What is appeal in Russian? Types and forms of addresses in Russian. Addresses in Russian speech etiquette

Communication presupposes the presence of one more component, one more component that manifests itself throughout communication and is its integral part. And at the same time, the norm of use and the form of the term itself have not been finally established, cause disagreement, and are a sore point of Russian speech etiquette. The main function of the address is to attract the attention of the interlocutor. This - vocative function, in addition to which the appeal indicates the corresponding characteristic. Finally, appeals can be expressive and emotionally charged, and contain evaluation.

A distinctive feature of officially accepted appeals in Rus' was the reflection social stratification society, that's how it is characteristic feature, as veneration. Words such as: official, officialdom, dean, decorously, subordination, etc. The social stratification of society, the inequality that existed in Russia for several centuries, was reflected in the system of official appeals.

Firstly, there was a document “Table of Ranks”, published in 1717-1721, which was then republished in a slightly modified form. It listed military (army and naval), civil and court ranks.

Secondly, the monarchical system in Russia until the 20th century maintained the division of people into classes. Estates were distinguished: nobles, clergy, commoners, merchants, townspeople, peasants. Hence the appeal sir, madam towards people of privilege social groups; sir, madam- for the middle class or master, lady for both, and lack of uniform appeal to representatives of the lower class.

After October revolution All old ranks and titles are abolished by a special decree. Instead of all the appeals that existed in Russia, starting from 1917-1918, the appeals citizen and comrade are becoming widespread.

Word citizen recorded in monuments of the 11th century. It came into the Old Russian language from the Old Church Slavonic language and served as a phonetic version of the word city dweller. In the 18th century, this word acquired the meaning of “a full member of society, the state.” Under the pen of A.N. Radishchev, the semantic scope of the word citizen is expanding. It acquires the meaning: “a person who is devoted to the Motherland, serves it and the people, cares about the public good, subordinates personal interests to public ones.” Why is this public? significant word, as a citizen, did not become a common way for people to address each other in the 20th century? In the 20-30s, a custom arose, and then it became the norm, when arresting, prisoners, or convicted persons contact law enforcement officials and vice versa, not to speak comrade, only citizen.

With the growth of the revolutionary movement in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century, the word comrade, as in its time the word citizen, acquires a new socio-political meaning: “a like-minded person fighting for the interests of the people.”

In circulation comrade correlates not only with the surname, but also with the profession, title: comrade commissar, comrade professor, with first and patronymic: comrade Dunya Fominishna. There is a clear distinction: comrades are Bolsheviks, they are those who believe in revolution. The rest are not comrades, that means enemies.

After the Patriotic War, the word comrade gradually begins to emerge from the everyday unofficial address of people to each other.

Philologists, writers public figures propose to revive appeals sir, madam, sir, madam. Since the late 80s. so they began to do so. Recently, the address “Mister” has been perceived as the norm at Duma meetings, on television, among businessmen, entrepreneurs, teachers, etc.

Scientists, teachers, doctors, lawyers prefer words colleagues, friends. And the words female Male, which have become widespread in recent times in the role of address, violate the norm of speech etiquette and indicate insufficient culture of the speaker. In this case, it is preferable to start a conversation without asking, using etiquette formulas: be kind..., be kind..., excuse me...

Thus, the problem of commonly used address in an informal setting remains open. It will be resolved only when every citizen of Russia learns to respect himself and treat others with respect, when he learns to defend his honor and dignity, when he becomes personality, when it will not matter what position he holds, what his status is. Only then will none of the Russians feel awkward and embarrassed if they call him or he calls someone sir, madam.

Introduction

Chapter 1. What is conversion?

1.1 Basic functions of contacting oral speech

1.2 Variety of forms of generally accepted addresses of the early 20th century

Chapter 2. Types of speech cultures

Conclusion

In the last decade, linguistics has slowly but surely turned “face to life”, exploring language “as a tool social interaction" of people. Social aspect studying the relationship between a person and his language makes it possible to get an idea of ​​​​the linguistic personality. As an indicator of the social status of the speaker, his linguistic personality, we can distinguish such a linguistic unit as people addressing each other. Often the address indicates the social characteristics of the speaker: it may indicate his occupation, degree of education, age, gender. An essential component of a social role is expectation: what others expect from an individual’s behavior in a particular social situation, what they have the right to demand from him; he is obliged to comply with these expectations in his behavior. Roles can be determined as permanent social characteristics a person: his social status, profession, age, position in the family, gender, and variables that are determined by the properties of the situation: such as, for example, the roles of a passenger, a buyer, a patient.

Addressing the interlocutor is the most common linguistic unit associated with etiquette signs. Conversion conceals an abyss speech capabilities and abilities, since it not only names the interlocutor, but also characterizes him according to certain characteristics, that is, it has an evaluative and characterizing property. It is this feature of address that has become most interesting for observations and studies of the use of addresses in oral speech.

