Thesis on the topic “Psychological aspects of work motivation.” Social and psychological foundations of leadership

A person, no matter how autonomous and independent he may be, cannot exist, cannot express his essence outside of communication with other people, outside of interaction with a group of people. At the beginning of life, the very first social group in which a person lives and where the foundations of his personality are laid is the family, then there are friendly companies of peers, study groups, amateur associations, etc.

An individual is always connected with someone from his immediate environment. Each of us is also connected by thousands of threads to the gigantic human society, experiencing its influence. So, the word “group” comes from the Italian gruppo - a bunch. Currently, many definitions of a social group are known.

Under social group is understood as a large group whose members are united by common social activities and are in direct personal communication, which is the basis for the emergence of emotional relationships, group norms and group processes.

In American management, a group is defined as two or more people interacting with each other in such a way that each of them both influences and is influenced by the other.

In domestic social psychology, the definition given by G. M. Andreeva that a small group is a group in which social relations take the form of direct personal contacts is still considered generally accepted and significant.

Most common qualities of a social group from a management point of view are the following:

• 1. The orientation of the group (the social value of the goals adopted by it, motives for activity, value orientations and group norms).
• 2. The organization of the group (as its ability to self-govern) and its integrativeness (as a measure of cohesion, unity, community of group members with each other, as opposed to disunity).
• 3. Microclimate, or psychological climate, of the group, which determines the well-being of each individual, his satisfaction with the group, and the comfort of staying in it. Everyone strives to be among other people, to be a member of a good group, to have a desire to experience and receive friendly feelings in return.
• 4. Referentiality (as the degree of acceptance by group members of group standards) and leadership (as the degree of leading influence of some group members on the group as a whole to solve problems defined by it).
• 5. Intellectual activity and communication (the nature of interpersonal perception and establishing mutual understanding, finding a common language).
• 6. Emotional communication (interpersonal connections emotional nature, satisfaction social needs in emotionally charged contacts).
• 7. Volitional communication (the ability of a group to withstand the influences of other groups, circumstances, resistance to stress, reliability of the group in extreme situations, her determination and perseverance in competitive conditions).

In common usage, a group is any collection of people. The groups are very dissimilar and therefore differ in species

• 1. According to the reality of existence real and conditional groups are distinguished. In real groups, people are actually together and something really unites them: joint activities, leisure activities, the same conditions, situation, etc. Conditional groups exist on paper, identified by analysts or accountants, for example, a group of rent debtors, a group of advanced students, a group of people who have made an appointment with the director, etc. B Lately began to identify virtual groups that arise among users of the Internet information web based on common interests and communication in it.
• 2. By contact - closeness, frequency and variety of interactions and communication - groups can be contact, low-contact and practically non-contact. For example, study group belongs to the first type, all students of a large educational institution (different courses and faculties) are a low-contact group, the entire student body of the country is a practically non-contact group. The greater the contact, the richer, more pronounced, influential and dynamic the psychology of groups.
• 3. Groups vary and according to the method of organization. Thus, official groups are established on a legal basis, under licenses, openly, publicly, and their structure and functioning are usually provided for in different provisions, staffing tables, charters, etc. These are government, commercial, educational and public organizations. An unofficial group arises spontaneously, independently, and its functioning is based on psychological rather than legal regulation. These are groups of friends, acquaintances, collectors, lovers of sports, dance, joint leisure activities, tourists, drug addicts, etc. There are unorganized, random groups, for example, spectators, onlookers, store visitors, market crowds, standing in line, passengers on a bus. The association of people in them is accidental, temporary and is determined by the similarity of a one-time, passing interest.
• 4. According to the number of people included in the groups, large (classes, nations, nationalities, professional, population of the country, etc.) and small (student class, production team, workshop, sports team, family, etc.) are distinguished. Sometimes a middle ground between them is distinguished - mesogroups (midi-groups).

In theory, sociology and management psychology, there are different approaches to the object, which is explained by the difference in the subjects of study in each science. Management theory takes the organization, its structure, and system as its object. Sociology and psychology consider social organization and social groups as an object of management.

The following definition of an organization as a labor cell is well-established and generally accepted: organization - is a group of people (two or more) whose activities are consciously coordinated to achieve a common goal or goals. The most significant characteristics of the organization consider the following:

• 1. Specialization of each of its members in any labor operation, synchronicity and unidirectionality.
• 2. The desire for sustainability, which is ensured by unity and strict hierarchy.
• 3. Acting as a powerful tool in achieving a variety of goals.

