adrenal cortex, pregnancy.

bee venom use in native form and in preparations.

There is an “Instruction for the use of apitherapy by bee stinging, approved by the USSR Ministry of Health in 1959. When treating with stinging, a bee is taken with tweezers and applied to a sore spot. The sting is removed after 5-10 minutes, i.e. after all the poison has entered the skin. Scheme of treatment: the first day - sting by one bee, then a bee is added every day. The course of treatment is 10-15 days. After a break of 3-4 days, the course is repeated again, but the bees are taken 3 times more. In just two courses, the patient is stinged by 180-200 bees. Treatment by bee stinging is carried out in special medical institutions, for example, in apitherapy rooms. During treatment, urine and blood tests are performed once a week.

Recently, new preparations of bee venom have been developed that can replace the painful procedures of bee stinging: the injection solution of the poison "Solapiven" and acupuncture needles with bee venom applied to them.

Traditional dosage forms containing bee venom are ointments for rubbing "Apizatron", "Ungapiven" and tablets for preparing a solution for electrophoresis "Apifor".

In the field of study and use of products honey bee work is underway to study the mechanism of action of drugs, the creation of new drugs, food additives, bee products.

Snake venom - secretion of poisonous glands of snakes. The venom glands are located behind the snake's eyes and are modified salivary glands that open outwards with excretory ducts that communicate with the canal of the poisonous tooth.

Of the 3000 species of snakes that live on earth, 3 are used in medical practice in Russia. They use the venom of the common viper - Virega berus, gyurza - Virega 1ebetipa (viper family - Viperidae), cobra (spectacled snake) - Naja ohana (aspid family - E1aridae) .

For medical purposes, the common viper is caught in the central zone of the European part of Russia, Siberia and the Far East, gyurza - in Central Asia and the Caucasus, cobras - in Central Asia. Catching gyurza and cobra is carried out only under licenses.

the interval between taking the poison, the microclimate, the physiological state of the snake and the method of selecting the poison (electrical stimulation, mechanical "milking").

To obtain 1 g of poison, 250-300 snakes are needed.

Snake venom is a thin, clear liquid, colorless or yellowish, heavier than water. When mixed with water gives opalescence. The reaction of viper and viper venom is acidic, cobra venom is neutral. Quickly loses activity (toxicity) in water, ether, chloroform, under the action of UV rays. Keeps well when frozen and dried. On drying, yellow crystals are obtained; in this form, the poison remains toxic for decades.

Snake venom - complex complex of biologically active substances: enzymes, toxic polypeptides, proteins with specific biological properties (nerve growth factor, anticomplementary factors), as well as inorganic components. Many enzymes are common for snake venoms of various families: phospholipase, hyaluronidase, phosphodiesterase, etc., but there are also differences. Cobra venom contains neurotoxins that disrupt the transmission of excitation in neuromuscular synapses and thereby cause paralysis of the skeletal and respiratory muscles. Death comes from respiratory arrest. The poison contains the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, which destroys acetylcholine and aggravates the development of paralysis. The venom of the viper and viper contains proteolytic enzymes. As a result of poisoning, hemorrhagic edema develops due to an increase in vascular permeability and disorders in the blood coagulation system (intravascular coagulation, blood clots, and then the blood loses its ability to clot for a long time), extensive hemorrhages form.

Poison is raw materials for the pharmaceutical industry. Preparations containing snake venom are used as an analgesic, anti-inflammatory and local irritant for diseases of the peripheral nervous system.

Preparations:

Based on viper venom "Vipraksin", "Viprosal B",

Based on the poison of the gyurza "Viprosal", "Nizhvisal",

Based on the venom of the cobra "Nayaksin",

Based on the venom of various snakes "Vipratoks".

Contraindications: hypersensitivity of the body to snake venoms, pulmonary tuberculosis, febrile conditions, diuretic and coronary circulation insufficiency, heart defects, a tendency to angiospasms, organic lesions of the liver and kidneys, pregnancy and lactation, pustular skin diseases, damage to the skin at the site of application.

Separate components of the venom of viper and cobra, for example, oxidase, phospholipase A 2, phosphodiesterase, endonuclease, etc. are produced as chemical reagents. Snake venoms and their components are used for scientific purposes as immunosuppressants, to study the mechanism of blood coagulation.

vi, studying the molecular organization of acetylcholine receptors.

Snake venoms are used in the production of anti-snake serums.

These glands are modified salivary glands that open to the outside with excretory ducts that communicate via a sac with one or more canals of poisonous teeth.

Compound

The main chemical components: proteins, amino acids, fatty acids, enzymes (hydrolases, proteases, nucleases, phosphonucleases, catalases, oxidases), trace elements.

Classification

By the nature of the effect on the body

• neurotoxic- have a curare-like effect, stop neuromuscular transmission, resulting in death from paralysis
• hematovasotoxic- cause vascular spasm, followed by vascular permeability, and then swelling of tissues and internal organs

Origin

Sea snake venom

Sea snakes have one of the most powerful snake venoms in the world. After all, they feed on fish and cephalopods, and cold-blooded ones are more resistant to snake venom than mammals and birds. The venomous teeth of sea snakes are fixed (primitive) in the anterior part of the upper jaw and are slightly shorter than those of land snakes. However, most of them have teeth long enough to penetrate human skin. The exceptions are species that feed mainly on fish caviar.

The most venomous sea snake is considered Aipysurus duboisii, which, after the taipan and the brown snake, is the third most venomous snake in the world.

Asp venom

All species of this family are poisonous. Paired poisonous teeth are located in front of the shortened maxillary bones; they are noticeably larger than the rest of the teeth, bent back and equipped with a poisonous canal; fixed motionless (primitive feature). The venom-conducting canal in asps originated from a groove on the front surface of the tooth by gradually closing its edges. Usually only one of the poisonous teeth functions, the second is a "substitute" in case of loss of the first. In addition to fangs, in many asps the upper jaw is equipped with small teeth; mambas and American asps do not have these.

The venom of aspid snakes is generally dominated by neurotoxins, which gives a characteristic clinical picture when bitten. Local phenomena in the bite area almost do not develop (there is no swelling or redness), but death quickly occurs due to depression of the nervous system, primarily paralysis of the respiratory center. The bite of large asps, such as cobra, is a mortal danger to humans. This family includes the most venomous land snake in the world - a fierce snake ( Oxyuranus microlepidotus).

viper venom

All vipers have a pair of relatively long, hollow fangs, which are used to expel venom from venom glands located behind the upper jaw. Each of the two fangs is located in front of the mouth on the maxillary bone rotating back and forth. When not in use, the fangs are folded back and covered with a membrane sheath. The left and right fangs rotate independently of each other. During the fight, the mouth opens up to 180 degrees and the bone rotates forward, protruding fangs. The jaws close on contact, and the strong muscles surrounding the venom glands contract, releasing the venom in the process. This action is instantaneous and is more of a punch than a bite. Snakes use this mechanism both for immobilizing prey and for self-defense.

Application

Snake venoms are mainly used in medicine, for example, as an analgesic, anti-inflammatory agent for diseases of the peripheral nervous system, etc.

see also

Notes

Literature

• Botanical-pharmacognostic dictionary: Ref. allowance / K. F. Blinova, N. A. Borisova, G. B. Gortinsky and others; Ed. K. F. Blinova, G. P. Yakovlev. - M .: Higher. school, 1990. - S. 160. - ISBN 5-06000085-0

Links

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010 .