The relevance of the chosen topic is that establishing verbal contact and regulating social relationships is very necessary for future specialists, since these skills can play the most important role in the future.

The purpose of this essay is to teach students to speak Russian competently and expressively.

Main objectives of the abstract:

1. Study the forms of circulation of past centuries;

2. Identify the problems of modern circulation;

3. Explore the main functions of circulation;

4. Consider the types of speech cultures.

1.1 Basic functions of address in oral speech

An address is a word or combination of words that names the person (what) the speech is addressed to. This can be the name of a person, animal, inanimate object or phenomenon. The address has the form of the nominative case and is pronounced with a special, vocative intonation: And now you, Kitty, play something... (A. Chekhov); Who, the waves, stopped you? (A. Pushkin).

In fiction, inanimate common nouns are widely used as addresses, which is unusual for addresses: these nouns take part in the creation of an artistic image.

An appeal can be expressed not by a word, but by a combination of words. Such an appeal is called widespread, and its distributors can be definitions and applications. For example: Dear lily of the valley, tender lily of the valley, white lily of the valley, snowy lily of the valley, our flower! You stood between the green doors so that anyone with a keen eye could see you.

Determinative words when addressing enhance its additional function - to express the speaker’s attitude towards the addressee of the speech. Therefore, common appeals are more often used in emotional styles - in journalism, in fiction.

Addressing the interlocutor is the most common linguistic unit associated with etiquette signs. Establishing verbal contact, regulating social relationships are important public functions circulation, therefore its use is a subject of people's care and attention. "In human society they give great importance establishing contact and orientation in the interlocutor and the situation. All types of greetings, addresses, titles are intended to establish contact and demonstrate the social relationships within which the communicants intend to communicate."

So, the essence of the address consists of linguistic forms of establishing contact with the interlocutor while demonstrating mutual social and personal relationships. Appeals arise on the basis of word names that indicate different signs:

1) the presence or absence of acquaintance (kinship) of the addressee with the speaker;

2) on the age of the addressee in relation to the age of the speaker;

3) on the social position of the addressee in relation to the speaker;

4) on the profession, occupation of the addressee;

5) on the function of the addressee in a given everyday situation;

6) on the personal qualities of the addressee, manifested in his behavior in a given situation or known to the speaker from previous experience;

7) on the properties of the addressee as an object of emotional influence and evaluation on the part of the speaker.

Appeals arise on the basis of words, but they themselves are not words. These are no longer words-names, but an appeal to the addressee, i.e. a kind of speech action (speech act), consisting of calling and naming at the same time.

The main function of the address - attracting attention, calling the interlocutor - gave it a certain design, a specific vocative form that exists in a number of Slavic languages ​​and was present in the Old Russian language. Thus, the main formal means of indicating address in the Russian language is considered to be a special vocative intonation, which, by the way, is very similar to that which is used in other expressions of speech etiquette. Generally speaking, this is the intonation of the interlocutor’s call. And using it we unmistakably identify the address in the flow of speech.

The second important property of addresses is the designation of the addressee.

So, address is the most striking etiquette sign. After all, the French word etiquette originally meant “label”, “label”. By naming the interlocutor, we seem to choose for him the most appropriate “label” for the occasion. There are a great variety of addresses in the Russian language, they serve a variety of communication situations, and are used by people bearing different social characteristics.

In the pre-revolutionary era, the use of generally accepted addresses was strictly regulated and corresponded to the real social rank of people.

So, nobility indicated noble origin. And here honor was the title of a staff officer, major, colonel and all ranks equivalent to it.

Excellency- title of the so-called full generals, as well as actual privy councilors, persons of the 1st and 2nd class. A Excellency- this is the title of either a general or civil dignitaries of the 4th and 3rd classes.

High birth were titled state councilors and 5th class officials.

Finally, Your Excellency (or Lordship) is the title of princes and counts, as well as their wives and children.

Kings and royalty were addressed with the word majesty, highness. Persons of ecclesiastical rank were addressed (according to degree) Reverend, eminence, priesthood, eminence and holiness. Many have been preserved in modern church use.

At the household level your grace- was a common polite way of addressing someone from the bottom up.

Master- every master is for those who serve him, the female form is a lady. It is clear that the young lady was a girl of originally noble origin.

Girl called a servant, maid; The title of the courtyard girl close to the mistress is known - the lordly young lady.

But words like madam and madam, were traditionally a respectful term of address for married and older upper-class women.

The words are historically related sir and sovereign, lord. The expression "dear sir" was the most polite way to address anyone.

The modern younger generation is not sufficiently aware of the generally accepted appeals of the early last century, probably because they read little works of art those who tell about that not-so-recent time watch films inattentively and have poor historical knowledge.

Older people show deeper knowledge, which indicates their competence in this matter and deeper knowledge of the history of their country.