IN domestic psychology Quite a lot of attention was paid to studying the team. Western psychology did not recognize such a concept as a collective, and operated with the concept of a small social group. IN last years There is a mutual enrichment of these two areas of research, and now the presence of both a social group and a team is recognized in both foreign and domestic psychology. A number of studies argue that the team is the highest form of internal organization of a group. In this case, it is necessary to consider the social organization as an object of management, as well as the whole range of issues related to formal and informal social groups.

The success of a social organization is influenced by many factors, including formal and informal groups. English management specialists M. Woodcock and D. Francis identified the most typical restrictions preventing the effective work of social organizations :

• 1. Incompetence of the leader. Leadership is perhaps the most important factor determining the quality of work of a social group. Not everyone has organizational skills. It has been established that such talent is several tens of times less common than musical or mathematical abilities. Psychologists now have a number of methods for assessing the organizational abilities of managers. But the team always takes on high responsibility, inviting specialist organizers under a contract.
• 2. Unqualified employees. Effective organization should be a balanced and full-blooded ensemble, where everyone plays their role and everyone solves a common problem. Therefore, we need a composition of employees who can work fruitfully together.
• 3. Abnormal microclimate. An organization is made up of people with different values ​​and passions. And they are united not only by common goals, but also by common emotions. Devotion to the organization is one of the signs of a normal climate in a group. A high degree of mutual support is also the natural state of an effective organization. Distrust and suspicion of people towards each other corrode social organization.
• 4. Unclear goals. If there is no clear vision of the overall goal, then individual group members will not be able to contribute to the common cause. A study of the economic giants of the USA and Japan showed that their success is largely due to the presence of a business credo, that is, a set of main goals facing them. These goals are specifically formulated for grassroots collectives in the form of some principles, rules and even slogans, and then are constantly and skillfully brought to the consciousness and feelings of all workers. In today's dynamic environment, it may be necessary to change goals in new circumstances. An organization that looks ahead and adjusts its goals accordingly tends to be successful.
• 5. Unsatisfactory performance results. It happens that a good microclimate, high competence of employees, etc. do not give good results. In this case, apparently, there is a lack of assertiveness and desire of workers for excellence, and there are no proper incentives.
• 6. Ineffective methods of preparation and decision-making. There is, however, a “collective” intelligence - “brainstorming” (idea fairs, etc.), mastery of which will help improve these methods.
• 7. Closedness and confrontation. When there is no freedom of judgment in an organization, it creates an unhealthy climate. Group members should be able to express their opinions about each other and discuss any disagreements without fear of appearing ridiculous or fear of retaliation. Effective organizations do not avoid sensitive and unpleasant issues, but discuss them honestly and directly, without fear of clashing views and conflicts. All other things being equal, the greatest opportunities are possessed by an organization with a high level of individual abilities of its members. “Developed employees,” as defined by Woodcock and Francis, are energetic, able to cope with their emotions, are willing to openly express their opinions, can change their point of view only under the influence of arguments, and express their opinions well.
• 8. Low creativity of the organization. An effective organization has the ability to generate creative ideas and implement them. Collective creativity has its own stages: defining a task, generating ideas, selecting and developing the most valuable ideas, testing ideas, introducing innovations. Inclusion in creativity requires not only a craving for something new, but also appropriate actions.
• 9. Unconstructive relationships with other social groups. The quality of interaction with other organizations can be unsatisfactory. The leader must establish connections, seek opportunities for ongoing joint problem solving, achieve personal understanding and create a climate of trust to prevent hostility and establish cooperation.

In any type of group, except for conditional ones, most, if not all, socio-psychological phenomena can exist, be detected and influence people’s lives. In order to understand and describe the psychology of a particular group, it is necessary to identify and give a meaningful description of these phenomena, identify its features, take into account the classification characteristics of the group and evaluate the psychology of the group as a complex, holistic phenomenon.

Most often the following are distinguished: socio-psychological system phenomena *:

1. Socio-psychological climate(atmosphere) in a group - a group psychological state, an integral indicator of favorability/unfavorability for its members dominant in given time in it there are socio-psychological phenomena that give rise to among its members feelings of psychological comfort or discomfort, a desire to remain in it

or leave. This is an indicator of how the group “breathes psychologically” for its members - whether it is easy or they “psychologically suffocate.” The socio-psychological climate can have varying degrees of favorability/unfavorability for all members of the group, part of them, or even for an individual.

