Methodology for diagnosing forms of communication (according to M. I. Lisina) “determination of the leading form of communication between a child and adults”
Based on the psychological theory of activity of A.N. Leontyev and, accordingly, considering communication as a communicative activity, M.I. Lisina considers the need for communication to be independent and different from all other types of needs. The communication partner acts as the motive for communication.
Motives are divided into 3 groups:
Cognitive,
Business
Personal.
Expressive and facial movements are considered as means of communication, substantive actions and speech operations.
Each of the identified forms of communication is characterized by:
1) time, 2) place, 3) the content of the need, 4) leading motives 5) means of communication.
In the periodization of the development of communication, the following forms are distinguished:
1) situational and personal communication between a child and an adult (the first half of life);
2) situational business conversation(6 months - 2 years);
3) non-situational-cognitive communication (3-5 years);
4) non-situational-personal communication (6-7 years).
Communication– one of the most important factors in the overall mental development of a child. Only in contact with adults is it possible for children to assimilate the socio-historical experience of humanity and realize their innate ability to become representatives of the human race.
We understand communication as the interaction of people participating in this process, aimed at coordinating and uniting their efforts in order to achieve a common result. The main and starting point in the current understanding of communication should be considered its interpretation as an activity. Applying the general concept of activity developed by A.N. Leontiev (1976) for her analysis of communication as one of the types of activity, we came to the following conclusions.
Communication, like any activity, is objective. The subject, or object, of communication activity is another person, a partner in joint activities. The specific subject of communication activity is each time those qualities and properties of the partner that manifest themselves during interaction. Reflected in the child’s consciousness, they then become products of communication. At the same time, the child gets to know himself. The idea of oneself (about some of one’s qualities and properties revealed in interaction) is also included in the product of communication.
Like any other activity, communication is aimed at satisfying a specific human need. We believe that a person has an independent need for communication, i.e. irreducible to other needs (for example, the need for food and warmth, impressions and activity, the desire for safety)... the need for communication consists of the desire to know oneself and other people. Since such knowledge is closely intertwined with the attitude towards other people, we can say that the need for communication is a desire for evaluation and self-esteem: to evaluate another person, to find out how this other person evaluates a given person, and to self-esteem. According to our data, by 2.5 months the need for communication can be established in children.
By the motive of activity we understand, according to the concept of A.N. Leontiev, that is, for the sake of which the activity is undertaken. This means that the motive for the communication activity is the communication partner. Consequently, for a child, the motive for communication activities is an adult. Man as a motive for communication is a complex, multifaceted object. During the first seven years of life, the child gradually becomes familiar with its various qualities and properties. An adult always remains the motive of communication for a child, but what naturally changes in this person all the time is what most motivates the child to activity.
Communication with an adult in most cases is only part of a broader interaction between a child and an adult, prompted by other needs of children. Therefore, the development of communication motives occurs in close connection with the basic needs of the child, to which we include the need for new impressions, active activity, recognition and support. On this basis, we identify three main categories of motives for communication – cognitive, business and personal.
Cognitive motives for communication arise in children in the process of satisfying the need for new impressions, at the same time the child has reasons to turn to an adult. Business motives for communication are born in children in the course of satisfying the need for active activity as a result of the need for help from adults. And finally, personal motives for communication are specific to that sphere of interaction between a child and an adult, which constitutes the communication activity itself. If cognitive and business motives of communication play a service role and mediate the achievement of more distant, final motives, then personal motives receive their ultimate satisfaction in the activity of communication.
Communication takes place in the form of actions that constitute a unit of an integral process. An action is characterized by the goal it is aimed at achieving and the task it solves. Action is a rather complex formation, which includes several even smaller units, which we call means of communication. The latter, apparently, are equivalent to operations, according to the terminology of A. N. Leontyev. The study of communication between children and adults led us to the identification of three main categories of means of communication:
1
.expressive-facial,
2.
substantively effective,
3.
speech operations.
The first express, the second depict, and the third indicate the content that the child seeks to convey to an adult and receive from him.
The analysis showed that the lines of development of different aspects of communication give rise to several stages, or levels, that naturally replace each other, at each of which the activity of communication appears in a holistic, qualitatively unique form. Thus, the development of communication with adults in children from birth to seven years old occurs as a change in several integral forms of communication.
So, we call a form of communication the activity of communication at a certain stage of its development, taken as a whole set of features and characterized by several parameters. The following five parameters were the main ones for us:
- the time of emergence of this form of communication during preschool childhood;
- the place occupied by this form of communication in the system of the child’s broader life activity;
- the main content of the need satisfied by children during this form of communication;
- leading motives that encourage a child at a certain stage of development to communicate with surrounding adults;
- the main means of communication, with the help of which, within this form of communication, communications between a child and adults are carried out...
We have identified four forms of communication that replace each other during the first seven years of a child’s life.
M. I. Lisina presented the development of communication between a child and an adult from birth to 7 years as a change in several integral forms of communication.
A form of communication is communicative activity at a certain stage of its development, which is characterized by the following parameters:
As a result of the research, four main forms of communication were identified, characteristic of children of a certain age.
The first form - situational-personal communication - is characteristic of infancy. Communication at this time depends on the characteristics of the momentary interaction between the child and the adult; it is limited to the narrow framework of the situation in which the child’s needs are met.
Direct emotional contacts are the main content of communication, since the main thing that attracts a child is the personality of an adult, and everything else, including toys and other interesting objects, remains in the background.
At an early age, a child masters the world of objects. He still needs warm emotional contacts with his mother, but this is no longer enough. He develops a need for cooperation, which, together with the needs for new experiences and activity, can be realized in joint actions with an adult. The child and the adult, acting as an organizer and assistant, together manipulate objects and perform increasingly complex actions with them. An adult shows what can be done with different things, how to use them, revealing to the child those qualities that he himself is not able to detect. Communication that unfolds in a situation of joint activity is named.
With the appearance of the child’s first questions: “why?”, “why?”, “where from?”, “how?”, begins new stage in the development of communication between a child and an adult. This is non-situational - cognitive communication, prompted by cognitive motives. The child breaks out of the visual situation in which all his interests were previously concentrated. Now he is much more interested in: how the world that has opened up for him works. natural phenomena and human relationships? And the same adult becomes for him the main source of information, an erudite who knows everything in the world.
In the middle or at the end of preschool age, another form should arise - extra-situational - personal communication. For a child, an adult is the highest authority, whose instructions, demands, and comments are accepted in a business-like manner, without offense, without whims or refusal of difficult tasks. This form of communication is important when preparing for school, and if it has not developed by the age of 6-7, the child will not be psychologically ready for school.
Note that later, in the younger school age, the authority of the adult will be preserved and strengthened, and a distance will appear in the relationship between the child and the teacher in the context of formalized schooling. While preserving old forms of communication with adult family members, the younger student learns business cooperation in educational activities. In adolescence, authorities are overthrown, a desire for independence from adults appears, and a tendency to protect certain aspects of one’s life from their control and influence. A teenager’s communication with adults both in the family and at school is fraught with conflicts. At the same time, high school students show interest in the experience of the older generation and, when determining their future path in life, need trusting relationships with close adults.
Communication with other children initially has virtually no effect on the child’s development / if there are no twins or children of a similar age in the family /. Even younger preschoolers at 3-4 years old still do not know how to truly communicate with each other. As D. B. Elkonin writes, they “play side by side, not together.” We can talk about a child’s full communication with peers only starting from middle preschool age. Communication woven into a complex role-playing game contributes to the development of the child’s voluntary behavior and the ability to take into account someone else’s point of view. Development is definitely influenced by inclusion in collective educational activities - group work, mutual assessment of results, etc. And for teenagers trying to free themselves from adult assessment, communication with peers becomes the leading activity. In relationships with close friends, they / just like high school students / are capable of deep intimate-personal, “confessional” communication.
Situational business communication
At the end of the first year of life, the social situation of the unity of the child and the adult explodes from the inside. Two opposite but interconnected poles appear in it - a child and an adult. Back to top early age the child, acquiring the desire for independence and independence from the adult, remains connected with him both objectively (since he needs the practical help of an adult) and subjectively (since he needs the adult’s assessment, his attention and attitude). This contradiction finds its resolution in the new social situation of the child’s development, which represents cooperation, or joint activity of the child and the adult.
Communication between a child and an adult loses its spontaneity already in the second half of infancy: it begins to be mediated by objects. In the second year of life, the content of substantive cooperation between a child and an adult becomes special. The content of their joint activity is the assimilation of socially developed ways of using objects. The uniqueness of the new social situation of development, according to D. B. Elkonin, is that now the child “... lives not with an adult, but through an adult, with his help. The adult does not do it instead of him, but together with him.” An adult becomes for a child not only a source of attention and goodwill, not only a “supplier” of the objects themselves, but also a model of human, specific objective actions. And although throughout early childhood the form of communication with adults still remains situational and business-like, the nature of business communication changes significantly. Such cooperation is no longer limited to direct assistance or demonstration of objects. Now the participation of an adult is necessary, simultaneous practical activity with him, doing the same thing. In the course of such cooperation, the child simultaneously receives the adult’s attention, his participation in the child’s actions, and most importantly, new, adequate ways of acting with objects. The adult now not only gives objects to the child, but, along with the object, conveys the way of acting with it.
A child’s achievements in objective activities and their recognition by adults become for him a measure of his Self and a way of asserting his own dignity. Children develop a clear desire to achieve a result, a product of their activity. The end of this period is marked by a crisis of 3 years, in which the child’s increased independence and the purposefulness of his actions express themselves.
Abstract for Part 1. Development of communication between a child and adults and peers.
Problems of ontogenesis of communication.