• Serpent Hall (book)
• Lagarfljöt Serpent

See what "Poisons of snakes" are in other dictionaries:

POISONS OF ANIMALS- toxic in both protein and non-protein nature. The former (oligos and polypeptides, enzymes) are found in most armed actively poisonous animals (snakes, spiders, scorpions, etc.); they operate in the when administered parenterally and in combination ... ... Chemical Encyclopedia

hemolytic poisons- lead, aniline, arsenic, hydrogen sulfide, poisons of some snakes and other substances, including microbial, plant or animal origin, causing hemolysis upon penetration into the body. * * * HEMOLYTIC POISONS HEMOLYTIC POISONS, lead,… … encyclopedic Dictionary

HEMOLYTIC POISONS- lead, aniline, arsenic, hydrogen sulfide, poisons of some snakes and other substances, including microbial, plant or animal origin, causing hemolysis when they enter the body ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

Enzyme Poisons- substances of various chemical nature that specifically inhibit the activity of a particular enzyme (See Enzymes) or a group of related enzymes. Essentially F. I. are Enzyme Inhibitors, which even at very low ... ...

ENZYME POISONS- substances decomp. chemical nature, specifically inhibitory activity determined. enzymes. In low concentrations suppress vital fiziol. functions of the body and can be used as pesticides, toxic substances, etc. The term "F ... Biological encyclopedic dictionary

HEMOLYTIC POISONS- lead, aniline, arsenic, hydrogen sulfide, poisons of some snakes, etc. in water, including microbial, grows. or animal origin, causing hemolysis upon penetration into the body ... Natural science. encyclopedic Dictionary

Suborder Serpents (Ophidia, Serpentes)- Snakes are one of the most peculiar creatures on earth. Their unusual appearance, an original way of movement, many remarkable features of behavior, and finally, the poisonousness of many species, all this has long attracted attention and causes a living ... ... Biological Encyclopedia

Toxinology- Toxinology is a science that studies the properties of poisons of animal, plant and microbial origin and the toxic process caused by their poisoning. It can be considered as a section of toxicology, as well as an interdisciplinary science. ... ... Wikipedia

poisonous animals- I Poisonous animals Animals that constantly or periodically contain substances that are toxic to humans and individuals of other species. About 5 thousand species are known. Distinguish between active and passive poisonous animals. Actively poisonous ... ... Medical Encyclopedia

Hemotoxins- (from hemo... (See Hemo...) and Greek toxikon poison) substances of microbial, plant or animal origin that damage the membranes of blood erythrocytes and cause them Hemolysis. G. for the most part Enzymes such as lecithinases or phospholipases, ... ... Big soviet encyclopedia

GOU VPO RYAZAN STATE MEDICAL UNIVERSITY IM. AKAD. I.P. PAVLOVA

MINISTRIES OF HEALTH AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

abstract

on the topic: “Poisons of snakes. Classification and mechanism of action. First aid for snake bites

5th year students, 2 groups

Faculty of Pharmacy

Poberezhets Oksana Alexandrovna

1. The structure of the poisonous apparatus of the anterior and posterior furrowed snakes p.2-5

2.Comparative characteristics snake venoms. 5

3. First aid in case of poisoning and prevention of bites p.6-7

4. Practical significance of poisonous snakes and their protection p.7-8

5. Anterior furrowed snakes p.8-24

6. Back-furrowed snakes p.25-31

Total There are close to 3000 species of snakes currently living on Earth. Of these, 58 species belong to the fauna of Russia, among which 11 species are poisonous and dangerous to humans. Poisonous snakes living in our country belong to four families: Snakes (Colubridae), Snakes (Elapidae), Vipers (Viperidae) and Pitheads (Crotalidae). The snakes belonging to these families differ in their biology, the structure of the poisonous apparatus, the chemical composition of the poison and its mechanisms. toxic action.

The structure of the poisonous apparatus of the anterior and posterior furrowed snakes.
In the course of evolution in digestive system snakes have developed special devices for swallowing large prey and a poisonous apparatus has been formed that ensures its immobilization. Whole swallowing of the prey required significant restructuring in the skull, and especially in the jaw apparatus: the lower jaws can deviate from the upper ones at almost a right angle, in addition, they are interconnected by ligaments that allow each half of the jaw to move away from one another. Due to this, the snake is able to swallow prey, the diameter of which exceeds the diameter of the head of the snake itself.

Evolutionary transformations in the poisonous apparatus of snakes from different families reflect the main features of their diet. The natural poisonousness of the saliva of individual representatives of snakes can be explained from the point of view of the presence of various digestive enzymes in it. This property was fixed in the process of evolution, as it increased the efficiency of hunting. Gradually, the salivary glands - upper labial, temporal - began to specialize in the production of a predominantly poisonous secret. At the same time, the formation of an apparatus for the active introduction of poison into the body of the victim took place. Individual teeth located at the posterior or anterior end of the upper jaw increased in size, a groove appeared on their front surface, along which poison flowed. Then, when the groove closed, an internal channel was formed, opening with an outlet near the top of the tooth, which significantly increased the efficiency of introducing poison into the body of the victim. In already-shaped snakes, poisonous teeth sit on the posterior edge of the maxillary bone and are separated from others by a toothless gap, which is why they are commonly called posterior-furrowed. Other venomous snakes have venomous teeth located on cutting edge maxillary bone, they are referred to as anterior furrowed snakes (see fig.)

Scheme of the structure of the poisonous apparatus of snakes (below, a transverse section of the tooth):

A - already shaped; B - asps; B - vipers: 1 - poisonous gland; 2 - gland duct; 3 - poisonous teeth; 4 - drainage cavity of a poisonous tooth; 5 - groove for draining poison; 6 - canal of a poisonous tooth

Family Already-shaped (Colubridae). This family is the largest in the suborder of snakes (Serpentes) and unites over 60% of all snake species. The subfamily of real snakes (Colubrinae) includes the vast majority of all already-shaped snakes. Among them there are species whose saliva has a toxic effect: multi-colored snake (Coluber ravergieri), tiger snake ( Rhabdophis tigrina), common copperhead (Coronella austriaca). Another subfamily - false snakes (Boiginae), or suspiciously poisonous, includes species that have a poisonous gland (Duvernoy's gland), the ducts of which end at the base of the poisonous teeth. Since the teeth are located deep in the mouth on the posterior edge of the maxillary bone, the snake can only bite the victim in the mouth. In connection with this, the procedure for obtaining poison from retro-furrowed snakes presents certain difficulties. To do this, suction of the poison from the base of the poisonous tooth is used, including using microaspiration technology.

Poisonous glands are located behind the eyes, have an alveolar structure and in some representatives, for example, boiga (Boiga trigonatum), cat snake (Telescopus fallax), reach large sizes.

Aspid family (Elapidae). In our country, it has only one representative - the Central Asian cobra (Naja oxiana). The venom gland of asps is encapsulated in connective tissue and is more compact than that of viper snakes. The gland consists of the posterior main (main) lobe; secretory duct and accessory mucosal lobe. The main lobe has a complex alveolar structure, in the center of the gland there is a cavity where a poisonous secret accumulates. Secretory epithelium of the serous type. Cell height varies depending on the stage of the secretory cycle. Poisonous teeth are motionless (a primitive feature) attached to the anterior end of the shortened maxillary bone. The structure of the cobra tooth clearly demonstrates the origin of the canal in a tubular tooth by gradually closing the edges of the groove on the front surface of the tooth.