2. Moral and psychological climate - special case socio-psychological climate, a type of group mental state, characterized by the degree of satisfaction/dissatisfaction of group members with the observance of moral standards in it, the level of morality and culture in relationships, manifestations of justice/injustice towards group members, kindness (understanding, respect for rights and personal dignity, attention, support, care, help, etc.) or indifference, ill will, disrespect, evil.

The psychology of the group, the socio-psychological and moral-psychological climate, depending on their characteristics, attract people to the group or repel them, play a unifying or destructive role, increase or decrease the effectiveness of the group and each of its members, have a favorable or unfavorable effect on changes in the psychology of individuals included in it.

So, each organization in which direct interaction between workers occurs can be considered as social group. Knowledge of the socio-psychological characteristics of the laws operating in it helps its ordinary member navigate the situation, and turns out to be an important help for a leader of any rank. The ability to manage a team or groups of people is a necessary quality for a manager.

• See: Andreeva G. M. Social Psychology: Textbook. - M., 2004; Stolyarenko A. M. Psychology and pedagogy: Textbook, manual. - M., 2004; Social psychology: Textbook/Ed. ed. A. L. Zhuravlev.-M., 2002; Rats with V.G. Social psychology: Textbook. - M., 2003; Social psychology: Textbook, manual for universities / Ed. A. M. Stolyarenko. - M., 2001, etc.
• See: PodolyakYa. B. Psychology of management: theory and practice of management; Urbanovich A. A. Psychology of management: Textbook, manual, etc.
• See: Stolyarenko A. M. General and professional psychology: Educational manual for secondary vocational educational institutions. - M., 2003, - P. 77.

1. The manager and his role in management activities.

2. Power and influence, main types of power.

3. Basics of motivation.

Leader, including in the field physical culture and sports, works with people, and the effectiveness and efficiency of the entire organization depends on the characteristics of its impact on the team and on the individual. One of the main functions of a leader is to influence and influence people in such a way that their group and individual activities will be as productive as possible. But in order to manage effectively, a leader needs power in addition to formal authority. After all, he depends on people, on his immediate superiors, subordinates and colleagues. These groups represent part of the leader's environment. Without assistance, without the help and support of others, the leader is unable to perform his functions.

Even with certain powers, a manager is not always able to direct the activities of his subordinates. This is due to the socio-psychological phenomenon of leadership; it lies in the special relationships between people in the organization. These relationships have their own specifics:

1.Guide how special kind relationships between different statuses or levels. Each person has his own status, i.e. a fixed place in an organization, expressed through a position. The position of a manager allows him to influence and influence lower levels.

2. Leadership as a relationship is expressed through the range of work performed and job responsibilities. Job responsibilities leaders give him the opportunity to influence other people in order to coordinate their activities.

3. Leadership as a relationship between individuals, as a certain type of communication. This type of communication, its nature and direction forms a certain socio-psychological climate in the team, which actively influences both the effectiveness of management and the performance of the organization.

Leadership is based on the use of the mechanism of power, i.e. the ability to influence the behavior of other people. Power can take various shapes and rest on various grounds.

American scientists have developed the following classification of the foundations of power.

A leader needs power in order to organize and direct the activities of other people or organizations. Inspiration for activity and work behavior is carried out through leadership influence. There are two ways of guiding influence:

1. Direct method - through an order, instruction, instruction (in this case, the goals of the manager may not coincide with the goals of the employee, and the effectiveness of the work performed will be low. For example, the labor of slaves in Ancient Rome was extremely ineffective, despite the brutal level of coercion. Coercion from a person performing any work can achieve no more than 50% return, i.e. the productivity of his work will be half of what he is capable of).

2. Indirect method - through influencing a person’s inner world, through his motivation (the only way to force a person to do something is to make him want to do it).

Motivation is the internal motivation for activity, which includes goals, interests, motives, needs, social attitudes, etc.

Power and influence

The potential or real possibility of influencing others is called power. Leadership of people is based on influence, i.e. psychological (emotional or mental) influence that is exerted on them with the aim of changing behavior. Specific forms of influence are very diverse.