In the book “Communication, personality and psyche of the child” Lisina M.I. talks about how a child, having been born, enters into his first contacts with the people around him, how his connections with them become more and more complex and deepen, how the child’s communication with adults and peers is transformed in the first 7 years of life. This book is also about self-discovery. About what he knows about himself Small child, how he imagines his various abilities and the possibilities arising from them.
Among the various scientific disciplines that can help solve the problem of communication, psychology has a primary place. After all, a psychologist, by the very essence of his profession, is called upon to understand the spiritual life of a person, to find out his most intimate needs and requirements. And about 30-35 years ago, almost simultaneously, research began in different parts of the world aimed at an in-depth study of the psychology of human communication. From the very beginning, a special place among them was occupied by works devoted to the study of children's communication, especially communication small child with adults who care for him. The communication of children, much simpler than that of adults, promised quick success in its interpretation. The needs of practice also played a major role. The involvement of women in large-scale production urgently required the development of public education of children. An urgent practical need has arisen to determine how to build contacts with them in conditions that differ from the family relationships that have developed over centuries. Thus, society demanded that psychologists develop questions about the genesis of communication - determining how it initially arises and then develops.
Communication and self-knowledge are closely related to each other. Communication is the best way to know yourself. And a correct idea of yourself, of course, in turn affects communication, helping to deepen and strengthen it. In business contacts and friendships, it is equally important to be aware of your actions, judge yourself strictly and evaluate correctly.
That is why in her book M.I. Lisina talks about communication and self-knowledge as two inextricably linked problems that determine each other.
Communication concept.
Communication is the interaction of two or more people aimed at coordinating and combining their efforts in order to establish relationships and achieve a common result.
Communication is always closely related to activity, and can itself be considered as a special type of activity. “Communication” and “communicative activity” for M.I. Fox synonyms. To analyze communication, you can use general psychological concepts of activity. M.I. Lisina used the theory of activity developed in Soviet psychology by A.N. Leontyev.
Communication performs various functions in people's lives. She identified 3 functions among them: organizing joint activities, shaping the development of interpersonal relationships and people getting to know each other. The significance of the category of communication is determined by the fact that it allows one to reveal the social essence of a person and his personality, as well as to understand the development of the child’s psyche as a process that occurs through children’s appropriation of the socio-historical experience of humanity in the context real communication with an adult, living bearer of this experience.
The decisive role of communication in mental development the child is proven by the deep and irreversible underdevelopment of children who grew up in isolation from human society (the “Mowgli” children); phenomena of hospitalism observed when there is a lack of communication between children and adults; positive facts obtained in formative experiments.
The influence of communication on the mental development of a small child occurs in the following way: 1) due to the favorable “objective” qualities of an adult, combined with his properties as a subject of communication; 2) thanks to the enrichment of children’s experience by adults; 3) by direct setting by adults tasks that require the child to acquire new knowledge, skills and abilities; 4) based on the reinforcing effect of the opinions and assessments of an adult; 5) thanks to the opportunity for the child to draw from communication examples of actions and behavior of adults; 6) due to favorable conditions for children to reveal their creative, original beginnings when communicating with each other.
The emergence of communication in a child.
In the first days of life, the child completely lacks any elements of communicative activity. The newborn is immersed in himself most of the day and wakes up only due to feelings of hunger, cold and other discomfort. Unpleasant experiences make the child worry, wince, and make sounds of displeasure - from grunting to a loud inconsolable cry. These signals attract the attention of adults caring for the child, who eliminate the cause that caused them. When caring for a child, adults often find themselves close to him, at a distance that allows children to see and hear their elders, perceive them through contact and other senses. Thus, soon after the birth of a child, adults close to him become a source for him, a means of eliminating discomfort and the most vivid, attractive object of perception. Thanks to the described process, the adult begins to satisfy the child’s primary needs: food, warmth, etc. - and his need for new experiences. In the system of these two types of needs, an adult becomes important in a child’s life, and children naturally begin to look for him and be interested in him.
At the time of such “selfish” interest in adults, the child does not yet communicate with them, but he is already developing search and cognitive activity associated with adults. And this is where the initiative of an adult, who in advance endows the child with personality and consciousness, becomes decisive. The adult treats him not as an object, a thing, but as a subject, and therefore, in the influences of the adult, in addition to the objectively necessary ones, additional components of a special nature appear: the adult asks the baby about something, he tells him about the events of his adult life, he treats him lovingly and carefully, selflessly and devotedly. At first the baby ignores all these “tendernesses”, but constant repetition eventually draws his attention to them. So “as things go” - when feeding, changing, rocking - the child more and more clearly perceives the communicative influences of the adult. They cause him a very special satisfaction - it is not satiety, not warmth, but a feeling of his importance for others, his significance for them. And this meaning is not won by any of his actions, but is due to his special property, the fact that he is a person, a subject, although still only in potential. The communicative influences of an adult are not related to any one thing that this person does (feeding, hygiene procedures), but come from the “personality” of the adult, from the fact that he is the subject of communication activities. Consequently, the child almost simultaneously identifies the property of “personality”, “subjectivity” in himself and in the adult.
And as soon as this happens, the subject of communication activity and the need for communication are formalized, and the latter is immediately “objectified” in the motives of communication, among which the leading position is occupied by the personal motive. Expressive means of communication emerge and quickly become enriched, which acquire a meaning that is understandable to both parties in the practice of interaction between a child and adults.
The attitude of adults towards the child as an individual is a decisive condition for the development of communicative activity. The absence of such an attitude or its insufficiency prevents the emergence of communicative needs and leaves the child in the position of a “larva” who has not realized his natural opportunity to become a person. This happens in cases of isolation of a child from society and in cases of formal attitude of staff towards pupils. But even in cases of severe developmental delay in children, as in hospitalization, adults can help children master communication. This requires surrounding them with love and attention. Parents and teachers must clearly understand the full extent of their responsibility for the formation of a person in their child.
Essentially the same process occurs at an early age, when the child begins to communicate with his peers. It occurs more slowly because, unlike an adult, a peer does not actively form “personality” or “subjectivity” in his comrades. At best, he defends his rights, which he learned about in communication with adults. An adult’s influence plays a huge role when children communicate with each other: he helps children see in their peers a person equal to themselves; respect him and cherish him.
Development of communication in children in the first 7 years of life.
The development of communication is a change in qualitatively unique integral formations, which represent a certain genetic level of communicative activity and are called, by M.I. Lisina, forms of communication.
Each form of communication is characterized by a number of parameters, the main ones being the date of occurrence, the content of the communicative need, leading motives, basic operations and the place of communication in the system of the child’s general life activity.
In the first 7 years of life Lisina M.I. distinguishes 4 forms of communication: situational-personal, situational-business, extra-situational-cognitive and extra-situational-personal.
Knowledge of age-related forms of communication is useful for analyzing individual communicative activities and for organizing correctional work with children who have deviations in the development of social behavior.
The development of communication between children and adults is carried out as special case interaction of form and content: enriching the content of children’s activities and their relationships with others leads to the replacement of outdated forms of communication with new ones, and the latter provide scope for the child’s further mental progress.
Of utmost importance in the emergence and development of communication in children are the influences of an adult, whose proactive initiative constantly “pushes” the child’s activity to a new, higher level according to the mechanism of the “zone of proximal development” (L.S. Vygotsky, 1982). The practice of interaction with children organized by adults helps to enrich and transform them social needs. Without the constant support of an adult, especially in the first months and years of life, the development of children's communication with others slows down or even stops. But the active intervention of an adult is capable of relatively short term to cause favorable changes in the communication of children even of older preschool age, to correct defects and deviations in their communicative activities.
Products of communication.
Communication, like any other activity, ends with a certain result. The result of communication can be considered as its product.
Communication leads to the creation of numerous and varied products. Among them, relationships and self-image occupy an important place.
The nature of communication determines the characteristics of people's relationships. But relationships, once established, in turn affect communication processes.
Relationships between people are selective. Selectivity in relationships is determined by the needs of a person. Selective relationships between people are highly dependent on communication needs.
A partner who allows a child to satisfy the need for communication at the level of development achieved by children evokes sympathy and affection in him. The more communication with a partner corresponds to the specific content of the child’s needs (attention, respect, empathy), the more he loves him.
The dependence of relationships on the content of the need for communication is found both in the communication of children with adults and in their communication with each other. The foundation of a good relationship in communication with both partners lies in satisfying the child’s need for the friendly attention of people around him; it is “objectified” in personal communicative motives.
The child’s image of himself arises in the course of various types of life practice: the experience of individual (solitary) activity and the experience of communication. The functioning of the body (“life of the body”) creates an elementary basis for the child’s sense of self. Objective activity, which actively transforms the world and having a socio-historical nature. Communication, among other types of such activities, causes a particularly acute need for self-knowledge and creates the best conditions for its occurrence.
Self-image Lisina M.I. understands as an affective-cognitive complex. She calls its affective part self-esteem, and the cognitive part the child’s self-image. In early and preschool childhood, one can observe a transition from absolute to relative self-esteem, as well as general and specific self-esteem. Children's ideas about themselves become more and more accurate with age, but persistent distortions (underestimation, overestimation) are also possible under the influence of the affective component of the image.
Communication of children with adults and peers: general and different.
The purpose of the article was to carry out a preliminary analysis of the psychological problem of children’s communication with peers and to determine the starting positions from which it could be productively studied. The focus was on the genesis of this activity in children in the first seven years of life. The study of communication with peers was planned in terms of comparing it with the communication of a child and an adult in order to identify both what is common in these areas and what is specific that distinguishes a child’s communications with his peers.