Viper family (Viperidae) and fam. Pitheads (Crotalidae). In the fauna of Russia, both families are represented, which have many common features buildings, including the poisonous apparatus. Poison glands are located in the temporal region behind the eyes. The functioning part of the gland is a pouch flattened from above in the form of an elongated triangle, which is surrounded by a connective tissue capsule. A massive muscle from the occipital-temporal complex is attached to the capsule from the inside, above and below. Contracting when opening the mouth, the muscle presses on the gland, and the poison through the convoluted duct enters the fold of the mucous membrane surrounding the base of the tooth. From here, the poison enters the body of the victim through a canal penetrating the tooth.

The original structure of the poisonous apparatus allows the tooth to rotate around the transverse axis by about 90 °. When the mouth is closed, the long poisonous teeth are in a horizontal position, but when the mouth is opened, the tooth takes a vertical position. The poisonous gland consists of several parts: the main part, which occupies 2/3 of the back of the gland, the primary duct, the bifid adnexal gland, and the secondary duct leading to the poisonous tooth. The gland has a complex alveolar structure, the released secret accumulates in the central cavity of the gland. A natural bite or artificial venom production stimulates the activity of the gland, which reaches its maximum 7-8 days after the release of the venom.

In our country, vipers are represented by common (Vipera berus), steppe (V. ursini), Caucasian (V. kaznakovi), Asia Minor (V. xanthina), nosy (V. ammodytes), as well as gyurza (V. lebetina) and efa ( Echis carinatus). The family of pit snakes has two main representatives of the common, or pallas (Agkistrodon halys), and eastern (A. blomhoffi) muzzle.

The main difference between pit vipers and viper snakes is the presence of facial pits located between the nostrils and eyes. These pits are thermolocators, with the help of which the snake easily sneaks up in the dark to motionless or sleeping prey. A temperature gradient is created around the animal, allowing the snake to accurately navigate. Another feature is the presence at the end of the tail of a kind of rattle, or rattle, formed by a hard leathery case that remains after the snake molts. In a state of irritation, the snake slightly raises the tip of the tail and vibrates it, making a dry crackle that can be heard from afar. For this, sometimes the whole family is called rattlesnakes.

Comparative characteristics of snake venoms

Snake venoms are a complex complex of biologically active compounds: enzymes (mainly hydrolases), toxic polypeptides, a number of proteins with specific biological properties (nerve growth factor - NGF, anticomplementary factors), as well as inorganic components. Many enzymes are common for snake venoms of various families, for example, phospholipase A2, hyaluronidase, L-amino acid oxidase, phosphodiesterase, 5 "-nucleotidase, and others, which reflects the close phylogenetic relationship of venom glands with the exocrine glands of the digestive tract. At the same time, there are differences characterizing the poison of snakes of one or another systematic group. Thus, the composition of the venom of asps and sea snakes includes toxic polypeptides (neurotoxins) that disrupt the transmission of excitation in neuromuscular synapses and thereby cause flaccid paralysis of the skeletal and respiratory muscles. The death of poisoned animals and humans occurs, as a rule, from respiratory arrest. These poisons also contain the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, which destroys acetylcholine and exacerbates the development of paralysis.
On the contrary, acetylcholinesterase is absent in the venoms of vipers and pit vipers, but proteolytic enzymes with trypsin-, thrombin-, and kallikrein-like effects are widely represented. As a result of poisoning with these poisons, hemorrhagic edema develops, due to both an increase in vascular permeability and disorders in the blood coagulation system. One of the severe forms of coagulopathy caused by the venoms of snakes of our fauna (gyurza, efa, muzzle) is disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC). The release from tissues under the action of enzymes of poisons of biologically active substances (histamine, bradykinin, endorphins, etc.) leads to a drop in blood pressure, an increase in vascular permeability, and disruption of tissue trophism due to microcirculation disorders. The direct action of poisons on tissues and organs, combined with autopharmacological reactions, leads to the development of a chain of conjugated and interrelated pathological processes that characterize the specifics of poisoning caused by snake venoms.

First aid for poisoning and bite prevention

The most progressive and effective method of treating snake venom poisoning is the use of therapeutic anti-snake sera (serotherapy). Monovalent anti-snake sera "Antigyurza" and "Anticobra", as well as polyvalent anti-snake serum against cobra, gyurza and efa venoms are produced. With the introduction of serum, it is necessary to strictly adhere to the instructions for its use. Unfortunately, anti-snake serum may not always be at hand. Therefore, it is important to be able to quickly and correctly provide first aid to the victim. It is necessary to lay the victim in the shade so that the head is lowered below the level of the body to reduce the severity of possible cerebrovascular accidents. Then you should immediately begin to suck the poison out of the wound. Vigorous early suction for 5-7 minutes makes it possible to remove up to 40% of the poison, but after 15-30 minutes only 10% of the poison can be removed. When bitten in the hand, suction can be carried out by the victim himself.

In any case, the suctioned liquid must be spit out, and after removing the poison, the mouth should be rinsed with a solution of potassium permanganate or water. In the presence of a wound in the mouth or carious teeth, oral suction is prohibited. From time to time, descriptions of cases of poisoning appear in the medical literature after sucking snake venom by mouth without observing these rules. During suction, it is advisable to massage the bite area towards the wounds. At the first sign of edema, suction should be stopped, the bite site should be treated with antiseptics and a tight sterile bandage should be applied. It is very important to give complete immobility to the affected limb (splinting, etc.) to reduce the drainage of poison by the lymphatic system. The imposition of a tourniquet is strictly contraindicated. Incisions in the bite area are also undesirable, as they lead to the formation of long-term non-healing ulcers and contribute to secondary infection. It is necessary to provide the victim with complete rest, give plenty of fluids (strong tea, coffee) to normalize the water-salt balance, the violations of which become especially rampant in areas with a hot climate. The use of alcoholic beverages can only aggravate the severity of poisoning. The most important - transport the victim to a medical facility as soon as possible for medical assistance.
In most cases, snake bites can be avoided by following the minimum rules of conduct in places where there is a potential "snake danger":
1) if catching a snake is not an end in itself, then it is better not to touch the snake;
2) in the "snake area" you need to wear strong high shoes;
3) be especially careful in thick grass, overgrown pits, do not enter there without first making sure that there is no snake there;
4) at night it is necessary to use a flashlight - many snakes are especially active on warm summer nights;
5) remember that mice and rats attract snakes - fight rodents;
6) do not allow children to catch snakes; if you see that children are playing with a snake, do not leave it unattended, make sure that the snake is not dangerous;
7) not to arrange lodging for the night near trees with hollows, rotten stumps, cave entrances, heaps of garbage.

AT field conditions before going to bed (especially in a sleeping bag), inspect your bed carefully. If you wake up and find a snake in your bed, try not to panic. Remember that your frightened movement may provoke the snake to bite. In this case, you should call for help or wait for the snake to crawl away. With a certain skill, you can try to throw off the snake with an unexpected sharp movement if it is on top of a blanket or sleeping bag. However, do not forget about your neighbors in the tent.

The practical importance of poisonous snakes and their protection

The venom produced by the snakes of our fauna is a valuable raw material for the pharmaceutical industry and is used for the manufacture of a number of medicines. Individual components of the venom of viper and cobra, for example, L-amino acid oxidase, phospholipase A2, phosphodiesterase, endonuclease, NGF, are produced in our country as chemical reagents. An important area for the consumption of snake venoms is the production of anti-snake sera. Snake venoms and their components are widely used in scientific research. The need for snake venoms is great, but obtaining them is difficult and painstaking. Snakes do not tolerate captivity well and live in serpentaria on average no more than 1 year, while when created optimal conditions this period can be 10-15 years. The amount of venom that can be obtained from one snake depends on its size, species, season, interval between venom takings, microclimate, the physiological state of the snake and the method of venom selection (electrical stimulation, mechanical "milking"). For example, with electrical stimulation, you can get 2,572 mg of raw poison or 374 mg of dry residue from a viper 142 cm long, from an ordinary viper (67 cm) - 31 mg and 4-5 mg, from a cobra (141 cm) - 2,320 mg and 724 mg, from the steppe viper (45 cm) - 10 mg and 2 mg, respectively.