In the field of address, the modern Russian language is experiencing a certain deficit; the available addresses are clearly not enough, so there is a desire to diversify them, which reflects the opinion of the respondents. Of course, it is difficult to imagine that someday we will call each other gracious sirs and madams, but today it is already clear that the addresses sir and gentlemen are firmly part of everyday speech.

One of the most significant characteristics of a linguistic personality should be recognized as belonging to a particular linguistic (national) and speech (intranational) culture. Within the national speech culture in the sphere of action literary language distinguish different types of speech cultures.

Elite type Speech culture is characterized by the following parameters:

Higher education of a native speaker, usually in the humanities;

Reflective Intelligence;

Logical thinking;

Dissatisfaction with your intellectual baggage, the presence of a constant need to expand your knowledge and test it;

Compliance ethical standards communication, respect for the interlocutor and people in general;

Possession of speech etiquette and compliance with its norms in all standard communicative situations;

Compliance with the norms of literary speech;

Lack of self-confidence in general, lack of linguistic self-confidence in particular (that is, the lack of confidence that he already speaks the language to the degree necessary from his point of view, his linguistic knowledge is quite sufficient and does not require correction);

Possession functional styles native language related to the use of both oral and written language;

“failure to transfer” what is typical of oral speech into written speech, and what is typical of written speech into oral speech;

Easy use of a functional style and genre of speech appropriate to the situation and goals of communication;

The ability to control your speech in its process (there is thematic and stylistic self-control);

Knowledge and adherence to rhetorical rules of communication;

The habit of checking your language knowledge, expanding it using authoritative texts and dictionaries;

Lack of automatic imitation of what was heard on the radio or television, read in newspapers;

Lack of imitation of one’s immediate speech environment, independence in the formation of one’s own speech culture;

A wealth of both active and passive vocabulary;

At a minimum, passive possession of the main achievements of world and national culture;

Knowledge of precedent texts of general cultural significance, understanding them in the text and using them in communication;

Ability to speak logically and coherently;

Proficiency in the epistolary genre, the ability to write a competent letter on any topic in accordance with the requirements of the genre;

The ability to play language, the skill and appropriateness of its use, the enjoyment of language game those around you and your own language game;

Ability to use reduced vocabulary and phraseology for expressive, artistic and visual purposes;

Understanding of verbal humor, the ability to perceive the subtext in a joke, anecdote, proverb, saying;

Predominant use of the form of communication, careful adherence to the norms of using you and you,

Absence of commonly used cliches in speech;

The ability to independently perceive the subtext in a literary text;

The ability to evaluate both the form and content of the perceived text;

Getting pleasure from the perception of complex texts and theoretical discussions, dislike of primitive dialogues in verbally and visually perceived texts;

Fixation speech errors in the oral and written speech of others, in written and media texts, in advertising;

Discussion with colleagues and loved ones about the state of the modern language, commenting on changes in the language.

For average literary type Speech culture is characterized by incomplete compliance with language norms. The increase in violation of the norms of the codified literary language is due to the penetration of colloquial types of address into speech. But this is purely individual and is not built into a system. The factor of formality in conditions of spontaneity forces speakers to use only those means of language that are, as it were, on the surface of linguistic consciousness. The carriers of this type of speech culture are the majority of people who have higher education. This type is characterized by you - communication, a formula for attracting attention, for example: Are you coming out next? Tell me, where is the bus stop here? Frequent are references to situational roles, for example: Brothers and sisters in literature; Colleague, I will be glad to see you; Citizens passengers. A small group consists of addresses with the name of gender and age; this type of address is rare, for example: Dear friend, Dear interlocutor, Young man, Dear young man, My young friend.

The average literary type is characterized by the following parameters:

Higher and secondary education of a native speaker;

Reflexive-sensorimotor type of intelligence;

Low interest in expanding general knowledge;

Professional activity requires individual and inconsistent, or constant but standard intellectual effort;

Satisfaction with your intellectual baggage, no need to expand your knowledge, much less test it;

Lack of constant habit of testing your knowledge;

Mastery of predominantly two functional styles: usually the style of everyday communication (colloquial speech) and your own professional style;

Frequent mixing of styles in speech, inability to differentiate them in communication;

Frequent violation of language norms;

Inability to conduct an extended monologue, even prepared;

Predominantly dialogical nature of communication;

Low level of self-control during the speech process, the defectiveness of one’s own speech is not realized;

a “forgivable” attitude towards one’s own speech errors;

Lack of habit of doubting the correctness of one’s speech;

Aggression in defending one’s own word usage: arguments like “everyone says that” or “they said that on radio and television, I heard that” are usually used as a standard;

Defending the point of view “the main thing is WHAT to say, not HOW to say””;

Literary-conversational type speech culture appears in the speech of its speakers during their direct and relaxed, informal communication with each other. Conversational elements are represented much more widely than book elements. The speech of speakers of this type of speech culture is greatly influenced by the means mass media. Gradual adaptation to colloquial elements through the media and their inclusion in speech by other speakers of non-elite speech culture can lead to an undesirable deformation of the stylistic system of the language, to society’s rejection of cultural speech norms. A large group consists of appeals based on gender and age, for example: Woman, Man, Girl; Young man, have you completed your task? Young people, give way. A small group consists of collective appeals, for example: Hello, youth; Well, friends, let's be healthy; The names of kinship also belong to this type: Mom, Dad, Sister.