Acquaintance with the literature on the issue does not yet allow us to clearly imagine either the vital importance of communication with peers for the overall correct mental development of young children (at least within preschool age), or the functions of this activity at different stages of early and preschool childhood. Apparently, it has a positive effect on the formation of the child’s personality.
Communication in this area is considered by Lisina M.I. as an activity whose object is another child, acting as a potential subject of communication. The need to communicate with a peer, as well as with an adult, is defined by her as the desire of children to know and evaluate a partner and to self-esteem and self-knowledge through another child and with his help. The main product of communication with a peer consists, in her opinion, in the affective-cognitive image of oneself and the other child, formed as a result of this activity.
Lisina M.I. put forward an assumption about the influence of experience of communication with adults and peers on the development of self-knowledge and self-awareness of children and outlined a hypothetical picture of the genesis of communication with peers in children of the first seven years of life. Together with more specific assumptions, the hypotheses put forward constitute a prospectus for the cycle of planned research.
Formation and development of communication with peers in preschoolers.
The conducted studies allow us to get closer to understanding the role of communication with peers in children of the first seven years of life. Apparently, in this sphere of communication, conditions are created that uniquely ensure the child’s self-knowledge and self-esteem. Firstly, here children can check how they have learned the experience and instructions of their elders, directly comparing their behavior with the actions of other children, arguing and discussing with them what should be done and how. Secondly, communication with equal partners creates favorable circumstances for children to discover their potential through the free identification of creative, original principles in the absence of limiting regulations from elders. The study also shows the crucial importance of communication with adults for establishing harmonious relationships between children.
The annotation was completed by student Chekmareva O.M.
Abstract for Parts 2,3,4.
Part 2. Communication and mental development of the child
The chapter “On the mechanisms of change in leading activity in children in the first seven years of life” reveals the concept of the leading activity itself; its social character is revealed through the concept of communication. On the one hand, communication is considered as an independent type of activity, which in certain age periods assumes leading status. On the other hand, communication is an integral part of any other activity. The following is the sequence of changes in leading activity and the influence of communication on the leading activity of children. It says here that, in general, communication with elders during the child’s implementation of the form of leading activity he has achieved allows him to accumulate new knowledge and skills and gradually prepares his transition to a new type of leading activity, higher in its level. The emergence of a new leading activity inevitably entails a restructuring of the previous form of communication with surrounding people, after which the cycle is repeated from the beginning, but already on the next turn of the spiral.
In the chapter “Communication and Mental Development,” the author, based on fundamental research conducted in our country, says that it is through communication, which forms an integral part of training and upbringing, that children acquire the basic content of consciousness—abilities, skills—everything that was created by previous generations of people. Communication determines the structure of consciousness itself; it determines the indirect relationship of specific human processes - perception based on standards, voluntary attention, memory, visual-figurative and visual-effective thinking. Answering the question about what role communication plays in the mental development of a child and in what ways its influence is carried out, it is said that communication is the type of human practice in which a small child
a) the inner world is born for the first time;
b) his consciousness and self-awareness are formed;
c) his personality is being built and
d) there is a real development of all aspects of his psyche.
Thus, communication with adults and peers ensures the enrichment of the content of children's consciousness; ultimately, it becomes the context in which the spiritual life of children first arises and then quickly progresses, and they realize their human essential powers.
Chapter "Development" cognitive activity children during communication with adults and peers"
1. The concept of cognitive activity. The concept of “activity” is used approximately equally often in psychology and related sciences to designate three unequal phenomena: 1) a specific, specific activity of an individual, 2) a state opposite to passivity, readiness for activity, 3) to designate initiative, or the phenomenon opposite to reactivity. Mental activity in the most general sense can be understood as the measure of a subject’s interaction with the surrounding reality. The concept of “mental activity” has a more limited scope. Its central core consists of cognitive functions and processes. The concept of “intellectual activity” denotes only mental (and not generally cognitive) activity, and even unfolding in its own way. different conditions. Cognitive activity (CA) occupies a structural place in activity, close to the level of need. This is a state of readiness for cognitive activity, a state that precedes activity and gives rise to it.
2. Hypothesis about the nature and some factors in the development of cognitive activity. Here the importance of natural prerequisites is recognized in determining the activity of the subject, including, obviously, his PA. It also demonstrates the enormous influence of living conditions on the level of orientation activity. The importance of communication with other people for the development of PA is derived from the broad biological meaning that PA has in a child’s life.
3. Experimental results
A. The influence of communication on the development of PA in infants: it has been shown that an adult becomes the first and main object in relation to which the child’s cognitive activity awakens. Communication increases the overall level of functioning of cognitive activity, optimizes its development both motivationally and operationally-technically.
B. The influence of communication on the development of PA in young children: at an early age, the context of communication with an adult becomes a channel for the formation of specific, culturally fixed objective actions, including practical orientation-research techniques that are important. In this period of childhood, the communication factor itself changes significantly: communicative activity takes on a new – situational-business form and is characterized by children’s desire for “business” cooperation with adults.
B. The influence of communication on the development of PA in preschoolers: this indicates the action in preschool age of new mechanisms that were not discovered earlier than three years: the influence on PA of communication with adults and peers, mediated by personal formations, the development of the child’s self-awareness.
Conclusion: As children develop, the influence of communication on PA is increasingly mediated by personal formations and emerging self-awareness, which are primarily influenced by contacts with other people. Thanks to such mediation, the meaning of communication only intensifies, and its affect becomes more profound and lasting.
Chapter “Problems and objectives of speech research in children”:
1. Three functions of speech:
a) speech is the most perfect - capacious, accurate and fast - means of communication between people (interindividual function),
b) speech serves as a tool for the implementation of many mental functions (intra-individual function),
c) speech provides an individual with a communication channel for obtaining information (a universal human function).
2. Stages of the genesis of speech as a means of communication:
a) preverbal stage,
b) the stage of speech emergence,
c) stage of development of speech communication.
A – the need for attention and kindness from adults. This is a sufficient condition for the well-being of a child in the first half of life.
B – the need for cooperation or complicity of an adult. This content of the need for communication appears in the child after he has mastered voluntary grasping.
B – the need for respect from an adult. It arises against the background of children's cognitive activity.
D – the need for mutual understanding and empathy of an adult. This need arises in connection with children's interest in the world of human relationships.
Speech as a means of communication, as its operation, arises at a certain stage in the development of communicative activity. Its emergence and development are determined by the needs of communication and the general life activity of the child. Speech arises only as a necessary and sufficient means for solving those problems of communication between a child and an adult that confront a preschooler at a certain stage in the development of his communicative activity and arise from broader problems that are vitally important for the child and related to the type of leading activity.
3. The preparatory stage - preverbal development of communication, covers the 1st year of life. In the first year of life, a child changes between two forms of communication: situational-personal and situational-business. In the first year of life, children actively listen to the verbal influences of adults, and when responding to elders, they use pre-speech vocalizations. The description of the development of speech hearing is effective through the characteristics of its selectivity (the predominant selection of speech sounds among other non-speech influences). By the end of the first year, children experience a deepening of the analysis of the speech sounds themselves: two different parameters are distinguished - timbre and tonal. For speech sounds, the main constituents and constants are specific timbres. Speech hearing is basically timbre hearing.
4. Stage of speech emergence. This is a transitional stage between the preverbal and verbal levels of communication. The main content of the second stage consists of two events: understanding of the speech of surrounding adults arises, the first verbalizations appear (from the end of the first year to the second half of the second year).
5. The author introduces the concept of a communicative speech task that an adult sets for a child, presenting an object and its verbal designation. 6. The acquisition of speech and the pronunciation of the first active words depends on the communicative factor, which includes:
A) emotional contacts
B) contacts during joint actions
The author argues that at the stage of speech development, a child’s communication with an adult creates an optimal climate for mastering the first words, encouraging the child to accept speech task and find means to resolve it.
5. Stage of development of speech communication. The period from the appearance of the first words to the end of preschool age. Main events:
a) change in the content of verbal communication (extra-situational-cognitive)
b) mastery of voluntary regulation of speech activity
The main thing is that children master the conceptual content of the word and therefore learn to use it to convey to their partner information that is increasingly complex and abstract in content. At the same time, children learn to voluntarily regulate verbal function, as a result of which it turns into an independent type of activity.
The chapter “Formation of a child’s personality in communication” states that a person’s ability to be a person is not biologically fixed, but is determined by the socio-historical relationships into which each person enters during his life. In the totality of relationships that constitute the essence of personality, three types are the most important: the attitude towards oneself, the attitude towards other people and the attitude towards the objective world. Actually, personal structures develop along the lines of three relationships and other types of relationships.
Stages of relationship development:
1. lack of any attitude towards people, the world and oneself.
2. the stage of formation of the baby’s activity of communication with adults. The attitude towards an adult is limited to the perception of him as a subject of communication activities. An attitude towards the objective world is formed (cognitive activity).
3. Recognizing familiar adults, increasing cognitive activity.
4. An adult is a subject of object-manipulative activity. Very high interest to objects.
5. An adult is a role model; a special kind of cooperation arises. The child’s ideas about himself are developing. The attitude towards objective reality becomes more active.
6. A line of relationship with a peer appears.
7. An adult’s perception occurs in connection with his play practice. Self-image reflects practical skills and abilities. In the world around us, we are attracted to products of human culture and actions with them.
8. The need for theoretical knowledge subject activity, as a result – cooperation with adults. Revealing the laws of the objective world.
9. Self-empowerment comes to the fore personal qualities. Relationships with peers develop. In the chapter “Some Origins of Worldview in Preschool Children,” worldview is defined as the most important quality of a person. Worldview is a subjective image (reflection) of the most general, basic laws of the internal and external world in their interrelation.
Worldview and culture: Worldview is generated through the active participation of people in the process of creating culture and is expressed in the performance of activities characteristic of a given culture.