The number of snakes in our country is steadily declining, not only because of the ingrained custom of destroying them, but also in connection with economic activity humans, including as a result of intensive trapping for serpentaria. At present, the capture of poisonous snakes in Central Asia and the Caucasus is carried out only under licenses.
You can destroy snakes only in settlements and in a two-kilometer zone around them. The Central Asian cobra, the Caucasian, Asia Minor and the big-nosed viper are listed in the Red Book of the USSR.
Poisonous snakes - an inseparable part of our nature - need protection.
In this regard, great importance should be given to explanatory and propaganda work among the population, and especially among children.

Anterior furrowed snakes

Central Asian cobra - Naja oxiana Eichw.
Suborder Serpents - Ophidia, or Serpentes
Aspid snake family - Elapidae
Ecology and biology. Decreasing in number, the species is included in the IUCN Red Book and the Red Book of the USSR. A large snake up to 1.6 m long (males), females are somewhat smaller. Smooth scales are olive or brownish in color. In a calm state, the head is not delimited from the body, which imperceptibly passes into a gradually tapering tail. When irritated, it is capable of raising the front of the body with a candle for a long time and inflating the neck. At the same time, the snake hisses, sways and turns its head towards the enemy. Unlike the Indian cobra (Naja naja), the Central Asian cobra does not have a pattern in the form of glasses on the hood (swollen part of the neck).
Distributed in the southern regions of Central Asia: southwest of Tajikistan, south of Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. Cobra can be found in the foothills, river valleys, common among shrubs, often found in abandoned buildings. In the sandy desert, cobras live among fixed and semi-fixed sands, in places with shrubby vegetation and many rodents. There are known cases of capture of cobras in settlements and even large cities. The total number in the USSR is 300-350 thousand individuals.
Cobras are most active from mid-April to June and from September to mid-November. In July, the female lays 9-19 eggs, of which juveniles appear in late August - early September. Cobras feed on rodents, amphibians, birds, but, like other asps, they willingly eat snakes, including poisonous ones.
The cobra poses an undoubted danger to humans and animals, but unlike viper snakes, it always warns of its presence. Only in the event of an immediate threat does the cobra make several lightning-fast attacks towards the enemy, one of which, as a rule, ends with an aimed bite. At the same time, unlike vipers, cobras do not make an instant bite, but rather "chew", turning their jaws several times before releasing the victim.
Picture of poisoning. With a cobra bite, local phenomena - pain and swelling - are much less pronounced than with viper or muzzle bites, although lymphadenitis and lymphangitis may occur. In a severe form of poisoning, after the initial short-term phase of excitation, there is a progressive depression of the functions of the central nervous system, which develops against the background of a weakening of breathing. Difficulties in swallowing, speech disorders, drooping of the eyelids are noted. Reflexes are inhibited, pathological sleep sets in, during which tactile and pain sensitivity is sharply reduced. Asphyxia, which develops during poisoning with cobra venom, is the most formidable pathological process that can lead to death. When massive doses of poison enter the bloodstream (bite near large vessels) can develop hemodynamic shock, in the pathogenesis of which physiologically active substances released in the body take part: prostaglandins, histamine, endorphins.
First aid. It is recommended to introduce anticobra serum or polyvalent anti-snake serum, the use of anticholinesterase drugs in combination with atropine, corticosteroids, antihypoxants. With deep breathing disorders, artificial ventilation of the lungs is necessary.
Chemical composition and mechanisms of action of poison. Cobra venom is a complex mixture of toxic polypeptides, enzymes and proteins with specific biological properties. The venom contains toxic polypeptides: neurotoxin I (Mr~8000), neurotoxin II (Mr~7000) (Fig. 66), cytotoxins (Mr~7000). Among the enzymes of cobra venom, phospholipase A2, acetylcholinesterase, endoribonuclease, deoxyribonuclease, phosphodiesterase, 5 "-nucleotidase, L-amino acid oxidase, hyaluronidase are known.

Primary structure of neurotoxin II (A) and neurotoxin I (B) from the venom of the Central Asian cobra

Among proteins with specific biological properties, we note NGF and anticomplementary factors. Most components of cobra venom are present in the whole venom as several isoforms, the amount of which depends on environmental factors. The toxicity of whole venom for mice (DL50) when administered i.p. is 0.5 mg/kg, neurotoxin I - 0.084 mg/kg, cytotoxin I - 1.1 mg/kg, phospholipase A2 - 80 mg/kg.
Cobra venom causes a wide range of pathological reactions of the body, affecting the most important systems and organs: the central and peripheral nervous system, cardiovascular and endocrine systems, blood and hematopoietic organs, liver and kidneys.
Neurotoxins, which cause flaccid paralysis of the skeletal and respiratory muscles, have the greatest pathogenetic significance in case of poisoning with cobra venom. The action of neurotoxins develops according to the type of non-depolarizing block of H-cholinergic receptors of striated muscles, which allows them to be classified as "curare-like" toxins. Poison cytotoxins effectively interact with biomembranes, causing hemolysis of erythrocytes (direct lytic factor), depolarizing nervous, muscular and cardiac tissue (cardiotoxic effect). Cytotoxin II also has an anticomplementary effect. Enzymes play an important role in the action of the poison. So, acetylcholinesterase, hydrolyzing acetylcholine, thereby enhances the paralyzing effect of neurotoxins. The action of cytotoxins on biomembranes is potentiated by phospholipase A2. The latter, in turn, is capable of causing depletion of acetylcholine reserves in nerve endings, i.e. exert a presynaptic toxic effect. In addition, phospholipase A2 promotes the release of many physiologically active substances in the body, which aggravate the course of poisoning.
Thus, the toxic components of cobra venom provide its high ability to paralyze prey.
Practical value. Cobra venom is used in the production of anti-snake sera. Neurotoxins are used to study the molecular organization of acetylcholine receptors, anticomplement factors are used as immunosuppressants in scientific research. Poison enzymes are used in biochemical experiments. Endonuclease and phospholipase A2 are commercially available.