1. Power based on coercion. The subordinate is convinced that the manager can interfere with the satisfaction of any of his needs. This is influence through fear. this form leads to a certain result, but it does not contribute to unlocking the potential of employees. In addition, under conditions of strict control, employees have a desire to deceive managers and distort reporting data.

2. Power based on rewards. The subordinate believes that the manager has the ability to satisfy his needs. Considered as the most effective form authorities. However, its use is possible if the manager has sufficient resources. In addition, the manager must be well aware of the needs of his subordinates, and they can vary greatly from one employee to another.

3. Traditional (legitimate) authority. In this case, the person reacts to the position, i.e. follows the boss’s recommendations because that’s the custom.

4. Expert power. The subordinate believes in the leader and the value of his knowledge; the manager’s special knowledge allows him to satisfy his needs.

5. Reference power. Built not on logic or tradition, but on the strength of the leader’s personal qualities and abilities. The subordinate carries out the orders of the leader because he wants to imitate him. If subordinates see ideal traits in their leader, worthy of emulation, they obey him unquestioningly.

Leaders use all forms of power in various combinations in their activities.

The conviction of the need to obey and fulfill the demands of a leader is considered the most solid basis of power. Using various ways influence on subordinates, the rules of business conduct and standards of professional ethics must be observed. In any case, the influence should not cause subordinate feeling of irritation, hatred, frustration and stress.

Proper formation of employee motivation is one of the most important means of increasing labor efficiency.

A modern manager daily faces problems of motivating the activities of his employees. It is important to focus their energy on doing the work available and necessary to achieve the goals and success of the organization.

Management science has always been interested in the conditions and under what circumstances a person is motivated to work on someone else's instructions. The freer a person becomes, the more important it is to understand the motives that drive a person in his work and force him to bring greater benefit. As a person learns, improves his qualifications, acquires skills and accumulates experience, he becomes more and more willing to apply his skills in work for the benefit of himself and society. The better this is achieved, the more satisfaction a person receives, and, accordingly, the stronger the motivation for effective work. The desire to express yourself in your business needs support. Where management and labor organization provide employees with opportunities for this, work will be highly effective and the motivation to work will be correspondingly high.

The essence of motivation is the knowledge and implementation of personal interests, providing opportunities to realize oneself in the process of achieving the goals of the organization.

The true motivations that drive you to give your best effort are extremely complex. It is estimated that between 30 and 50% of workers are motivated to work by money. The rest are driven to action by more elevated needs: for knowledge, for authority, for creativity. People are driven by moral ideals, great goals, moral beliefs, traditions, etc.

There is an old way of influencing people - the “carrot and stick” method.

In conditions when most people were fighting for survival, the conclusion made was logical and understandable Adam Smith that a person always, when given the opportunity, strives to improve his economic situation.

The carrot meant the ability to survive, and money was considered the only motivating factor.

Taylor and his contemporaries at the beginning of the 20th century already realized the inconsistency of earnings on the verge of starvation, and made the “carrot and stick” motivation more effective. Therefore, the increase in labor productivity resulting from the use of scientifically based specialization and standardization, was quite impressive. And the more this life improved, the faster managers began to understand the inadequacy of motivation based on the “carrot and stick” principle.

At the beginning of the 20th century, theory Z. Freud received its continuation that people do not always act rationally. Not always good wage and clearly designed work activities lead to increased productivity, and managers were slow to take it seriously. With the advent of the human relations scale, the realization came that the “carrot and stick” type of motivation was insufficient. The works of E. Mayo say that it is important to take into account human psychology, its certain illogicality, and that human factors, especially social influence and group behavior, significantly influence the productivity of individual labor.

When it comes to motivation, there is no one “best” way. People have many different needs and goals. They behave differently. What is acceptable for one person may not be suitable for another.

The work of a manager is carried out in such directions:

Work to improve material remuneration for employees;

Development and implementation of systems and measures of moral incentives to work;

Creating conditions of attractiveness, interesting work, aesthetics of the workplace and labor operations;

Guarantee of employment, business career, and opportunities for advanced training.

In addition, the manager must assess the level of labor participation of each employee. There are several ways to reward people for their work: financial incentives, recognition, freedom (doing part of the work at home), new types of work schedules (sliding schedule), prospects (growth opportunities), improving working conditions.