The following issues are also considered: the structure of the worldview, worldview and personality, ontogenetic development of the worldview (the phenomenon of selectivity). The following criteria for the formation of a worldview are mentioned: the completeness of the subjective image of the world, the integrity of the subjective image, the level of awareness components their idea of the world.
In general, this chapter emphasizes the fundamental importance of studying the origins of the worldview in young children and outlines those theoretical and methodological techniques that should be used as the basis for the experimental study of the origins of the worldview.
Chapter “Communication and consciousness (awareness, self-awareness).
Development of consciousness (self-awareness) in ontogenesis”: Communication is understood as the interaction of two or more people, during which they exchange information with the aim of establishing relationships and achieving a common result. The need for communication as a desire for self-knowledge and self-esteem:
1. The desire for self-knowledge and self-esteem first arises in a child only in the process of communicating with a close adult.
2. during the first seven years the need for communication develops
3. in contact with an adult, the child evaluates himself by comparison with the ideal.
Motives of communication as the basis for the formation of children’s self-image and images of other people: The image of an adult is formed in a child gradually. The image of a peer begins to take shape at the age of two. The self-image is formed under the influence of communication experience and the experience of individual activity.
The role of communication in the formation of the foundations of consciousness and worldview of children:
1. in the early stages of ontogenesis in children, the foundations of their future personality arise in the form of initial fusion.
2. an internal plan of action develops at an early age.
3. in preschool age, the child’s mental cooperation with adults develops.
The main problems of studying a child in the first year of life in foreign psychology
1. Introduction Current state of psychology of infancy
Modern psychology of infancy is in a paradoxical position for three reasons: the attitude towards the baby as a future, but not a real person; the special specificity of this branch of psychology; methodological difficulties of the study.
2. The problem of the influence of early experience Z. Freud recognizes the fatal influence of early experience; many other authors associate its influence with the concept of critical periods, with the idea of sensitivity.
3. The problem of “mothering” The activity of the mother is considered as
1) physical care,
2) as a system of positions,
3) as stimulation,
4) as a dialogue.
4. The problem of dialogue between mother and child:
The concept of dialogue forced psychologists to include in their understanding of the mother’s activities her broader connections with the child, primarily play. Instead of reducing this activity to care and protection, there are attempts to consider also more spiritual, less “selfishly” determined types of interaction between the child and close adults.
5. The problem of an infant’s attachment to people around him In recent years, the understanding of attachments within the framework of depth psychology and the behavioral concept of social learning has become increasingly closer. It increasingly emphasizes the primacy of the instinctive, natural principle, and their essence is increasingly reduced to behavioral reactions.
6. Conclusion
A brief summary of what has been said.
What does a modern baby know and can do?
1. State of psychology of infancy
2. Reasons for the delayed development of the psychology of infancy.
A) traditional attitude towards the baby
B) originality compared to older ages
B) methodological difficulties
3. The current state of the psychology of infancy. It is characterized by the accumulation of significant factual material and the creation of the first productive conceptual structures to comprehend it.
4. Infant Competence and Its Limitations Here we consider:
a) the nature of the baby’s mental activity
b) attitude to speech
c) ideas about other people and about oneself.
5. Why does a baby need his great capabilities.
6. About the modern baby. A modern baby knows little about the world around him, imagines it in a very unique way and practically does not know how to act independently in it. But he learns very early about such complex qualities as subjectivity, showing extraordinary sensitivity to everything that concerns people close to him, and knows how to not only perceive, but also actively act when communicating with them.
Development of emotions during communication with adults in the first year of life.
The occurrence of emotions is most often associated with an individual’s assessment of an object and with the expression of his attitude towards this object. As a result of studying expressions in children, we came to the conclusion that great influence communication with adults on the development of emotions in early ontogenesis.
The annotation was completed by student Guseva V.Yu.
Part one. Development of child’s communication with adults and peers
Problems of the ontogeny of communication
Communication of children with adults and peers: general and different
The formation and breakdown of communication with peers in preschoolers
Part two. Communication and mental development of the child
On the mechanisms of change of leading activity in children in the first seven years of life
Communication and mental development
Development of children's cognitive activity during communication with adults and peers
Problems and tasks of speech research in children
Part three. Communication and personality
Formation of a child’s personality in communication
Some origins of worldview in preschoolers
Communication and consciousness (awareness, self-awareness).
Development of consciousness (self-awareness) in ontogenesis
Part four. Baby psychology
The main problems of studying a child of the first year of life in foreign psychology
What does a modern baby know and can do?
Development of emotions during communication with adults in the first year of life
List of publications by Maya Ivanovna Lisina
Preface
MAYA IVANOVNA LISINA
When we hear the name of Maya Ivanovna Lisina, what comes to mind first of all is the powerful magnetism of her personality, her enormous charm. Everyone who met Maya Ivanovna experienced an irresistible desire to get close to her, to touch that special “radiation” that emanated from her, to earn her approval, affection, to become needed by her. This was experienced both by people of her generation, and especially by those younger in relation to her. And although communication with Maya Ivanovna, and above all scientific, was not always simple and easy, no one ever repented of striving for it. Apparently, this happened because everyone who fell into the orbit of one or another contact with her not only became significantly enriched in something, but also rose in their own eyes. Maya Ivanovna had the rare ability to see the best in a person, to make him feel (or understand) that he has unique characteristics, to elevate him in her own eyes. At the same time, she was very demanding of people and uncompromising in her assessment of their actions and achievements. And these two features were harmoniously combined in her and in her attitude towards people, generally expressing her respect for them.
The meeting with Maya Ivanovna became an event in the life of everyone whom fate brought together with her.
Maya Ivanovna Lisina, Doctor of Sciences, professor, a prominent scientist not only in her homeland, but also in the world, was a cheerful, cheerful woman, witty and tireless, talented and bright. And this, despite and despite a difficult life and serious illnesses.
M.I. was born. Lisin on April 20, 1929, in Kharkov, in the family of an engineer. My father was the director of the Kharkov Electric Tube Plant. In 1937 he was repressed due to a slanderous denunciation by the chief engineer of the plant. However, despite the torture, he did not sign the charges against him and was released in 1938 when the leadership of the NKVD changed. He was appointed director of a plant in the Urals. Later, after the war of 1941-1945, he was transferred to Moscow, and he became the head of the headquarters of one of the country's ministries.
Life threw the girl Maya, one of the three children of Ivan Ivanovich and Maria Zakharovna Lisin, from the large separate apartment of the director of the plant in Kharkov to the doors of this apartment, sealed by the NKVD; from Kharkov to the Urals, to big family not very friendly relatives; then to Moscow, again to a separate apartment, etc.
During the Patriotic War, his beloved, nineteen-year-old brother died, burned in a tank.
After graduating from school with a Gold Medal, Maya Ivanovna entered Moscow University in the psychological department of the Faculty of Philosophy. In 1951, she graduated with honors and was accepted into graduate school at the Institute of Psychology of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR under Professor Alexander Vladimirovich Zaporozhets.
In the early 50s, while still young, Maya Ivanovna’s father died, and the 22-year-old graduate student’s shoulders fell to caring for her blind mother and younger sister. Maya Ivanovna worthily fulfilled her duty as a daughter and sister, the head and support of the family.
Having defended her Ph.D. thesis in 1955 on the topic “On some conditions for the transformation of reactions from involuntary to voluntary,” she then went from a laboratory assistant at the Institute of Psychology to the head of the laboratory and the department of developmental psychology at the same institute.
Respect for her as a scientist and a Person has always been enormous: both her students and venerable scientists valued her opinion.
Complex and hard life did not make Maya Ivanovna a gloomy, stern, unsociable person. No one else was more suitable than Maya Ivanovna: “Man is created for happiness, like a bird for flight.” She lived with the attitude happy woman, was a cheerful and life-loving person who valued life in all its manifestations, loved the company of friends and fun. She was always surrounded by people, and she was always the center of any society. And all this despite serious illnesses, which sometimes confined her to bed for a long time.
But the main thing in her life was science and work. Her extraordinary diligence and ability to work ensured the development of numerous talents that nature generously rewarded her with. Everything that Maya Ivanovna did, she did magnificently, brilliantly: whether it was a scientific article or a scientific report; whether it was pies for the feast or a dress she sewed for the holiday, or something else. She knew several languages (English, French, Spanish, Italian, etc.), spoke them fluently, and constantly improved her knowledge in this area. Her native Russian language was unusually bright and rich. She was characterized by a subtle sense of humor, her imagination was amazing, and science fiction writers could envy it, she played the piano well... All of Maya Ivanovna’s skills cannot be listed. The range of her interests was wide and varied. She was a good connoisseur of Russian and foreign literature, both classical and modern, classical and light music, etc. If we add to this Maya Ivanovna’s friendliness, affability and spiritual generosity, it will become clear why everyone whom fate brought together was so drawn to her. Maya Ivanovna passed away at the height of her scientific powers, having lived only 54 years. She died on August 5, 1983.
The significance of a person’s life is largely determined by how it continues after his death, by what he left to people. M.I. Lisina “tamed” many people to herself and through herself to science. And she was always “responsible for those whom she tamed” both during her life and after leaving it. She left her thoughts, ideas, and hypotheses to her students and colleagues to develop, clarify and develop. To this day, their scientific testing is being carried out, and many years later will continue, and not only by its closest collaborators, but by an increasingly wider circle of scientists. The fruitfulness of scientific ideas of M.I. Lisina is based on their true fundamentality and acute vital relevance.