The literary type is characterized by the following parameters:

Higher or secondary, secondary special education native speaker;

Predominantly reflective type of intelligence;

Dissatisfaction with your intellectual baggage, the need to expand your knowledge and test it;

Performing work that constantly requires certain intellectual efforts;

Compliance with basic ethical standards;

Compliance with basic norms of speech etiquette;

Compliance with the basic norms of literary speech learned at school;

Mastery of basic oral speech styles;

Approximately equal knowledge of the culture of oral and written speech;

The ability to easily change the style and genre of speech with changes in the communicative situation;

The ability to control and change your speech in its process;

Lack of linguistic self-confidence;

“non-transfer” of what is typical of oral speech into written speech and, on the contrary, of what is typical of written speech into oral speech;

Familiarly colloquial the type of speech culture is characterized by a general stylistic decline and coarsening. A large group here consists of descriptive constructions, for example: Lady in the hat, are you coming out? Man in coat, take change; Beautiful girl, can I meet you? Less frequent are evaluative-emotional constructions, for example: Lost soul, have you had enough? Beauty, are you depressed? Leave me alone, sticky! Beautiful, can I meet you? Hey pussy, come with us! Here you can note such appeals as: My dear, Sweetie, Darling, My joy, My sun, Dear, Beloved, My smiling one. Appeals based on situational characteristics, for example: Neighbor, help yourself; Neighbor, can you change it? Master, don't worry; Passenger, get out; Partner, go count it; Hey, citizen robbers! Frequency of appeals indicating gender, age and relationship, for example: Guys, we’ll meet tomorrow; Old man, I'm a lucky man; Pour it, friend; Boy, give me a lift, please; Friend, can you find a cigarette? Or: Baby, Baby, Friend, Buddy, Mother, Brother-in-law, Cousin, Auntie, Granddaughter, Granny, Father, Husband, Wife, Bratva, Brother, Brothers, Brothers, Bro, Girls, Girly, Girls.

The familiar-conversational type is characterized by the following parameters:

Secondary, vocational secondary, secondary technical, sometimes higher technical education;

Predominantly sensorimotor intelligence

Low desire to expand general knowledge;

The sensorimotor type of intelligence dominates;

Mastery of only the conversational communication system, which is used in any setting, including official ones;

Failure to distinguish between the norms of oral and written forms of speech;

Failure to comply with ethical and communication standards in professional situations and interpersonal communication;

Lack of desire to expand language knowledge, satisfaction with one’s language knowledge, lack of habit of learning the meanings of words or the rules of their use, linguistic self-confidence;

Dominance of the point of view “the main thing is WHAT to say, not HOW to say”;

A small group consists appeals by position and collective appeals: Military, Sailor, Soldier, Commander, Chief; People, People, Guys.

We can especially highlight familiarly crude constructions, For example:

Hey, buddy; Hey, hard worker, finish your work; Hey dude; Girls, listen up; New guy, you still have to work and work; Old fool, don't sleep; Listen, idiot; Listen, young one, stand up; You huckster, give me my money.

Features of the vernacular type of speech culture is the use of reduced language means, for example:

Boy, give me some sneakers; Hey kid, wait a minute; Hey man, are you kicking? Head, are you okay? Tail, can you hear me? Zink! Sansanych! Grey! Shirt!

The colloquial slang type is characterized by the following parameters:

Low level of general education;

The work does not require systematic intellectual effort;

Sensorimotor intelligence,

Orientation in communication and culture exclusively towards one’s own communication group;

Self-confidence, peremptory communication;

The absolute dominance of the point of view “the main thing is WHAT to say, not HOW to say”;

Reluctance and inability to monitor one’s speech and control it;

Mastery of only colloquial style of oral communication;

Lack of mastery of written forms of speech: speakers of this type can write texts mainly from dictation, the need for written speech confuses them, official documents can only write according to a model, filling in empty columns, while, as a rule, they require a model already filled in by others;

Lack of understanding of language norms and language taboos, lack of understanding of what vocabulary is prohibited for use;

Habitual, “cohesive” use of vulgarisms, jargon, slang;

Habitual use of mats for expressive and connective functions;

Only you-communication dominates;

Inability to read more or less long texts of any genre, inability to synthesize the meaning of the text, the requirement to explain the meaning to them orally;

Inability to use dictionaries;

Misunderstanding of subtext in literary text, in proverbs and sayings;

Preference is given to situational humor or humor related to the lower parts of the body; humorous subtext is not perceived if there are no rude or obscene words in rhyme;

Vocabulary and phraseology, new words are acquired exclusively from direct communication with the immediate environment;

The pursuit of linguistic fashion, the craving for fashionable expressive usages;

Inability to synonymously vary speech, which leads to clichedness and lack of individuality in speech;

Expression of speech is achieved exclusively by using categorical, categorical assessments, rude and obscene language, increasing the volume or intonation tension of articulation.