It is important that any decision in the field of labor motivation is transparent, understandable and correct, even if at first this decision infringes on someone’s interests, and it is also important to know personal and public interest employees, the motivational structure of human behavior, to know what consequences the measures introduced by him may lead to.

- procedural– are based on how people behave based on their perceptions and cognitions.

Needs reflect a feeling of physical or psychological insufficiency of something. When a need is felt by a person, it awakens in him a state of striving to satisfy it (motivation to action). Needs are divided into: physiological (sleep, eat, sexual needs) and psychological (needs for success, respect, power, belonging to someone or something). Needs cannot be directly observed and measured. Needs serve only as a motive for action.

Inducement- this is a feeling of lack of something, which has a certain direction towards action. A drive is a behavioral manifestation of a need.

The degree of satisfaction obtained from achieving a goal influences a person's behavior under similar circumstances. In the future, people strive to repeat the behavior that they associate with satisfaction of needs, and avoid others that are associated with insufficient satisfaction. The complexity of motivation through needs is a consequence of the fact that not all workers experience a high need to achieve results and independence.

Managers must create situations that allow people to feel that they can satisfy their needs through behavior that leads to the achievement of organizational goals.

Reward are considered and used in theories of motivation as a means to encourage people to perform effective human activities. There are internal (creation of appropriate working conditions) and external rewards (salary, promotion, official status, prestige).

An important function of management is the function of organization, which is to establish permanent and temporary relationships between all divisions of the company, determine the order and conditions for the functioning of companies. Organization as a process is a function of coordinating many tasks.

The function of the organization is implemented in two ways: through administrative and organizational management and through operational management.

Administrative and organizational management involves determining the structure of the company, establishing relationships and distributing functions between all divisions, granting rights and establishing responsibilities between employees of the management apparatus.

Operational management ensures the functioning of the company in accordance with the approved plan. It consists of periodic or continuous comparison of the actual results obtained with the results planned by the plan, and their subsequent adjustment. Operational management is closely related to current planning.

There are two main aspects of the organizational process:

1. Delegation of powers.

The organizational structure of a company is understood as its organization from separate divisions with their relationships, which are determined by the goals set for the company and its divisions and the distribution of functions between them. The organizational structure provides for the distribution of functions and decision-making powers between the company’s executives responsible for the activities structural divisions that make up the organization of the company.

The main problems that arise when developing management structures are: establishing the correct relationships between individual departments, which is associated with defining their goals, working conditions and incentives; distribution of responsibility between managers; selection of specific control schemes and sequence of procedures when making decisions; organization of information flows; selection of appropriate technical means.

The problem of improving the organizational structure of management involves clarifying the functions of the department, determining the rights and responsibilities of each manager and employee, eliminating multi-stage, duplication of functions and information flows. The main task here is to improve management efficiency.

The organizational structure is aimed primarily at establishing clear relationships between the individual divisions of the company and distributing rights and responsibilities between them. It implements various requirements for improving management systems, expressed in certain principles.

The organizational structure of the company and its management are constantly changing and improving in accordance with changing conditions. The most important factors causing the need for structural restructuring of companies are the following:

– accelerated development of new types of products under the influence of scientific
technical progress in conditions of increasing competition;

– intensive implementation of the most advanced technologies;

– systematic introduction of new methods of organizing and managing production based on the active use of computer technology.

Organization as a process is a function of coordinating many tasks: there are two main aspects of the organizational process:

1. Dividing the organization into units according to goals and strategies.
2. Delegation of powers.

Delegation, as a term used in management theory, means transferring tasks and authority to a person who accepts responsibility for their implementation.

Organizational structure by product.

It involves the creation of independent business units within the structure of the company - production departments focused on the production and sale of specific types of products. Wherein

it is assumed that the production departments in the parent company will specialize in certain types or groups of products and the transfer of authority to them to manage production and sales subsidiaries. The functional services of production departments simultaneously maintain close contacts with the relevant central services, receiving instructions from them on all issues of implementing a unified policy and coordinating activities within the company as a whole.

Since the production department itself acts as a profit center, it exercises not only financial, but also operational control over the activities of enterprises on a worldwide scale. This control is often exercised through joint or interlocking directorates, complemented by trips by the production manager to specific subsidiaries.