Ideas and hypotheses of M.I. Lisina touches on various aspects of human mental life: from the formation of voluntary regulation by vasomotor reactions to the origin and development of spiritual world from the first days of life. Wide range of scientific interests of M.I. Lisina’s approach was always combined with a depth of insight into the essence of the phenomena under study, with originality in solving the problems facing psychological science. This far from exhaustive list of Maya Ivanovna’s merits as a Scientist would be incomplete without noting her passionate attitude towards scientific research, both theoretical and experimental, and her complete absorption in it. In this respect, it could be compared to a blazing and never extinguishing fire, which ignited those approaching it with the excitement of scientific research. Work half-heartedly next to and together with M.I. It was impossible for Lisina. She devoted herself entirely to science and steadily, and even harshly, demanded the same from others. Those who worked with her and under her leadership, admiring the beauty of her creativity, also became aflame with the joy of scientific work. Probably to some extent, and that is why almost all of her students are faithful not only to the memory of M.I. Lisina as a bright personality in science, but above all to her ideas, her scientific heritage.
Almost his entire scientific life, M.I. Lisina devoted to the problems of childhood, the first seven years of a child’s life, from the moment he comes into this world until he enters school. The foundation of scientific research and practical developments in this area of psychology was her true and ardent love for children and the desire to help them master complex world people and objects, as well as the idea that only good relations to a child can lead to the formation of a humane personality and ensure the flourishing of all his creative potential. Therefore, her close attention was to identifying the scientific foundations of the most effective methods of raising children growing up in different conditions: in the family, kindergarten, children's home, orphanage, boarding school. She considered the most important factor in a child’s successful advancement in mental development to be properly organized communication between an adult and him and, from the very first days, to treat him as a subject, a unique, unique personality. In all studies M.I. Lisina always proceeded from real life problems associated with child development, moving from them to the formulation of generalized and fundamental scientific psychological issues, caused by this, and from their solution - to the formation of new approaches to organizing the education of children growing up in different conditions. These links of a single scientific and practical chain in all studies carried out by M.I. herself. Lisina and under her leadership were closely linked with each other.
Many childhood problems, which have become especially acute in our society recently, were not only identified several years ago by M.I. Lisina, but also developed to a certain extent: she expressed hypotheses and thoughts on approaches to solving them. This refers, for example, to the problem of the formation of an active, independent, creative and humane personality of a child in the first months and years of his life, the formation of the foundations of a worldview in the younger generation, etc. This collection contains a previously unpublished article by M.I. Lisina “Some Origins of Worldview in Preschool Children,” dedicated to one of these issues.
M.I. Lisina enriched child psychology with a number of original and profound ideas. She created a new section in child psychology: the psychology of infancy with the identification of microphases in the development of children of this age, the definition of leading activity, the main psychological formations, with the disclosure of the formation of the foundations of personality in children of this age (the so-called nuclear personality formations), the formation of subjectivity in the child, with consideration of the main lines of development of infant competence and the role of infant experience in the further mental development of the child.
M.I. Lisina is one of the first psychological science approached the study of communication as a special communicative activity and was the first to consistently develop a conceptual scheme for this activity. The activity approach to communication made it possible to identify and trace individual lines of his age-related changes in relation to each other. With this approach, different aspects of communication turned out to be united by the fact that they constituted subordinate structural elements a single psychological category - the category of activity. It became impossible to limit ourselves only to recording external behavioral activity; it was necessary to see in the child’s actions acts that constitute units of activity and have internal content, psychological content (needs, motives, goals, tasks, etc.). And this, in turn, opened up the possibility of directing research to identify, at each level of development, a holistic picture of communication in its meaningful qualitative features, and to focus on analyzing the need-motivational side of children’s communication with people around them. M.I. Lisina was the first in psychological science to subject the genesis of communication in children to a systematic and in-depth study: its qualitative stages (forms), driving forces, relationship with the child’s general life activity, its influence on general development children, as well as the ways of this influence.
The approach to communication as a communicative activity made it possible to determine its specific features in children of the first seven years of life in two areas of their contacts with people around them: with adults and peers, and also to see the special role of each of them in the mental state and development of the child’s personality.
Studying the influence of a child’s communication with people around him on his mental development, M.I. Lisina made a significant contribution to the development of a general theory of mental development, revealed its important mechanisms, and presented communication as its determining factor.
In connection with the study of the influence of communication on the general mental development of a child, M.I. Lisina was subjected to in-depth and detailed study self-awareness of a child in the first seven years of life: its content at different age stages of this period of childhood, dynamic characteristics, the role in its development of the child’s individual experience, as well as experience of communication with adults and other children. In the course of the research, the following hypotheses were tested: about self-image as a product of a child’s communicative activity, as an integral effective-cognitive complex, the effective component of which, abstracted from the child’s knowledge of himself, in ontogenesis acts as the child’s self-esteem, and the cognitive component as his idea of himself; about the function of self-image that regulates the child’s activity and behavior; about his mediation of such aspects of the child’s development as his cognitive activity, etc.
New and original accents were introduced into the understanding of the child’s self-esteem and self-image. The child's self-esteem was interpreted, being separated from the cognitive component of self-image, more narrowly than is customary in psychology. The most important characteristic self-esteem has become not its quantitative side (high-low) and not its correspondence to the child’s real capabilities (adequate-inadequate), but qualitative features in terms of its composition and coloring (positive-negative, complete-incomplete, general - specific, absolute-relative ). The idea of oneself (i.e. knowledge) was considered as more or less accurate, since its construction is based on specific facts, either correctly reflected by the individual, or distorted by him (overestimated or underestimated).
Experimental study of the genesis of self-image allowed M.I. Lisina, from the position of the concept of communication as a communicative activity, to outline a new plane of structural analysis of this complex psychological formation. She identified, on the one hand, private, specific knowledge, the subject’s ideas about his capabilities and abilities, constituting, as it were, the periphery of his self-image, and on the other hand, a central, nuclear formation through which all the subject’s private ideas about himself are refracted. The central nuclear formation contains the direct experience of oneself as a subject, a person, and originates in it general self-esteem. The core of the image provides a person with the experience of constancy, identity and continuity with himself. The periphery of the image is the areas closer or further away from the center, where new specific information about a person about himself comes. The center and the periphery are in constant and complex interaction with each other. The core determines the affective coloring of the periphery, and changes in the periphery lead to a restructuring of the center. This interaction ensures the resolution of emerging contradictions between the subject’s new knowledge about himself and his previous attitude towards himself and the dynamic birth of a new quality of self-image.
In the field of scientific interests of M.I. Lisina also faced the problem of relationships. In the context of the activity approach to communication, she understood relationships (as well as self-image) as a product, or result, of communicative activity. Relationships and communication are inextricably linked: relationships arise in communication and reflect its characteristics, and then influence the flow of communication. In a number of studies carried out under the guidance of M.I. Lisina, it was convincingly shown that it is communication, where the subject of interaction between partners (the subject of communicative activity) is a person, that is the psychological basis of selective relations between people, including between children, and not the organization of productive activities or the productive activity itself.
The study of the influence of communication on the general mental development of a child led M.I. Lisin to clarify the role of communicative activity in the development of cognitive activity. The concept of cognitive activity was associated by M.I. Lisina with the concept of activity: cognitive, research, and communicative, with communication. In the system of cognitive activity, cognitive activity occupies, according to M.I. Lisina, structural place of need. Cognitive activity is not identical to cognitive activity: activity is readiness for activity, it is a state that precedes activity and gives rise to it, activity is fraught with activity. Initiative is a variant of activity, a manifestation of it high level. Cognitive activity is in a sense identical to cognitive need. Recognizing the undoubted significance natural basis cognitive activity, M.I. Lisina emphasized the role of communication as the most important factor in the development of cognitive activity in childhood. She was convinced, and the basis for this was numerous observations and experimental data obtained by herself, as well as by her colleagues and students, that communication with other people decisively determines the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of a child’s cognitive activity, the more the younger the age. the child and the stronger, therefore, relationships with elders mediate his relationship with the entire world around him.
The ways in which communication influences cognitive activity are very complex. M.I. Lisina believed that at different stages of childhood the mechanisms of influence of communication on cognitive activity are not the same. As children develop, the influence of communication on cognitive activity is increasingly mediated by personal formations and emerging self-awareness; which are primarily affected by contacts with other people. But thanks to such mediation, the meaning of communication only intensifies, and its effect becomes more durable and long-lasting.
Research aimed at studying the influence of communication on the general mental development of a child also includes works devoted to the formation internal plan actions, the emergence and development of speech in children, their readiness for schooling, etc.
In works devoted to the internal plan of action, the hypothesis was tested that the ability to act in the mind has its origins at a very early age, that it is realized in a certain form already in the second year of life, and that an important factor in its development is the communication of children with adults, decisions the tasks of which require the child to improve perceptual skills and operate with images of people and objects. Mechanisms of action on the internal plane appear earlier in communication and only later extend to the child’s interaction with the objective world. WITH further development Children’s internal plan of action is also related to their readiness for schooling in the broad sense of the word. The formation of non-situational forms of communication with adults in preschool age contributes to the formation in children of a fundamentally new level of internal action - logical operations with concepts and dynamic transformations of highly schematized images - models. The ability to act in the mind, increasing under the influence of extra-situational forms of communication, mediates the development of other aspects of the child’s psyche, such as, for example, the arbitrary regulation of behavior and activity, etc.
Original and unparalleled in world psychological science is a series of studies carried out according to the plan and under the leadership of M.I. Lisina, about the emergence and development of speech in children. It was based on the consideration of speech as an integral element of the structure of communicative activity, occupying in it the position of an action or operation (means of communication), associated with its other components, conditioned by them, and primarily by the content of the need for communication. This made it possible to assume that speech arises from the need for communication; for his needs and in the conditions of communication only when the implementation of the child’s communicative activity becomes impossible without mastering this special means. Further enrichment and development of speech occurs in the context of complication and changes in the child’s communication with people around him, under the influence of the transformation of the communicative tasks facing him.