Common viper - Vipera berus L.
Class Reptiles, or Reptiles - Reptilia

Ecology and biology. Relatively small snake - up to 75 cm long, but specimens up to 1 m long are found in the north. Females are usually larger than males. The head is clearly separated from the neck, and on the upper part there are three large (frontal and two parietal) scutes. The tip of the muzzle is rounded, and the nasal opening is cut in the middle of the nasal shield. The color of the body varies from gray to red-brown, with a characteristic dark zigzag line along the spine and an x-shaped pattern on the head. In the north, black forms are not uncommon.
The viper is the most widespread venomous snake in our country. The viper can be found in the European part of Russia, in Siberia up to Sakhalin, in the north it rises to 68 ° N. sh., and in the south it reaches 40 ° N. sh. In the mountains, the viper is found at altitudes up to 3000 m above sea level. The distribution across the territory is very uneven. In suitable places, vipers form large concentrations - snake foci, where their density can reach 90 individuals per 1 ha, but more often does not exceed 3-8 per 1 ha. After wintering, they usually appear on the surface of the earth in April - May. In summer, the most likely to meet a viper in the holes of various animals, rotten stumps, bushes, crevices.
Mating occurs from mid-May to early June. Ovoviviparous. Mass birth of offspring in August (in the central and northern parts of the range, females give birth in a year). Young vipers are born 17 cm long and are already poisonous.
Vipers often bask in the sun. They usually hunt at night. The diet is dominated by small rodents, frogs, and insects. When meeting with a person, the snake tries to hide. When threatened, it takes active defense, hisses, makes threatening throws and the most dangerous bite-throws, which are most easily provoked by a moving object. That's why
it is better not to make sudden movements when meeting directly with a viper. It is also not recommended to take the snake by the tail, the possibility of a bite is not excluded.
picture of poisoning. The bite of a viper is accompanied by the development of local pain, spreading hemorrhagic edema, weakness, nausea, dizziness. Possible violation of cardiac activity and the development of renal failure.
First aid. Self-medication is unacceptable. As an antidote anti-snake serum "Antigyurza" is recommended. Specific serum against viper venom is not produced in the USSR. Chemical composition and mechanism of action of the poison. Viper venom contains enzymes, including: proteases, phosphodiesterase, 5"-nucleotidase, phospholipase A2, hyaluronidase, kininogenase, etc.
Up to 75% of the proteolytic activity of the venom is due to metalloproteinases and 25% to serine proteinases. Poison kininogenase is a glycoprotein with Mr ~ 35,000 - 37,000, pI 3.5-5.0, devoid of caseinolytic activity. There are population differences in the enzymatic activity of the poison. The proteolytic activity of the venom of the black viper living in the Kharkov region is approximately 2 times lower than that of the gray viper from the Pskov and Bryansk regions.
Toxicity (DL50) of whole venom is 1.31mg/kg (mice i.v.), DL50 of phospholipase A2 (Mr~12,000) is 0.5mg/kg for mice and 0.025mg/kg for guinea pigs. In the experiment, poisoned animals showed erythrocytosis followed by a long stage of anemia. In the pathogenesis of poisoning, an important role is played by the physiologically active substances histamine, serotonin, bradykinin released in the body under the influence of poison, which cause pain and lower blood pressure. Practical value. The venom of the common viper is part of the medicinal preparations.

Gyurza - Vipera lebetina L.
Class Reptiles, or Reptiles - Reptilia
Suborder Serpents - Ophidia, or Serpentes
Viper family - Viperidae
Gyurza Central Asian - Vipera lebetina turanica Cernov
Gyurza Transcaucasian - Vipera lebetina obtusa Dwigubsky
Ecology and biology. A large snake up to 1.6 m long. The sides of the muzzle are blunt, the temporal corners of the head protrude sharply. The body is thick, valky from light gray and dark gray with a more or less pronounced olive or reddish brown tint. There are a number of large spots along the back, smaller spots run along the sides.
It occurs in Transcaucasia, Eastern Ciscaucasia, Southern Turkmenistan, Southern and Eastern Uzbekistan, Western Tajikistan and southern Kazakhstan. The number is quite high - up to 4 individuals per 1 ha, in places of accumulation up to 20 snakes per 1 ha. It lives mainly in dry foothills, gorges, willingly settles on cultivated lands, where it poses a real danger. It feeds on mouse-like rodents, small mammals, amphibians, reptiles, and birds. In most of its range it is ovoviviparous, but in the Middle East it is ovoviviparous. Offspring appear in early autumn. The female brings 15-20 cubs up to 24 cm long.
An adult snake, despite its external clumsiness, is very mobile. Deftly climbs the branches of trees and shrubs, and on the ground is capable of sharp throws, almost the entire length of the body. Aggressiveness is shown, as a rule, in case of direct danger or persecution.

picture of poisoning. A gyurza bite is dangerous for a person, and in case of untimely medical assistance, it can end tragically. The picture of poisoning is typical for the venom of viper snakes and includes severe pain at the site of inoculation of the poison, the development of hemorrhagic edema, reaching catastrophic proportions in severe cases. Tissue necrosis is often observed at the site of the bite. Weakness, nausea, dizziness, shortness of breath, disturbances in the blood coagulation system up to the development of DIC, bleeding, damage to vital organs (heart, kidneys, etc.) are common. Agricultural and domestic animals suffer from gyurza bites. So, in the sheep-breeding regions of Georgia, cases of loss of livestock and death of dogs from bites of viper were often noted.
First aid. Antigyurza serum or polyvalent anti-snake serum is used as an antidote. Self-medication is unacceptable. An urgent need for qualified medical care.
The venom contains the following enzymes: proteinases, L-amino acid oxidase, phospholipase A2, phosphodiesterase, 5 "-nucleotidase, hyaluronidase and other enzymes, as well as NGF.
The proteolytic activity of the poison is 75% due to serine proteinases and 25% to metalloproteinases. Almost all the hemorrhagic activity of the poison is due to the action of serine proteinases. Therefore, the introduction of an inhibitor of serine proteinases contrykal into the serum of "Antigyurza" allows a 2-fold increase in antihemorrhagic activity. Kininogenase is a thermostable glycoprotein with Mr ~ 35,000 - 37,000 and pI 10. During storage of the poison, its enzymatic activity decreases.
The toxicity of the venom to mice with intravenous administration is 0.34 mg/kg, with intramuscular injection - 2.1 mg/kg, with s / c - 4.8 mg/kg. In poisoned animals, a decrease in blood pressure is observed both due to reflex mechanisms and as a result of autopharmacological reactions: the release of bradykinin, beta-endorphin, etc. Under the influence of the poison, intravascular hemolysis develops, the oxygen-binding properties of hemoglobin decrease, which ultimately leads to tissue hypoxia. The development of DIC in case of gyurza poisoning is due to its activating effect on factor X of the blood coagulation system. This effect is prevented by heparin, which is of therapeutic importance. Important role in the pathogenesis of poisoning, it has damage to the endocrine system. In sublethal doses, the poison has a radioprotective effect.
Practical value. Viper venom is a part of medicines. It is used as a source of obtaining commercial preparations of NGF, phosphodiesterase and L-amino acid oxidase, as well as a diagnostic drug for diseases of the blood coagulation system.

Steppe viper - Vipera ursini Bonap.
Class Reptiles, or Reptiles - Reptilia
Suborder Serpents - Ophidia, or Serpentes
Viper family - Viperidae
Ecology and biology. The size of the steppe viper, as a rule, does not exceed 60 cm, while the females are somewhat larger than the males. A characteristic difference from the common viper is the sharpness and elevation of the lateral edges of the muzzle above its upper part. The nostrils cut through the underside of the nasal scutes. A dark zigzag strip is noticeable along the ridge against a general grayish-brown background.
It lives in the Crimea, Kazakhstan, Central Asia, the steppe regions of the Caucasus. The population density is very uneven. So, for example, on the coastal cliffs of the Taganrog Bay Sea of ​​Azov numbered up to 165 individuals per 1 km of the way, while in Azerbaijan it is the smallest poisonous snake.
Feeds on rodents, small birds, insects, preferring grasshoppers. Mass awakening from hibernation in March - early April.
In August - September, females bring 5-6 cubs up to 12-18 cm long. Of the enemies of the steppe viper, one should note the owl, the black kite and especially the lizard snake Malpolon monspessulanus.
There are isolated cases of death of horses and small cattle from the bites of the steppe viper.
When meeting with a person, the snake tends to crawl away, but when pursued, it actively throws its head towards the enemy and tries to bite.
picture of poisoning. At the site of the bite, severe pain, hyperemia, swelling extending far beyond the site of the bite. In place of hemorrhagic blisters, necrotic areas may form. There is drowsiness, dizziness, nausea, palpitations, a decrease in body temperature. There are traces of blood in the urine.
First aid. There is no specific serum. Anti-snake serum "Antigyurza" is recommended. In all cases, prompt medical attention is needed.
The chemical composition and mechanism of action of the poison. Enzymes were found in the venom: phospholipase A2, 5 "-nucleotidase, phosphodiesterase, nonspecific alkaline phosphomonoesterase, proteinases, including those with kininogenase activity, NGF.
Toxicity (DL50) of whole venom 0.77 mg/kg (mice, iv). An absolutely lethal dose for mice with s / c administration of 10 mg / kg. The death of experimental animals occurs from respiratory arrest.
At a concentration of 1 10-2 g / ml, the poison causes inhibition of the activity of the isolated heart. When administered intravenously to cats at a dose of 0.02 mg/kg, a sharp drop in blood pressure develops and intravascular coagulation increases.
At a concentration of 5 10-4 g / ml, the poison causes a decrease in the tone of smooth muscles. In sublethal doses, it has a radioprotective effect.
Practical value. Included in medicinal preparations. It is possible to use as a source of enzymes, in particular, 5'-nucleotidase.