Types of requests that characterize folk speech type of culture, are currently perceived as outdated and are used quite rarely, for example: Well, my dear; Milok, help me; Dear comrade, who are you visiting?

Concerning professionally limited type speech culture, we were able to analyze only the speech of the military. In an official setting, they are characterized by official views messages, for example: Comrade conscripts! Comrade “first”! Citizen captain. In an informal setting, the military uses types of addresses accepted in colloquial types of speech cultures, for example: Comrades; Soldier; Friends, let us not despair; Look, lieutenant colonel and many others.

In connection with the increasing and frequent non-discrimination between you and Vy-communication, there is a blurring of the boundaries between types of speech cultures and a noticeable predominance of colloquial elements in the literary type of speech culture.

In human relationships, appeals often play a primary role. Addressing the interlocutor when establishing contact, establishing interpersonal connections doom him to the initial emotionality and evaluativeness, expressed either directly or hidden, in the shadow meaning of the statement. In the spectrum of evaluative shades, the sphere of expression of social interaction stands out. The relationship between extra-linguistic factors and linguistic factors (the evaluative properties of a word) makes the appeal a kind of indicator of the difficulties that arise in the process of relationships between people.

Any treatment we use can be colored by different feelings, moods, and relationships with the interlocutor. And if these feelings are good, then we feel reciprocal goodwill and a desire to cooperate.

Mastering the art of communication is necessary for every person, regardless of what type of activity he is engaged in or will be engaged in, since success in the personal, industrial and social spheres of life depends on the level and quality of his communication.

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Address is one of the important and necessary components of speech etiquette. The address is used at any stage of communication, throughout its entire duration, and serves as its integral part. At the same time, the norm for using the address and its form have not been definitively established, cause controversy, and are a sore point of Russian speech etiquette.

This is eloquently stated in a letter published in “ Komsomolskaya Pravda“signed by Andrey: “We, probably, in the only country in the world, do not have people turning to each other. We don't know how to contact a person! Man, woman, girl, granny, comrade, citizen - ugh! Or maybe a female person, a male person! And it’s easier - hey!”

To understand the peculiarity of address in the Russian language, you need to know its history. The social stratification of society, the inequality that existed in Russia for several centuries, was reflected in the system of official appeals. The names of ranks were used as addresses (lieutenant general, marshal, cornet, cornet, as well as your excellency, your highness, most gracious sovereign, etc.)

Monarchical system in Russia until the 20th century. preserved the division of people into classes: nobles, clergy, commoners, merchants, townspeople, peasants. Hence the address master, madam in relation to people of privileged social groups; sir, madam - for the middle class or master, mistress for both and the absence of a single address to representatives of the lower class.

In the languages ​​of other civilized countries, unlike Russian, there were addresses that were used both in relation to a person occupying a high position in society and to an ordinary citizen: Mr., Mrs., Miss (England, USA), Signor, Signora, Signorina (Italy ), pan, pani (Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia).

After the October Revolution, all old ranks and titles were abolished by a special decree. Universal equality is proclaimed. The addresses Mr. - Madam, master - lady, sir - madam are gradually disappearing. Instead of all the appeals that existed in Russia, starting from 1917-1918, the appeals citizen and comrade are becoming widespread. The history of these words is remarkable and instructive.

The word citizen is recorded in the monuments of the 11th century. It came to the Russian language from the Old Church Slavonic language and served as a phonetic version of the word city dweller. Both meant “resident of the city (city).” In the 18th century this word takes on the meaning of “a full member of society, the state.” Then it acquires the meaning: “a person who is devoted to the Motherland, serves it and the people, cares about the public good, subordinates personal interests to public ones.”

Why did such a socially significant word as citizen disappear in the 20th century? common way people address each other?

In the 20-30s. a custom arose, and then became the norm when addressing those arrested, prisoners, those on trial to law enforcement officials and vice versa not to say comrade, only citizen: citizen under investigation, citizen judge, citizen prosecutor. As a result, the word citizen for many has become associated with detention, arrest, police, and the prosecutor's office. The negative association gradually became so “grown” to the word that it became an integral part of it, so ingrained in people’s minds that it became impossible to use the word citizen as a commonly used address.

The fate of the word comrade turned out somewhat differently. It is recorded in the monuments of the 15th century. This word came to Slavic languages ​​from Turkic, in which the root tavar meant “property, livestock, goods.” Probably, comrade originally meant “companion in trade.” Then the meaning of this word expands: comrade is not only a “companion”, but also a “friend.” With the growth of the revolutionary movement in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century. the word comrade, like the word citizen in its time, acquires a new socio-political meaning: “a like-minded person fighting for the interests of the people.” WITH late XIX and at the beginning of the 20th century, Marxist circles were created in Russia, their members called each other comrades. In the first years after the revolution, this word became the main address in Russia.