Organizational structure by region

It is assumed that management responsibility for the activities of TNCs is distributed among independent divisions. These divisions, in terms of content and nature of activity, can act as production departments and be a center of profit and responsibility. They coordinate the activities of subsidiaries and manufacturing companies for all types of products. The division is headed by a manager who reports directly to senior management and carries out its activities in close contact with all central services. He may have managers of individual departments subordinate to him.

1. Mixed structure.

Involves a combination of different types of organizational management structures.

The most common combination of sectoral and regional principles when building an organizational structure. This structure is the most common. This reflects general patterns development of the production process in modern conditions which requires integrated approach to the formation of the organizational structure of the company, taking into account the coverage of all parties, directions and areas of activity. Under these conditions, the combination of industry and regional aspects most fully satisfies the development needs of the company.

Control

Control is a systematic monitoring of the implementation of plans, tasks and results of economic activity, providing feedback with the controlled object using information. Accounting and control are necessary to manage planning, financial, production and labor discipline at the enterprise. Control as the main function of management combines all types of management activities related to the generation of information about the state and functioning of the management object (accounting), the study of information about processes and results of activities (analysis), work on diagnosing and assessing development processes and achieving set goals. The control process consists of setting standards, changing the actual results achieved, and making adjustments if the results achieved differ significantly from the established standards. With the help of control, the manager identifies problems, the causes of their occurrence and takes active measures to correct deviations from the goal and activity plan.

There are three main types of control: preliminary, current and final.

Preliminary controls are usually implemented in the form of specific policies, procedures and regulations. First of all, it applies to labor, material and financial resources.

Current control is carried out when work it's already underway and is usually carried out in the form of monitoring the work of his subordinate immediate superior. Final control is carried out after the work is completed or the time allotted for it has expired.

Current and final control is based on feedback. Control systems in organizations have open feedback, since a manager, who is an external element in relation to the system, can interfere with its work, changing both the goals of the system and the nature of its work.

There are three clearly distinguishable stages in the control process: developing standards and criteria, comparing actual results with them and taking the necessary corrective actions. At each stage, a set of various measures is implemented.

The first stage of the control process is the setting of standards, i.e. specific, measurable goals that have time boundaries. Management requires standards in the form of performance indicators of the management object for all its key areas, which are determined during planning.

At the second stage of comparing performance indicators with given standards, the scale of permissible deviations is determined. According to the exclusion principle, only significant deviations from specified standards should trigger the control system, otherwise it will become uneconomical and unstable.

The next stage – measuring the results – is usually the most troublesome and expensive. By comparing measured results with specified standards, the manager is able to determine what actions need to be taken. Such actions may be changes to some internal system variables, changes to standards, or non-interference in the operation of the system. In order for control to fulfill its true task, i.e. to ensure the achievement of the organization's goals, it must have several important properties.

Control is effective if it is strategic, results-oriented, timely, flexible, simple and cost-effective. When organizations conduct their business in foreign markets, the control function takes on an additional degree of complexity. International control is particularly difficult because large number different areas of activity and communication barriers. The effectiveness of control can be improved by periodically holding meetings of responsible managers at the organization's headquarters and abroad. It is especially important not to hold foreign managers responsible for solving problems that are beyond their control.

As mentioned, in connection with the development of society and the production system, new functions have appeared. And today, motivation, stimulation, humanization and corporatism have been added to the main functions.

Motivation

When planning and organizing work, the manager determines what exactly must be accomplished. this organization when, how and who, in his opinion, should do it. If these decisions are made effectively, the manager is able to translate his decisions into action by putting into practice the basic principles of motivation.

Motivation as the main function of management is associated with the process of motivating oneself and other people to act through the formation of motives of behavior to achieve the personal goals of the organization. The study of human behavior at work provides some general explanations of motivation and allows the creation of pragmatic models of employee motivation in the workplace.

Motive is an incentive, a reason for action. You can encourage action by enriching ideas, ... will, knowledge, determining the amount of remuneration, linking it with the result of the activity, as well as identifying a person’s value system, satisfying the need for power depending on a person’s ability to influence other people. Various theories Motivations are divided into two categories: substantive and procedural. Content theories of motivation primarily try to identify the needs that motivate people to action, especially when determining the volume and content of work. To understand the meaning of the theory of content and process motivation, you must first understand the meaning

fundamental concepts: needs and rewards.