Asia Minor viper - Vipera xanthina Gray
Class Reptiles, or Reptiles - Reptilia
Suborder Serpents - Ophidia, or Serpentes
Viper family - Viperidae
Ecology and biology. Decreasing in number view. Included in the IUCN Red Book and the USSR Red Book. Large snake up to 1.5 m long. Eastern subspecies V. x. raddei - Radde's viper - up to 1 m. Orange or brown spots are clearly visible on the grayish-brown body, often merging into a strip along the ridge. The tail is yellowish-orange below.
Found in the Armenian SSR, Nakhichevan ASSR. It lives at an altitude of 1000-3000 m above sea level, mainly on rocky slopes with sparse vegetation. It feeds on small mammals, birds, lizards, and insects. In April - May, it leaves winter shelters and starts mating, and in August, females bring 5-10 cubs up to 20 cm long.
picture of poisoning. There are known cases of death of livestock from the bites of Asia Minor vipers. In general, the picture of poisoning is characteristic of the venom of viper snakes: anxiety, followed by depression, respiratory depression. In the place of inoculation of the poison and in the internal organs - hemorrhages.
Chemical composition and mechanism of action of the poison. The composition of the poison is little studied. There is information about the presence in the poison of components with neurotoxic, hemorrhagic and necrotic effects. Immunization of rabbits and horses with whole venom results in the production of antibodies against hemorrhagic and necrotic factors. To obtain serum with a high titer of anti-lethal antibodies, immunization with a neurotoxic factor is necessary. The toxicity of the venom is 3.6 mg/kg for mice, 2.8 mg/kg for rats and 2.7 mg/kg for guinea pigs. With natural bites of various animals by the Radda viper, it was found that the lizard died after 40 minutes, the rabbit - after 4 hours, the dog - after 24 hours. The most resistant to the action of cat venom. At concentrations of 1 10-6 g / ml, the poison has a vasoconstrictive effect, at a concentration of 1 10-2 g / ml it causes an irreversible stoppage of the activity of the isolated heart.
Practical value. Requires further research to identify useful properties.

Nosed viper - Vipera ammodytes L.
Class Reptiles, or Reptiles - Reptilia
Suborder Serpents - Ophidia, or Serpentes
Viper family - Viperidae
Ecology and biology. Rare, oppressed, narrow endemic species. Included in the IUCN Red Book and the USSR Red Book. A small snake 40-70 cm long, females are somewhat larger than males. A pointed spike 3-5 mm long rises at the tip of the muzzle. The coloration is yellowish-brown or gray with narrow dark stripes along the back. The ventral side is yellowish-gray with speckles. It lives in the mountainous regions of Georgia (Trialeti Range) and Armenia. It occurs mainly in mixed and coniferous mountain forests, among shrubs on rocky slopes. It often settles near human habitation, and on a warm sunny day it can be seen on the branches of a bush.
It feeds on mouse-like rodents, small birds, and occasionally lizards. Ovoviviparous. In August - September, the female brings 8-12 cubs 20-23 cm long.
picture of poisoning. May be dangerous especially for children. Data on toxicity from natural bites are conflicting. Once bitten mice died after 8-10 minutes, and after applying three bites - after 4 minutes. In a bitten dog, signs of poisoning began to appear after 15 minutes, and after 6 hours extensive edema developed. Mice are most sensitive to poison, followed by rats and birds.
Chemical composition and mechanism of action of the poison. Enzymes were found in the venom: phospholipase A2, L-amino acid oxidase, proteinases, arginine ester esterases, kininogenase, NGF, inhibitors of serine proteinases (two trypsin inhibitors and one chymotrypsin).
The poison has neurotoxic, hemorrhagic, cardiotoxic and hemolytic effects. Toxicity (DL50) of whole venom, according to different authors, is 0.37-0.8 mg/kg (mice, IV). Toxicity (DL50) of the fraction with phospholipase activity and blocking neuromuscular transmission is 0.021 mg/kg (mice, iv). In the venom of the Bulgarian subspecies V. a. ammodytes discovered a neurotoxic complex - vipoxin, consisting of a toxic alkaline phospholipase A2 and an acidic non-toxic protein with the properties of a phospholipase inhibitor. In experimental animals, intravenous administration of the venom of the nosed viper causes a drop in blood pressure and the development of respiratory failure.
Practical value- little studied. More research is needed to identify beneficial properties.

Caucasian viper - Vipera kaznakovi Nik.
Class Reptiles, or Reptiles - Reptilia
Suborder Serpents - Ophidia, or Serpentes
Viper family - Viperidae
Ecology and biology. Endemic, declining species. Included in the IUCN Red Book and the USSR Red Book.
The length of an adult individual does not exceed 60 cm. The wide head is sharply delimited from the body. The color is bright, ranging from completely black to lemon yellow. The main tone is yellowish orange or brick red. A wide black zigzag strip stretches along the ridge, often torn into separate spots.
It lives in the Western Caucasus and Transcaucasia, penetrating to the middle reaches of the Kura and south to Adzharia. It occurs mainly in mountain forests, subalpine and alpine meadows at an altitude of up to 2500 m above sea level. It is very rare to find a Caucasian viper on the Black Sea coast. The total number is several tens of thousands. Ovoviviparous. In August - September, the female brings 5-8 cubs. It feeds mainly on mouse-like rodents.
picture of poisoning. May be dangerous. There are isolated cases of death of people and livestock from the bites of the Caucasian viper.
Practical value. The poison has not been studied very well. Further research is needed.