After the Patriotic War, the word comrade gradually begins to emerge from the everyday unofficial address of people to each other. On the street, in a store, in public transport, the calls man, woman, grandfather, father, granny, boyfriend, auntie, uncle are increasingly heard. Such appeals are not neutral. They may be perceived by the addressee as disrespect for him, unacceptable familiarity.

Since the late 80s. In an official setting, the addresses sir, madam, sir, and madam began to be revived.

Currently, the address Mr., Madam is perceived as the norm at Duma meetings, in television programs, at various symposia and conferences. Among civil servants, businessmen, and entrepreneurs, the norm is becoming Mr., Mrs. in combination with the surname, position, and title.

The address comrade continues to be used by the military, members of communist parties, as well as in many factory teams. Scientists, teachers, doctors, lawyers prefer the words of colleagues and friends. The address respected, respected is found in the speech of the older generation. The words woman, man, which have become widespread in the role of communication, violate the norm of speech etiquette and indicate insufficient culture of the speaker. In this case, it is preferable to start a conversation without addresses, using etiquette formulas: be kind..., be kind..., excuse me..., excuse me...

Thus, the problem of commonly used address remains open. It will be solved only when everyone learns to respect himself and treat others with respect, when he learns to defend his honor and dignity, when he becomes an individual, when it doesn’t matter what position he holds, what his status is. It is important that he is a citizen Russian Federation.

3 Dictionaries - a source of knowledge

The study and description of the language of a people, a nation is considered a matter of paramount importance for the state, the people themselves, the nation, and every person.

The French writer Anatole France called the dictionary “an alphabetical universe” because in it “to each word of the lexicon there corresponds a thought or feeling that has been the thought or feeling of an innumerable multitude of beings.”

The dictionary is a historical story about people’s lives, their thoughts, aspirations, troubles and joys, about everything that surrounds them; Every word included in the dictionary is connected with the life, deeds and actions of the people - the creator of the language.

A word is an object of description in linguistic dictionaries. They give the pronunciation of words, their spelling, determine the meaning, compatibility of words, word formation, and indicate grammatical forms. Beyond words linguistic dictionaries describe stable combinations, morphemes.

The object of characterization can be not only units of language, but also concepts (scientific and everyday), historical events, animal phenomena and flora, prominent figures, geographical realities, etc. This is all the subject of description in encyclopedic dictionaries.

From encyclopedic dictionaries we learn about the geographical, historical, economic features of any country in the world; about the life and work of politicians, military men, scientists, writers, artists, composers, performers of all times and peoples, as well as about people who became famous in one field or another.

Encyclopedic dictionaries can be general or private. General ones include: “Big encyclopedic Dictionary"in 30 volumes (3rd ed., 1969-1978), "Encyclopedic Dictionary" in 2 volumes (2nd ed., 1963-1964), etc. To particulars: "Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary", (2nd ed., 1989); "Encyclopedia. Russian language", 1997, etc.

The importance of dictionaries in the life of every person cannot be overestimated. Reading dictionaries and constantly referring to them improves the culture of speech. Dictionaries enrich individual vocabulary and phraseological stock, introduce the norms of the Russian language, warn against the incorrect use of words, their grammatical forms, pronunciation. Dictionaries expand our knowledge of language, deepen our understanding of words, and contribute to the development of logical thinking.

From the biographies of scientists, public figures, writers, and poets, it is known that many of them highly valued encyclopedic and philological dictionaries, turned to them for information, and read dictionaries as fascinating literature.

N.V. Gogol wrote to S.T. Aksakov, author of the book “The Childhood Years of Bagrov - Grandson”: “Before you is a community - the Russian language. Deep pleasure calls you, the pleasure of immersing yourself in all its immeasurability and catching its wonderful laws... Read carefully... the academic dictionary.” Gogol himself often turned to dictionaries, from which he learned the origin of the word, its history, meaning, and spelling.

The French poet Beranger admitted that he did not write a single line without looking in the dictionary: “I have been studying them incessantly for forty years”; “Without dictionaries, I couldn’t write ten poems.” The poetess V. Inber (1890-1972) in her book “Almost Three Years” writes: “Yesterday, for half a day, I reveled in Dahl’s dictionary, reading the letter “W.” I need this for the noise of the trees. But I am convinced that Dahl should be read every day.”

Dictionaries are a source for finding the right, precise, expressive word. Famous writer 50-60 years Alexey Yugov in the article “For vernacular"(1961), addressing journalists, he wrote: “Remember the integrity of the Russian language. Make it big, the most big dictionary your favorite reading, and you will never find yourself on the air in such a position that you cannot find the words.”