The study of communication as a factor in mental development entailed the study, in the context of a child’s communicative activity with people around him, of almost all aspects of his psyche: the development of pitch and phonemic hearing; selectivity of speech perception in comparison with physical sounds; sensitivity to phonemes of the native language in comparison with the phonemes of a foreign language; selectivity of perception of images of a person in comparison with images of objects; features of memorization and memory images of objects included and not included in the child’s communication with an adult; actions in the mind with images of objects and people; development of positive and negative emotions in children with different experiences communication; the formation of subjectivity in children growing up in different conditions; the nature of selectivity in the relationships of preschoolers, etc. Materials obtained in dozens of studies carried out by M.I. herself. Lisina and her colleagues and students under her leadership, made it possible to create a general picture of the mental development of a child from birth to 7 years in communication with adults and peers.
The study of communication as a factor in mental development also inevitably required a comparison of children who have contacts with loved ones that are full in quantity and content with children from orphanages and orphanages growing up in conditions of a lack of communication with adults. The data collected in comparative studies made it possible to establish facts of delays in the mental development of children raised in closed children's institutions, and to determine the most vulnerable “points” in this regard in the psyche of children of different ages: absence of major neoplasms and emotional flatness in infants; delays in the development of cognitive activity and speech, as well as insensitivity to adult influences in young children, etc.
According to M.I. Lisina, “communication has the most direct relation to the development of personality in children, since already in its most primitive, directly emotional form it leads to the establishment of connections between the child and the people around him and becomes the first component of that “ensemble” or “totality” ( A.N. Leontiev), social relationships, which constitutes the essence of the individual.” Proposed by M.I. Lisina’s approach to the study of personality formation in the context of communication is based on a general methodological concept developed in domestic psychology B.G. Ananyev, A.N. Leontyev, V.N. Myasishchev, S.L. Rubinstein. Its starting point is the idea of personality “as a totality public relations" On the psychological plane, in relation to an individual, this concept is interpreted “as a set of relationships to the surrounding world” (E.V. Ilyenkov). In relation to the problems of ontogenetic development of personality, this position is concretized in the idea of personal formations as products that arise in a child: attitudes towards oneself, towards the people around him and the objective world. M.I. Lisina suggested that the age-related development of a child’s personality is determined by the types of these relationships that develop in his practical activities and communication. She believed that central personal new formations in ontogenesis arise at points of mutual intersection and transformation of all three lines of relationships simultaneously.
The listed (and this is not all) aspects and areas of research carried out by M.I. Lisina’s relatively short scientific life would have been enough to create a name not for one, but for several scientists, each of considerable magnitude. If we take into account that in almost all areas of the child’s psyche that she studied, M.I. Lisina discovered facets and reserves of development unknown before her, it will become obvious that she was a striking phenomenon in psychological science and an event in the life of everyone whom fate brought together with her. Her brilliant and original mind, boundless diligence, absolute scientific honesty and selflessness, breadth of knowledge and tireless creative search were admired. Generously gifted by nature, she multiplied her talent with tireless work, recklessly giving people everything she had in science: ideas, research methods, time and labor. M.I. Lisina created a school in child psychology, whose representatives continue, to the best of their ability and ability, the work she started.
Its ideas are being developed both in our country and abroad. This book does not present all of M.I.’s works. Lisina. It contains (and not all) only those that were devoted to the problems of the importance of a child’s communication with adults and peers for his mental and personal development. She devoted most of her scientific life to this problem of child psychology and was engaged in it until the last hour of her life.
The interested reader can find the works of M.I. Lisina on other psychological problems, based on the list of her publications located at the end of the book.
A. G. Ruzskaya
We cannot provide the opportunity to download the book in electronic form.
We inform you that part of the full-text literature on psychological and pedagogical topics is contained in electronic library MGPPU at http://psychlib.ru. If the publication is in open access, then registration is not required. Some books, articles, methodological manuals, dissertations will be available after registration on the library website.
Electronic versions of works are intended for use for educational and scientific purposes.
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/172978814_169222027.pdf-img/172978814_169222027.pdf-1.jpg" alt=">Model of communication development by M. I. Lisina">!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/172978814_169222027.pdf-img/172978814_169222027.pdf-2.jpg" alt="> Lisina May Ivanovna (1929 - 1983) - an outstanding child psychologist, founder of the original"> Лисина Мая Ивановна (1929 - 1983) - выдающийся детский психолог, основатель оригинальной научной школы, автор концепции генеза общения ребенка со взрослым, она фактически стала основательницей отечественной психологии младенчества. В 1952 г. окончила отделение психологии философского факультета МГУ, училась в аспирантуре у А. В. Запорожца в Институте психологии АПН РСФСР. В 1955 г. защитила кандидатскую диссертацию. С 1962 г. заведовала лабораторией психологии детей раннего и дошкольного возраста. В 1974 г. защитила докторскую диссертацию на тему «Возрастные и индивидуальные особенности общения со взрослыми у детей от рождения до семи лет» . С 1976 г. возглавляла отдел возрастной психологии Института общей и педагогической психологии. Профессор (1980). Член редколлегии журнала «Вопросы психологии» . В конце 70 -х гг. М. И. Лисиной и под ее руководством были проведены чрезвычайно яркие и красивые экспериментальные исследования общения младенцев со взрослым и его влияния на психическое развитие ребенка. Одним из основных методов в этих исследованиях было сравнительное изучение детей, воспитывающихся в семье и без семьи - в детских учреждениях закрытого типа.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/172978814_169222027.pdf-img/172978814_169222027.pdf-3.jpg" alt="> The main subject of research M. I. Lisina is the creator of a new direction in psychology, which"> Основной предмет исследования М. И. Лисина является создателем нового направления в психологии, которое породило целую традицию !} scientific research. She discovered a new subject in Russian psychology - communication between a child and an adult - and a new approach to its scientific research.
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/172978814_169222027.pdf-img/172978814_169222027.pdf-4.jpg" alt="> A special subject of research for M. I. Lisina was crises of age-related development (1"> Специальным предметом исследования для М. И. Лисиной были кризисы возрастного развития (1 года, 3 и 7 лет). Задача исследований М. И. Лисиной заключалась в выявлении содержания личностных новообразований, возникающих в кризисные периоды. Под личностными новообразованиями она понимала такие качества, которые проявляют себя во всех сферах отношений ребенка: с другими людьми, с предметным миром, с самими собой. Такая проекция нового качества во все сферы жизни ребенка может свидетельствовать о том, что произошло развитие именно целостной личности, а не отдельных психических функций, и что ребенок стал субъектом нового типа отношений.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/172978814_169222027.pdf-img/172978814_169222027.pdf-5.jpg" alt="> Starting from the psychological theory of activity of A. N. Leontiev and, accordingly , considering communication"> Отталкиваясь от психологической теории деятельности А. Н. Леонтьева и, соответственно, рассматривая общение как коммуникативную деятельность, М. И. Лисина считает потребность в общении самостоятельной и отличной от всех других видов потребностей. В качестве мотива деятельности общения выступает партнер по общению. Мотивы делятся на 3 группы - познавательные, деловые и личностные. В качестве средств общения рассматриваются экспрессивно мимические движения, предметные действия и речевые операции. Каждая из выделенных форм общения характеризуется: 1) временем, 2) местом, 3) содержанием потребности, 4) ведущими мотивами, 5) средствами общения.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/172978814_169222027.pdf-img/172978814_169222027.pdf-6.jpg" alt=">The driving factor of development is a contribution to the development of a general theory of mental development, revealed"> Движущий фактор развития вклад в разработку общей теории психического развития, раскрыла важные его механизмы, представила общение как определяющий его фактор!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/172978814_169222027.pdf-img/172978814_169222027.pdf-7.jpg" alt=">Basic concepts Communication Subject of communication Communication tasks Means of communication"> Основные понятия Общение Предмет общения Задачи общения Средства общения Продукты общения!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/172978814_169222027.pdf-img/172978814_169222027.pdf-8.jpg" alt=">Research methods: comparative study of children raised in a family and without a family in children's institutions"> Методы исследования сравнительное изучение детей, воспитывающихся в семье и без семьи в детских учреждениях закрытого типа.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/172978814_169222027.pdf-img/172978814_169222027.pdf-9.jpg" alt=">Periodization of mental development. Age Period Form of communication Additional"> Периодизация психического развития. Возраст Период Форма общения !} Additional need, satisfied in communication Up to 1 year Infant Situational-personal Need for age communication, friendly attention 1-3 years Early age Situational-business Need for communication cooperation 3-5 years Junior and middle Extra-situational- Need for respect preschool age cognitive adult; cognitive communication need Need for Middle and senior Non-situational - 4-6 years of mutual understanding and preschool age personal communication empathy
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/172978814_169222027.pdf-img/172978814_169222027.pdf-10.jpg" alt=">M. I. Lisina studied how a child’s communication with an adult changes person throughout childhood."> М. И. Лисина изучала, как изменяется общение ребенка со взрослым человеком на протяжении детства. Она выделяла четыре формы общения. 1)ситуативно-личностное общение ребенка со взрослым; 2) ситуативно- деловое общение; 3) внеситуативно- познавательное общение; 4) внеситуативно-личностное общение!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/172978814_169222027.pdf-img/172978814_169222027.pdf-11.jpg" alt=">Situational personal communication characteristic of infancy It depends on the characteristics of the moment interaction"> Ситуативно личностное общение, характерное для мла денчества Оно зависит от особенностей сиюминутного взаимодействия ребенка и взрослого, ограничено узкими рамками ситуации, в которой удовлетворяются потребности ребенка. Непосредственно эмоциональные контакты являются основным содержанием общения. Ребенка привлека ет личность взрослого, а все остальное, включая игрушки и прочие интересные предметы, остается на втором плане.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/172978814_169222027.pdf-img/172978814_169222027.pdf-12.jpg" alt="> Situational business communication. At an early age, a child masters the world of objects around him ."> Ситуативно деловое общение. В раннем возрасте ребенок осваивает мир окружающих его предметов. Ему по пре жнему необходимы теплые эмоциональные контакты с мамой, но этого уже недостаточно. Потребность в общении у него в это время тесно связана с потребностью в сотрудничестве, которая вместе с потребностями в новых впе чатлениях и активности может быть реализована в совместных действиях со взрослыми. Ребенок и взрослый, выступающий как организатор и помощник. Взрослый показывает, что можно делать с разными вещами, как их использовать, раскрывая перед ребенком те их качества, которые тот сам не в состоянии обнаружить.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/172978814_169222027.pdf-img/172978814_169222027.pdf-13.jpg" alt=">Non-situational cognitive communication. With the appearance of the child’s first questions: “why?” ","> Внеситуативно познавательное общение. С появлением первых вопросов ребенка: «почему? » , «зачем? » , «откуда? » , «как? » - начинается новый этап в развитии его общения со взрослым, дополнительно побуждаемый познавательными мотивами. Ребенок вырывается за рамки наглядной ситуации, в которой раньше были сосредоточены все его интересы. Теперь его интересует гораздо большее: как устроен от крывшийся для него огромный мир природных явлений и человеческих отношений? И главным источником информации, эрудитом, знающим все на свете, становится для него все тот же взрослый человек.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/172978814_169222027.pdf-img/172978814_169222027.pdf-14.jpg" alt=">Non-situational personal communication An adult for a child is the highest authority, whose instructions requirements,"> Внеситуативно личностное общение Взрослый для ребенка - высший авторитет, чьи указания, требования, замеча ния принимаются по деловому, без обид, капризов и отказа от трудных заданий. Эта форма общения важна при подготов ке к школе, и если она не сложилась к 6- 7 годам, ребенок будет психологически не готов к школьному обучению.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/172978814_169222027.pdf-img/172978814_169222027.pdf-15.jpg" alt="> The value of theory For M. I. Lisina, the desire to"> Ценность теории Для М. И. Лисиной всегда было свойственно стремление к тщательному, скрупулезному сбору и анализу фактов, интерес к экспериментальным деталям, !} amazing ability to qualitative and quantitative processing of materials. She was interested in the formation inner world child. This feature of M. I. Lisina’s creative style made it possible to work out and experimentally confirm many bold hypotheses and develop a wide panorama of specific research that continues to this day. The breadth and diversity of her work is impressive: from phonemic awareness to the peculiarities of a child’s worldview, from infant memory to the foundations of a holistic personality.