Sand Efa - Echis carinatus* Schneid
Class Reptiles, or Reptiles - Reptilia
Suborder Serpents - Ophidia, or Serpentes
Viper family - Viperidae
* Recently, an independent species living in the USSR, Echis multisquamatus, has been isolated.
Ecology and biology. A small snake up to 80 cm long. The color varies, but the typical color of the body is grayish-sandy with light zigzag stripes on the sides. From above, along the body, light transverse stripes are clearly distinguished. On the head is a characteristic light cruciform pattern. With the help of small ribbed scales on the sides of the body, the efa emits a characteristic dry rustling. Another feature of the efa is the so-called "side passage", the traces of which are clearly visible on the sand.
Occurs from east coast Caspian Sea to the Aral Sea, in Southern Uzbekistan and Southwestern Tajikistan. Habitats are very diverse: sands overgrown with saxaul, light forests, mountain slopes, river terraces, etc. In favorable conditions, the number of efas can be very high. From February to June they conduct daytime, and in summer - night image life. They feed on mouse-like rodents, small birds, frogs, and sometimes other snakes. In July - August, females give birth to 3-15 cubs up to 16 cm long. Young efas feed on invertebrates, including centipedes, scorpions, locusts.
Efa is a very mobile snake, her throws are swift and therefore dangerous.
picture of poisoning. Poisoning is accompanied by hemorrhagic edema, bleeding from the wound, nose, gums, extensive subcutaneous hemorrhages, foci of hemorrhage in the internal organs, hematuria, shortness of breath, palpitations, muscle pain.
First aid. The introduction of polyvalent anti-snake serum is recommended.
Chemical composition and mechanism of action of the poison. The venom contains enzymes with proteolytic activity, as well as L-amino acid oxidase, phosphodiesterase, hyaluronidase, NGF, and phospholipase A2. Among proteinases and esterases, enzymes that hydrolyze casein, arginine esters, kininogenases, and arylamidase have been characterized.
Toxicity (DL50) of whole venom in mice 0.72 mg/kg iv and 5.4 mg/kg ip. In poisoned animals, there is a violation of coordination of movements, convulsions, bleeding of mucous membranes. The poison causes necrosis of the cortical layer of the kidneys. The fall in blood pressure is explained by a decrease in peripheral resistance and the physiological effects of kinins released in the body. Violations in the blood coagulation system are dramatic. The most toxic (DL50 0.6 mg/kg) is the venom fraction, which has a proteolytic effect and leads to coagulopathy. Poison enzymes cause direct activation of prothrombin, transforming it into thrombin. In addition, the poison inactivates antithrombin III. As a result, the resulting thrombin is not activated, but is only sorbed on fibrin. For these reasons, heparin therapy for DIC caused by efa poison is not appropriate. Practical value. Efa poison can be used as a diagnostic drug for diseases of the blood coagulation system, instead of expensive foreign ones. It is used in the production of polyvalent anti-snake serum.

Ordinary, or pallas, muzzle -Agkistrodon halys Pall.
Class Reptiles, or Reptiles - Reptilia
Suborder Serpents - Ophidia, or Serpentes
Ecology and biology. A relatively small snake up to 70 cm long. The color of the body is gray or brown, on the back along the ridge there are wide dark transverse spots. On top of the head there is a clear spotted pattern. Inhabits a vast range from the mouth of the Volga and South-East Azerbaijan through Central and East Asia to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. It occurs in mountain forests and steppes, deserts, along river cliffs.
Feeds on rodents, small birds, lizards, young snakes - invertebrates. Active from March to October. Ovoviviparous. In July - October, females bring 2-12 cubs 15-20 cm long.
picture of poisoning. Severe pain is felt at the site of poison inoculation. Extensive hemorrhages are observed at the injection site of the poison and in the internal organs. On autopsy, the right ventricle of the heart is filled with dark liquid blood, the left one is empty. Lungs without pronounced pathology, but the liver, kidneys, spleen are stagnant, the brain is hyperemic. Among people, deaths from a bite from a common muzzle have not been noted, but some farm animals, such as horses, are very sensitive to its poison and, as a rule, die after a bite.
Chemical composition and mechanism of action of the poison. The venom contains enzymes with proteolytic and esterolytic effects, as well as phosphodiesterase, 5 "-nucleotidase, NGF. There are population differences in the spectrum of venom proteins. Toxicity of the venom (DL50) for mice is 0.8 mg / kg when i / v and / b injection and 2.4 mg / kg with s / c injection.The minimum hemorrhagic dose of poison is 0.14 μg / mouse.
The venom has thrombin-like, caseinolytic and fibrinolytic effects, which are associated with the activity of various molecular forms of arginine ester esterase contained in the venom. Coagulopathy caused by the poison is caused by an enzyme with an incomplete thrombin action, as well as an inhibitor of platelet aggregation - a thermostable protein with Mr ~ 14,000. internal organs. A pronounced initial hypercoagulable phase of DIC is characteristic. After 2 hours, blood clotting is markedly reduced, due to a sharp (more than 50%) decrease in plasma fibrinogen content against the background of activation of the fibrinolytic system. The hemolytic effect of the poison should also be taken into account. At a concentration of 5∙10-5 g/ml, the poison stimulates the activity of isolated smooth muscle organs.
Practical value. Promising for the creation of diagnostic products in the detection of diseases of the blood coagulation system.

Eastern muzzle - Agkistrodon blomhoffi Boie.
Class Reptiles, or Reptiles - Reptilia
Suborder Serpents - Ophidia, or Serpentes
Family Pit snakes - Crotalidae
Ecology and biology. A small snake up to 65 cm long. The color is brownish-gray or brown. Diamond-shaped or light paired elliptical spots run along the back. It lives in the Far East and adjacent regions. Lives in damp open places, including rice fields, where it poses a danger during agricultural work. It feeds on rodents and frogs. In autumn, the female brings 2-8 cubs up to 15 cm long.
picture of poisoning. At the site of poison inoculation, severe pain, hemorrhagic edema. Hemorrhage spreads into the subcutaneous tissue, muscles, captures the pleura, peritoneum, diaphragm. At autopsy, the right ventricle of the heart is filled with dark liquid blood, the left ventricle is collapsed. The lungs were also collapsed without pronounced foci of hemorrhages. The spleen is sharply enlarged, the liver and kidneys are stagnant.
Chemical composition and mechanism of action of the poison. The composition of the poison includes enzymes: proteinases, phospholipase A2, phosphodiesterase, 5 "-nucleotidase, hyaluronidase, etc. Phospholipase A2 is represented by two isoenzymes - acidic and alkaline. 5"-Nucleotidase is also present in the form of two isoforms with an optimum pH of 6.8-7 .0 and 8.0.
The poison has a cardiotoxic, hemorrhagic and coagulating effect.
Whole venom toxicity (DL50) in mice at 0.57 mg/kg ip and 2.42 mg/kg s.c. The venom has a hypotensive effect, which is not eliminated by vagotomy or atropine and may be due to the action of kinins released in the body under the influence of venom kininogenase.
The poison inhibits the activity of the isolated mammalian heart. Its cardiotoxic effect is associated with a decrease in calcium transport through the membranes of myocardinal cells. Proteinase "b" of the poison (or hemorrhagic factor HR-II) has a strong hemorrhagic effect, its minimum hemorrhagic dose is 0.068 μg / mouse, and DL50 is 7.2 mg / kg. Another hemorrhagic factor HR-I has a minimum hemorrhagic dose of 0.031 µg/mouse and a DL50 of 0.45 mg/kg.
The thrombin-like enzyme (TF) of the venom is a glycoprotein with Mr ~ 36,000. The carbohydrate component contains N-acetylglucosamine residues. TF does not cause activation of factor XIII (fibrin-stabilizing) and is not inhibited by antithrombin III in the presence of heparin. Other venom proteinases are able to destroy fibrinogen and thus mask the effect of TF. The presence of coagulating and anticoagulating components in the venom determines the peculiarity of coagulopathy caused by the venom of the eastern muzzle.
Practical value. The components of the poison that affect the blood coagulation system may be of interest to medicine.
Cottonmouth meat is valued by the Japanese and Chinese as a delicacy and medicine.