Dictionaries provide politicians, public figures, writers, journalists and anyone interested in the Russian language with material for making judgments and supporting their thoughts.

For example, journalist M. Rassadin talks about the feeling of pride: is it positive or negative? It compares data from two dictionaries (one published in Soviet time, another before the revolution). In the first, the word has several meanings. Two of them characterize pride as positive quality, and the third as negative, equivalent to arrogance, arrogance. In the second (“Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V.I. Dahl) only one thing is given negative meaning: “To be proud of something, to be proud, to be proud, to be conceited, to be arrogant, to be arrogant; to boast about something, to be vain; to take credit for something, to take advantage of something, to be complacent.”

Having compared the material of two dictionaries, citing the words of the New Testament (“PRIDE is a sin”), the publicist reveals the social reasons for changes in the conceptual content of the word, in its public assessment, the reasons for the appearance of new phrases that are presented in the modern Russian language.

Another interesting example is related to the search for a new name and its rationale. At the beginning of perestroika in our country, as a result of new economic trends, it became possible to organize individual farming in rural areas. Not only villagers, but also townspeople take up this matter. The question arises: How to call a “sole owner”? “Peasant or farmer?” - asks Yu. Chernichenko, speaking with an article in the Ogonyok magazine in 1990. He looks for the answer in dictionaries. “Peasant,” according to Dahl, is “a rural inhabitant who belongs to the lower tax-paying class.” “Farmer” is “the owner or tenant of a farm.” And in another dictionary even “the owner of an agricultural enterprise.” After comparing the data from dictionaries and determining the characteristics of the emerging owners of the land (“craving for will, respect”), preference is given to the name farmer.

A lot of information is contained in etymological dictionaries, which explain the origin of words. Reading etymological dictionaries allows you to understand why the object is so named, what other names this word is etymologically related to and why. For example, the word portfolio came to Russian from French. Franz. porte-feuille - addition based on porter - “to carry” and feuill - “papers, documents (< листы)». Слово портфель входит в один ряд со словами портмоне (monnaie - «деньги»), портсигар (cigares - «сигары»), портупея (ерее - «шпага») и т.п. Это все названия предметов, в которых что-то носят.

Figuratively and accurately in the poem “Dictionary” by S.Ya. Marshak, using the example of words, phrases, phraseological units, determined the content of the dictionary, its essence and meaning in the history of any nation:

All words are stamped with events.

They were given to man for a reason.

I'm reading Century. From the century. To last forever.

To live out the century. God did not give his son a century.

A century to eat, a century to heal with the plague...

The words sound reproach, and anger, and conscience

No, it’s not the dictionary that lies in front of me,

And an ancient scattered story.

Appeal is a necessary component of communication. It manifests itself throughout communication, is an integral part of it, and serves as a bridge from one remark to another. And at the same time, the norm of use and the form of address itself in Russian speech practice have not been finally established, cause controversy, and are a sore point of Russian speech etiquette.

From time immemorial, circulation has performed several functions. The main one is to attract the attention of the interlocutor. This is a vocative function.

Since both proper names (Galina Petrovna, Egor, Oleg) and names of people according to degree of relationship (father, uncle, aunt), position in society, profession, position (president, general, minister, director, engineer), by age and gender (grandfather, boy, girl), then the address not only performs a vocative function, but also indicates the corresponding attribute.

Finally, addresses can be expressive and emotionally charged, containing an assessment of the speaker’s attitude towards the partner: Katyusha, Styopka, blockhead, dunce, klutz, slut, smart girl, beauty. The peculiarity of the above addresses is that they characterize both the addressee and the addressee himself, the degree of his education, attitude towards the interlocutor, emotional condition, cultural and speech level.

The following words of address are used in an informal situation; only some of them, for example proper names (in their basic form), names of professions, positions, serve as addresses in official speech.

Historically distinctive feature officially accepted appeals in Russia were a reflection of the social stratification of society, such a characteristic feature as veneration of rank.

Thus, in the Russian language, the root rank turned out to be productive, giving life to the words, official, officialdom, veneration of rank, outrage; stand firm
new phrases: not according to rank, distribute according to rank, rank by rank; proverbs: Honor the rank of the rank, and sit on the edge of the youngest; The bullet does not distinguish the officials; For a fool, no matter how great his rank, there is room everywhere.

The social stratification of society and inequality that existed in Russia for several centuries were reflected in the system of official appeals.

Firstly, there was a document “Table of Ranks”, published in 1717-1721, which was later republished in a slightly modified form. The “Table” listed military (army and naval), civil and court ranks. Each category of ranks was divided into 14 classes. Thus, the third class included lieutenant general, lieutenant general, vice admiral, privy councilor, court marshal, equestrian master, huntsman, chamberlain master, chief master of ceremonies, the sixth class included colonel, captain of the 1st rank, collegiate adviser, chamberlain. Fourier, by the twelfth grade - cornet, cornet, midshipman, provincial secretary.