"M. I. Lisina was a bright phenomenon in psychological
science and an event in the life of everyone whom fate brought together
her... Anyone who fell into the orbit of one or another contact
with her, not only was he enriched significantly in some way, but also
rose in his own eyes... She left
students and colleagues for development, clarification and development
your thoughts, ideas, hypotheses. Until now, it is underway
and many years later their scientific testing will be carried out, and not
only by its closest collaborators, but by an increasingly wider
circle of scientists"
A. G. Ruzskaya
The contribution of M. I. Lisina to child psychology and developmental psychology is extensive. Fundamental achievements of cultural-historical psychology in the second half of the twentieth century are associated with her name. Her contribution to the theory of activity is associated with the enrichment of this theory with new facts that record significant changes and turning points in the mental development of a child in the early stages of ontogenesis. As a child psychologist, M. I. Lisina had the rare ability to see and understand the signs of a child’s behavior, indicating his hidden mental states and needs, about his emotional experiences in the process of interaction with close and unfamiliar people or in the course of actions with things. This ability allowed M.I. Lisina to describe in detail for the first time the specific features of early forms of communication that arise at the pre-speech stage of a child’s mental development. If there are micropediatricians, then there must also be micropsychologists who can see not only large periods or stages of development, but also microphases that are distinguished by qualitative originality within one age stage. One of these specialists was M. I. Lisina.
She studied child development not in a laboratory, but in the real life conditions of children in a family, in an orphanage, in a kindergarten. Her work makes a significant contribution to the ecological approach in the field of developmental psychology, which today is associated only with the names of J. Bruner and W. Bronfenbrenner.
In many branches of modern psychology, she was the first. Her works form the foundation of personality psychology. At the time when M.I. Lisina studied the formation of personality in the first months and years of a child’s life, there was no such branch of psychology in Russian science. Today in our country there are departments and even institutes with this name.
Tracing the development of self-awareness in a child in the first seven years of life from the perspective of the concept of communication as a communicative activity developed by her and analyzing the role of communication in the formation of a child’s self-image constituted another, new page in the theory of personality development. Identification in the image of the Self of the periphery (knowledge of oneself) and the core (experience of constancy, identity and continuity with oneself) and identification difficult relationships between them is another step in building a theory of personality. The views of M. I. Lisina are close to the concept of identity in the concept of E. Erikson. Let us note that they were expressed when no one in our country had heard the name of E. Erikson.
Child psychology owes M.I. Lisina the development of many particular problems that remain relevant today. These include the formation and development of speech, the origins of the child’s worldview, readiness for schooling, the formation of an internal plan of activity, mental development in conditions of deprivation, features of the child’s relationships with parents and with other children, and many others. However, the main, core line of her scientific developments is communicative activity and its role in the overall mental development of the child.
In communication, the child’s attitude towards himself, towards other people, and towards the objective world is formed. M.I. Lisina emphasized the role of communication as the most important factor in the development of cognitive activity in childhood. Analyzing the role of communication in the cognitive development of a child, M. I. Lisina carried out such a detailed analysis of concepts (activity, activation, mental activity, mental activity, intellectual activity, cognitive activity, cognitive activity, creativity, initiative, curiosity, curiosity), which is not in one scientific system, including the theory of intellectual development according to J. Piaget. She showed that cognitive activity is not identical to cognitive activity. Cognitive activity has a specific subject and result: its subject is the information contained in the object to which the child’s attention is directed, and its result is a reflection of the properties of the object, its image. M.I. Lisina believed that cognitive activity is a component of the structure of activity, similar in level to cognitive need. Activity is readiness for activity; it is a state that precedes activity and gives rise to it. Activity is fraught with activity. It includes states that are not yet activity, but already indicate readiness for it (signs of interest, attention), and these states can be empirically recorded, in contrast to cognitive need, which was very important for M. I. Lisina as an experimenter. So, cognitive activity for M. I. Lisina was a kind of indicator of the presence of an effective cognitive need. The definitions of concepts proposed by M. I. Lisina should be included in the psychological dictionary. And the ability to differentiate concepts and construct them into a system can be used as a diagnostic tool to characterize the mind of a scientist.
M.I. Lisina believed that at different stages of childhood the mechanisms of the influence of communication on cognitive activity are not the same. Communication with surrounding people decisively determines the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of a child’s cognitive activity, the more the younger the child’s age and the stronger the relationship with elders mediates his relationship with the entire world around him. As children develop, the influence of communication on cognitive activity is increasingly mediated by personal formations and emerging self-awareness, which are influenced by contacts with other people.
The experiments of M.I. Lisina and her colleagues are widely known, showing the enriching influence of communication on the cognitive activity of a child under 7 years of age. This includes, first of all, experiments with infants (M. I. Lisina, S. Yu. Meshcheryakova), young children (M. I. Lisina, L. N. Galiguzova), preschoolers (M. I. Lisina, E. O. Smirnova), confirming the positive role of communication with adults. M. I. Lisina and T. D. Sartorius showed that for orphanage pupils, specially organized role-playing games with peers, taking place under the guidance of an adult, increase the level of communication with adults, the child’s general cognitive activity and his self-confidence.
M.I. Lisina assumed that communication with peers is important primarily as an equal interaction that promotes the child’s self-knowledge in relating himself to others and the disclosure of his creative potential. The development of forms of communication with peers lags behind communication with adults: the very need to communicate with peers (its components: attention to other children, emotional response to their actions, the desire to attract their attention, sensitivity to their affective attitude) is fully formed only by the beginning of preschool age. In communication with a peer throughout preschool age, the third and fourth components of the need for communication dominate, i.e. the child is not interested in the peer as a person, but “uses” him as a “mirror.” Probably, communication with a peer in preschool age remains at the level of situational-personal and situational-business, despite the fact that it is already verbal, since the peer does not satisfy the child’s need for knowledge about the wide social world and does not interest him as an individual. As the experiments of M.I. Lisina and her colleagues show, already in preschool age, communication with peers is necessary for the full cognitive development of a child, although the form of this communication may be of a lower level than the form of communication with an adult.
The ideas of M. I. Lisina about the role of communication in the cognitive development of a child can be correlated with the works of Piaget’s followers, who develop similar problems. In the concept of J. Piaget, the social factor in the development of intelligence begins to “work” only upon reaching the stage of concrete operations, when coordination of points of view (co-operation) becomes possible and the child becomes able to perceive the differences between his position and the position of others, including peers. At the same time, J. Piaget recognized that interaction with peers can play a special role in the development of intelligence, since it is based on the ethics of cooperation, and not coercion, as in relationships with adults. Communication with a peer, in which coordination of equal points of view occurs, should contribute to intellectual and moral development, but only at the operational stages of development, i.e., starting from primary school age.