Back-furrowed snakes

Among the already imaginative (family Colubridae) fauna of Russia, there are practically no species dangerous to humans, which is mainly determined by the structural features of the poisonous apparatus. At the same time, the poisonous saliva or secretion of the gland of Duvernoy of a number of species undoubtedly have a pronounced toxic effect and with its help snakes kill or immobilize their prey. Human bites are isolated cases and are associated with careless handling of the snake.

Tiger snake - Rhabdophis tigrina Boie
Class Reptiles, or Reptiles - Reptilia
Suborder Serpents - Ophidia, or Serpentes

Ecology and biology. It is found in our Far East, as well as in neighboring countries. A brightly colored snake up to 110 cm long, justifying its name with its coloring. It lives in damp places, near water bodies, both in forests and in treeless spaces.
Offspring appears in late August - early September. It feeds on frogs, toads, less often fish. When pursued, the tiger already defends itself, taking a characteristic pose: it raises the front part of the body almost vertically, hisses, and makes attacks towards the enemy. A caustic secret protrudes from the subcutaneous nucho-dorsal glands located on the upper side of the neck, which forces the predator to immediately release the tiger snake. The secret contains polyhydroxylated steroids, which are structurally similar to cardiotonic bufodienolides from toad venom.

picture of poisoning. There is a description of a clinical case of a bite in the literature tiger snake 50 year old man. The poisoning was accompanied by bleeding from the wound, thrombocytopenia, an increase in prothrombin time, and hypofibrinogenemia. Treatment is symptomatic.

The mechanism of action of the poison. The toxicity of Duvernoy's gland extract is for mice (DL50 5.3 µg/20 g iv, 147 µg/20 g IM, and 184 µg/320 g s/c. The venom causes hemorrhage at the injection site and in internal organs.In a dilution of 1:320,000, the poison activates prothrombin.The mechanism of the toxic effect of the poison is associated with pathological hypofibrinogenemia as a result of the procoagulant action of the poison.

Multicolored snake - Coluber ravergeri Men.
Class Reptiles, or Reptiles - Reptilia
Suborder Serpents - Ophidia, or Serpentes
Family Snakes - Colubridae
Subfamily Real snakes - Colubrinae
Ecology and biology. Reaches a length of 130 cm. The upper part of the body is painted in brownish-gray or gray-brown tones. Dark spots stretch along the ridge, sometimes merging into a zigzag strip. The belly is grayish-white or pink with small spots. It is found in the Caucasus, Kazakhstan, Central Asia. It lives in gardens, vegetable gardens, vineyards, often on roofs and attics. Offspring brings in September. It feeds on small vertebrates, which it eats alive, but preliminarily kills larger prey with the help of poisonous teeth.
In case of danger, it tends to crawl away, but in case of an immediate threat it actively defends itself, bites, while it can bite through the skin and cause poisoning.
picture of poisoning. Almost immediately after the bite, a sharp pain is felt. After 10-30 minutes, edema appears, spreading to the entire limb. The skin acquires a purple-bluish tint. There is dizziness, pain along the lymphatic vessels. Pain radiates to the other limb. As a result of extensive swelling and pain, the mobility of the limb is limited. After 2-3 days, pain subsides, swelling decreases. Full recovery occurs in 3-4 days. Treatment is symptomatic.

Common copperhead - Coronella austriaca Laur.
Class Reptiles, or Reptiles - Reptilia
Suborder Serpents - Ophidia, or Serpentes
Family Snakes - Colubridae
Subfamily Real snakes - Colubrinae
Widespread in the USSR. The length reaches 65 cm. Usually grayish-brown, yellowish-brown or copper-red. 2-4 rows of longitudinal dark spots stretch along the back, sometimes merging. Two dark spots or stripes stand out on the neck, merging at the back of the head.
The head is dark above or with a characteristic arcuate stripe and a broken line. The underside of the body is grayish to reddish. It lives in dry places among the bushes, on the edges of the forest. In the mountains it rises up to 3000 m above sea level. The offspring has 2-15 cubs (13-15 cm long), which the female brings in late August - early September. It feeds mainly on lizards, sometimes small mammals and birds. The victim is first strangled by wrapping rings around the body. However, in the fight against large and strong prey, it uses poisonous teeth, with the help of which it injects a paralyzing poisonous secret into the victim.

Cat snake - Telescopus fallax Fleisch.
Class Reptiles, or Reptiles - Reptilia
Suborder Serpents - Ophidia, or Serpentes
Family Snakes - Colubridae
A medium-sized snake up to 70 cm long. The body is dark gray on top, large dark stripes stretch along the ridge, separated by lighter intervals.
Distributed in Azerbaijan, Dagestan. It lives in dry rocky places, but often settles in the reed roofs of houses. It feeds on lizards, chicks, which it takes out of nests, deftly climbing trees. In case of danger, he takes a characteristic pose: he gathers the back of the body into a ball and raises the front towards the enemy. From this position, the cat snake makes swift throws towards the enemy. It kills prey with body rings and with the help of poison that paralyzes small animals.

Common lizard snake - Malpolon monspessulanus Hermann
Class Reptiles, or Reptiles - Reptilia
Suborder Serpents - Ophidia, or Serpentes
Family Snakes - Colubridae
Subfamily False snakes - Boiginae
Large, up to 170 cm snake. The upper body is painted in a grayish-olive color with longitudinal stripes. The belly is usually yellow, one-color.
Distributed in the Caucasus. It lives in dry rocky places, sometimes on cultivated soils. It feeds on small rodents, lizards, snakes, including the steppe viper. When hunting, he uses poisonous teeth, with the help of which he injects a paralyzing poison into the victim. Phosphodiesterase, acid and alkaline phosphatases, phospholipase A2, and caseinase were found in the poison. In lizards and small rodents, death can occur within minutes. In case of danger, it seeks to flee, but in case of an immediate threat it is very aggressive, bites and can cause poisoning.

Arrow snake - Psammophis lineolatus Brandt
Class Reptiles, or Reptiles - Reptilia
Suborder Serpents - Ophidia, or Serpentes
Family Snakes - Colubridae
Subfamily False snakes - Boiginae
A slender snake up to 90 cm long. The upper side of the body is grayish-olive, sandy, brown. There are two dark stripes on the sides.
Distributed in Kazakhstan and Central Asia. Inhabits sands, stony or clay slopes, salt marshes, saxaul thickets. It climbs beautifully, often escaping from danger on the branches. The movements are extremely fast, justifying the name. Able to lift and hold the front of the body horizontally on weight. It feeds mainly on lizards, which it covers with body rings, but kills with a bite of poisonous teeth. The bite is harmless to humans.

Indian boiga - Boiga trigonatum
Class Reptiles, or Reptiles - Reptilia
Suborder Serpents - Ophidia, or Serpentes
Family Snakes - Colubridae
Subfamily False snakes - Boiginae
A medium-sized snake, about 1 m long. The body is flattened along the sides, has a brown-yellow color, the back is darker with white and black speckled patterns. On a rather large black head, sharply delimited from the body, large yellow eyes stand out well.
It is found in Southern Turkmenistan, Southern Uzbekistan, South-Eastern Tajikistan. Inhabit dry foothills, arid sandy areas. It feeds on lizards, snakes, small birds and rodents. In case of danger, he takes a fighting pose: he swings his body over the ground with tight rings, hisses and, with his mouth open, makes attacks towards the enemy. The paralyzing effect of the poison may be due to the presence of neurotoxins. Thus, a neurotoxic fraction with Мr~8000, at a concentration of 10 μg/ml, was isolated from the venom of Boiga blandingi, causing a block of neuromuscular transmission of the postsynaptic type.