In addition to the named ranks, which determined the system of addresses, there were addresses: Your Excellency, Your Excellency, Your Excellency, Your Highness, Your Majesty, Most Gracious (Merciful) Sovereign, etc.

Secondly, the monarchical system in Russia until the 20th century. maintained the division of people into classes. A class-organized society was characterized by a hierarchy of rights and responsibilities, inequality and privileges. The following classes were distinguished: nobles, clergy, commoners, merchants, burghers, peasants. Hence the addresses Mr., Madam in relation to people of privileged social groups; sir, madam - for the middle class or master, mistress for both and the absence of a single address to representatives of the lower class.

In the languages ​​of other civilized countries, unlike Russian, there were addresses that were used both in relation to a person who occupied a high position in society and to an ordinary citizen: Mr., Mrs., Miss (England, USA); senor, senora, senorita (Spain); signor, signora, signorina (Italy); pan, pani (Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia).

After the October Revolution, all old ranks and titles were abolished by a special decree, and universal equality was proclaimed. The addresses Mr. - Madam, master - lady, sir - madam, dear sir (empress) are gradually disappearing. Only diplomatic language preserves the formulas of international politeness. Thus, the heads of monarchical states are addressed: Your Majesty, Your Excellency; Foreign diplomats continue to be called Mr. - Madam.

Instead of all the appeals that existed in Russia since 1917-1918.

Citizens and comrades receive the circulation of the appeal.

However, such a socially significant word as citizen did not become popular in the 20th century. commonly used way for people to address each other. Why did this happen? The fact is that in the 20-30s. a custom appeared, and then it became the norm: those arrested, prisoners, and those on trial turned to law enforcement officials as citizens: citizen under investigation, citizen judge, citizen prosecutor.

As a result, the word citizen for many has become associated with detention, arrest, police, and the prosecutor's office. The negative association gradually became so “grown” to the word that it became an integral part of it, so ingrained in people’s minds that it became impossible to use the word citizen as a commonly used address.

The fate of the word comrade turned out somewhat differently. It is recorded in the monuments of the 15th century. This word came to Slavic languages ​​from Turkic languages, Turk, tavar meant “property, livestock, goods.”

Probably, the word comrade originally meant “companion in trade.” Then the meaning of the word expands: comrade is not only “companion”, but also “friend”. Proverbs testify to this:

On the road, the son is a companion to his father; A smart comrade is half the road; To fall behind a comrade is to become without a comrade; The poor are no friend to the rich; A servant is not a master's comrade.

With the growth of the revolutionary movement in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century. the word comrade, like the word citizen in its time, acquires a new socio-political meaning: “a like-minded person fighting for the interests of the people.” There is a clear distinction: comrades are Bolsheviks, they are those who believe in revolution. The rest are not comrades, which means they are enemies.

Thus, even the appeal acquired an ideological meaning and became socially significant.

After the Great Patriotic War, the word comrade gradually begins to emerge from the everyday informal way people address each other.

A problem arises: how to contact a stranger? The issue is beginning to be discussed in the press and in radio broadcasts. Philologists, writers, and public figures express their opinions. They propose to revive the appeals, sir, madam.

On the street, in the supermarket, in public transport, the addresses of man, woman, grandfather, father, granny, boyfriend, auntie, uncle are increasingly heard.

Such appeals are not neutral. They can be perceived by the addressee as disrespect for him, even an insult, unacceptable familiarity. Hence, rudeness in response, expression of resentment, and quarrel are possible.

Since the late 80s. In an official setting, the addresses sir, madam, sir, and madam began to be revived. Lately, Mr. and Madam addresses have been perceived as the norm at meetings. State Duma, in television programs, at various symposiums and conferences. In parallel with this, at meetings of government officials, politicians with the people, as well as at rallies, speakers began to use the appeal Russians, fellow citizens, compatriots. Among civil servants, businessmen, entrepreneurs, and university professors, the norm is becoming Mr., Madam, in combination with the surname, position, and title. Difficulties arise if the director or professor is a woman. How to address in this case: Mr. Professor or Madam Professor!

The address comrade continues to be used by the military and members of communist parties. Scientists, teachers, doctors, lawyers prefer the words of colleagues and friends. The address respected - respected is found in the speech of the older generation.

The addresses of woman and man, which have become widespread recently, violate the norms of speech etiquette and indicate insufficient culture of the speaker. It is preferable to start a conversation without them, using etiquette formulas: be kind..., be kind..., excuse me..., excuse me...

Thus, the question of commonly used address in an informal setting remains open. The answer to it will be given only when every citizen of Russia learns to respect himself and treat others with respect, when he learns to defend his honor and dignity, when he becomes an individual, when it doesn’t matter what position he holds, what his status is - what matters is that he is a citizen of the Russian Federation. Only then will none of the Russians feel awkward and embarrassed if they call him or call someone Mr., Madam.