In Russian psychology, such a radical denial of the role of communication in the cognitive development of young children, as is known, caused sharp criticism, confirmed by experimental data, mainly concerning communication with adults. The experiments of D. B. Elkonin, V. A. Nedospasova and E. V. Filippova showed the fundamental possibility of coordinating mental positions (overcoming cognitive egocentrism) already in preschool age, and such coordination, according to these researchers, is facilitated by role-playing play with peers . This echoes the idea of M.I. Lisina that communication with peers is, by definition, reflexive, since a child, when communicating with a peer, constantly compares and relates himself to him. Perhaps this correlation of oneself with another is an important factor in cognitive development?
At the end of the last century, the role of communication in the development of intelligence began to be studied by the followers of Piaget himself. In the works of A.N. Perret-Clermont made a fundamental turn - it is assumed that social interactions and the associated coordination of points of view precede the emergence of specific operations and prepare them. A.N. Perret-Clermont introduces the concept of sociocognitive conflict, which can be defined as a contradiction between different centers (points of view) that prevents a solution collective task. According to A.-N. Perret-Clermont, resolving such a conflict is possible only through the coordination of points of view, which implies the construction of a new, more complex cognitive structure for one or more parties to the conflict. Conflict (contradiction) can be a source of cognitive development. A. N. Perret-Clermont believes that in order to resolve the conflict, i.e., to coordinate points of view, a dialogue between the parties to the conflict is necessary, during which they will put forward more and more new arguments, challenge the opponent’s arguments and nevertheless bring their positions closer together . Argumentation in the course of solving a collective problem is a means of coordinating points of view, a means of resolving sociocognitive conflict, building new knowledge and a new level of cognitive development.
This hypothesis has received empirical confirmation. A series of experiments with preschoolers and younger schoolchildren, who are at different stages of the formation of specific operations (according to the criterion of understanding the conservation of quantity, substance, liquid, length, etc.), showed that even a single placement of children in a situation of interaction with a peer, in which they must argue their position and come to overall solution of a problem posed by an adult leads to a subsequent improvement in children’s performance on conservation tasks compared to control groups. During the interaction, children solved a “serious” problem for them “here-and-now”, therefore the form of such communication can be called situational-business with speech mediation, which corresponds to the ideas of M. I. Lisina about the delay in the development of communication with peers compared to communication with adults. However, it is communication based on a genetically earlier form that leads to surprising results: children benefit not only from interaction with a peer of a higher level of cognitive development, but also from interaction with less advanced peers. A.N. Perret-Clermont comes to the conclusion that the very need to voice (i.e. reflect) one’s point of view and correlate it with the position of a peer leads to progress in intellectual development. Of course, for such progress it turns out that a certain basic level of development is necessary, which will allow the child to notice the contradiction between his point of view and the position of another.
A.N. Perret-Clermont explains the specifics of the post-Piagitian approach to the study of the mental development of a child. When presenting a child with a problem of conservation of quantity, Piaget told him: “Do and think.” He studied what happens “in the mind” of a child, his logic. But thinking is not limited to logic. From the point of view of A.N. Perret-Clermont and her colleagues, in order to understand how a child thinks, it is necessary to analyze the argumentation during the solution of the problem, and this can only be done through constructive dialogue. Organizing such a dialogue is a difficult psychological and pedagogical task. Scientists in different countries(Israel, Portugal, Italy, etc.) are currently developing the problem of how to help the teacher organize dialogue in the process of solving problems in the field of mathematics, history, biology, geography, etc.
B. Schwartz, an Israeli researcher and teacher, understands argumentation in the spirit of L. S. Vygotsky as a mediating link between internal and external dialogue, which serves to disseminate knowledge between the participants in the discussion and to build new collective knowledge, creating collective meanings. Methods of argumentation developed in a team are internalized, becoming individual means of thinking. B. Schwartz is one of the authors of a special program (Kishurim), which has been implemented since 1998 and which is aimed at improving the school teaching process. This program can also be used in the education of students and adults. It should contribute to the development of argumentation and dialogical thinking among students. This program is built on the following principles:
- cooperation(tasks are given to small groups of students with the goal of what unites them common goal and everyone’s contribution is important);
- unobtrusive mediation(the teacher, as a mediator of the learning process, provides students with non-instructional assistance that supports cooperation: “Try to relate different opinions,” “Try to come to a common understanding.” Thus, the teacher tries to provoke a discussion between students without imposing his authoritative opinion);
- critical dialogue(teachers encourage students to make sound arguments, consider an issue from new perspectives, openly challenge the arguments of others if they disagree, and reconsider their own argumentation if the arguments of opponents are compelling or the facts contradict the original point of view);
- ethical communication(respect for each participant in the discussion, regardless of the truth of the opinion expressed; assessment of the quality of the judgment, not its author);
- autonomy(recognition of the value of personal opinion; everyone is given the opportunity to develop their own ideas, albeit in interaction with peers; since the mental level of students is different, an individual approach is required, more support for those lagging behind);
- active role of the teacher in lesson planning(the teacher selects means of presenting arguments (for example, computer), plans his intervention in the discussion, transforms educational material, presented in a traditional didactic form, as the basis for dialectical interaction between students);
- using resources to encourage dialogue(the teacher provides students with additional sources of information that they can use to find arguments, and also uses special interaction tools, for example, a computer chat program designed for virtual discussions, where different participants and different forms of arguments are presented clearly).
Compliance with these principles is necessary to develop students' creative and critical thinking. These principles are implemented in the collective solution by students of ambiguous problems, for which there is no single correct solution and for which schoolchildren have only preliminary everyday knowledge. The teacher presents children with a problem (e.g., “How does war affect children?” “Can drugs be tested on animals?”) and provides a variety of information resources that they can use to develop a solution. The decision must be reached in a collective discussion, i.e. in a discussion. The main idea of the Kishurim program is to visualize the discussion, putting it into a visual (material) plan, which facilitates student reflection; they must classify their own statements - this is just a statement, its justification, new information or question? Does this statement support, oppose, or have nothing to do with the other person's point of view?
For this purpose, the graphical computer environment Digalo is used. Digalo is a map on which the statements of participants are recorded in a visual form, and the connections between them are indicated by arrows. Thus, the map can represent “goal”, “argument”, “information” and “question”. Arrows can represent “support,” “opposition,” and “connection.” The map also shows teacher interventions in the discussion. If the teacher wants to achieve a common understanding, then he turns to the student with the words: “Try to relate your point of view with others,” “Do you agree with ...?” If the teacher wants to change the dialogical situation, he can say: “Try to change this point of view ...” or “Are you sure that your conclusion necessarily follows from the data that you have?” This creates a critical dialogue in which the discussant retains autonomy and the teacher plays the role of facilitator of the discussion. Written statements make it possible to trace their dynamics, form and content of the discussion (initial hypothesis, fact, reason, change in hypothesis). Thanks to Digalo, the discussion space is presented visually and simultaneously, which, in turn, allows the teacher to analyze the activity of each student.
The Digalo computer program can be used not only during classroom discussions, but also in distance learning settings. Digalo helps the teacher to show creative ingenuity in organizing the educational process, and children, in practice, acquire the ability to construct arguments in the process of resolving specific contradictions. Currently, Digalo is used to research cognitive development and create modern learning tools not only in Israel, but also in Switzerland, Colombia and other countries.
The main psychological and pedagogical results of this approach are an increase in the cognitive activity of students, the quality of the argumentation they use and the level of reflection. Thus, the specific functions of communication with peers, which M. I. Lisina pointed out, are also manifested here - the functions of self-knowledge and revealing the child’s creative potential. At the same time, at school age, communication with peers apparently occurs at the level of extra-situational-cognitive and extra-situational-personal, which makes possible the widespread use of collective discussions in education. An example is not only the described developments of B. Schwartz, a follower of A.-N. Perret-Clermont, but also in many ways similar systems of problem-based and developmental education according to the programs of D. B. Elkonin, V. V. Davydov, G. A. Tsukerman and other domestic scientists.
At one of the conferences, M. I. Lisina unexpectedly intrigued the audience by saying that in addition to the four forms of communication she identified - situational-personal, situational-business, extra-situational-cognitive and extra-situational-personal, there is also a fifth form. Her thoughts on this apparently higher form of communication remained unknown. We dare to express the bold idea that a specially organized discussion between peers, in which the limitations of individual points of view are overcome and a shift in cognitive development occurs, can also claim to be a fifth, higher form of communication.
M.I. Lisina agreed that communication is a leading activity in the proper sense of the word only at two ages - infancy and adolescence. Despite this, she emphasized that at every childhood age, communication plays a key role in development, and this role has age specificity, which is manifested in forms of communication that naturally replace each other during ontogenesis. The works of M. I. Lisina and her colleagues outlined ways to study the role of communication with peers in the development of the child’s psyche and personality. It has been shown that the specific need for communication with peers is formed in ontogenesis later than the need for communication with adults, from which it follows that the main forms of communication with peers inevitably develop later than the corresponding forms of communication with adults. M.I. Lisina suggested that equal communication with a peer, in addition to the natural function of establishing relationships in a children's group and with friends, contributes to the emancipation of the child, increased cognitive activity and self-knowledge. It is important that these functions appear in ontogenesis already in preschool age, being reflected in their own way in situational-business, extra-situational-cognitive and extra-situational-personal forms of communication with peers, which is confirmed in empirical studies of domestic and foreign scientists. The cited studies of foreign psychologists, our contemporaries, showed that communication with a peer in the form of a discussion organized by an adult not only increases the cognitive activity of children, but also leads to a qualitative change in the level of cognitive development, and this effect can also be caused already in preschool age. Thus, M. I. Lisina’s ideas about the fundamental role of communication in the development of a child of any age, about the unique functions of communication with peers, and about age-specific forms of communication with adults and peers continue to be confirmed in the works of researchers in various fields.