Needs are the conscious absence of something that causes an urge to action. Primary needs are genetically laid down, and secondary needs are developed in the course of cognition and gaining life experience. Needs cannot be directly observed or measured. Their existence can only be judged by people's behavior. Needs serve as a motive for action. Needs can be satisfied with rewards. Reward is what a person considers valuable to himself. Managers use extrinsic rewards (cash payments, promotions) and intrinsic rewards (a feeling of success in achieving a goal) obtained through the work itself. The theory of motivation is a special field of knowledge that has been consistently formed since the beginning of the 20th century.

According to Maslow's theories five basic types of needs (physiological, safety, social, success, self-expression) form a hierarchical structure, which, as a dominant, determines human behavior. Needs higher levels do not motivate a person until the needs of the lower level are at least partially satisfied. However, this hierarchical structure is not absolutely rigid and strict. Content theories of motivation are based on needs and related factors that determine people's behavior. Process theories view motivation from a different perspective. They analyze how a person distributes efforts to achieve various goals and how he chooses a specific type of behavior. Process theories do not dispute the existence of needs, but believe that people's behavior is determined not only by them. According to process theories, an individual's behavior is also a function of his perceptions and expectations associated with a given situation, and possible consequences the type of behavior he has chosen.

There are three main process theories of motivation: expectancy theory, equity theory, and the Porter-Lawler model.

Expectancy theory is based on the assumption that a person directs his efforts to achieve a goal only when he is confident in the high probability of satisfying his needs or achieving the goal. Motivation is a function of the expectancy factor “labor inputs - results”, expectations - “results - rewards” and valence (i.e. the relative degree of satisfaction). The most effective motivation is achieved when people believe that their efforts will definitely allow them to achieve their goals and lead to particularly valuable rewards. Motivation weakens if people perceive the likelihood of success or the value of rewards to be low.

Equity theory suggests that people subjectively evaluate the reward-to-effort ratio and compare it with what they believe other workers received for similar work. Unfair remuneration, according to their estimates, leads to psychological stress. In general, if a person considers his work to be undervalued, he will reduce the effort expended. If he considers his work to be overvalued, then, on the contrary, he will leave the amount of effort expended at the same level or even increase it. The widely supported Porter-Lawler model is based on the idea that motivation is a function of employees' needs, expectations and perceptions of fair remuneration. The productivity of an employee depends on the efforts he makes, his characteristic features and opportunities, as well as their assessment of their role. The amount of effort expended depends on the employee's assessment of the value of the reward and confidence that it will be received. According to the Porter-Lawler model, job performance continues to satisfy satisfaction, and not vice versa, as proponents of the theory of human relations believe.

Stimulation

Stimulation is a function associated with the process of activating the activities of people and work teams, providing workers with increased results of their work. This function is used for moral and material incentives for employees depending on the quality and quantity of labor expended. In addition, this function provides interest in achieving high efficiency work of the entire enterprise. Involves creating conditions under which, as a result of active labor activity the employee will work more efficiently and more productively, i.e. will perform a larger volume of work than agreed upon in advance. Here, labor stimulation creates conditions for the employee to realize that he can work more productively, and for the emergence of a desire, which, in turn, gives rise to the need to work more productively. Those. the emergence in the employee of motives for more efficient work and the implementation of this motive (motives) in the labor process. Although incentives encourage a person to work, they alone are not enough for productive work. The system of incentives and motives must be based on a certain base - the normative level of work activity. The very fact that an employee enters into an employment relationship presupposes that he must perform a certain range of duties for pre-agreed remuneration. In this situation there is still no room for stimulation. Here the sphere of controlled activity is where avoidance motives work, associated with the fear of punishment for failure to comply with the requirements.

Such punishments associated with the loss material goods there must be at least two: partial payment of remuneration or termination of employment relations. The employee must know what requirements are imposed on him, what reward he will receive if they are strictly observed, and what sanctions will follow if they are violated.

Discipline carries elements of coercion and restrictions on freedom of action. However, the line between control and stimulation is conditional and fluid, because an employee with strong motivation has self-discipline, the habit of conscientiously fulfilling requirements and treating them as his own standards of behavior. The incentive system grows out of administrative and legal management methods, but does not replace them, because Labor incentives are effective if management bodies are able to achieve the level for which they pay. The purpose of incentives is not only to encourage a person to work in general, but to encourage him to do better (more) than what is determined by the labor relationship.

Based on the type of needs that incentives satisfy, the latter can be divided into internal And external. The first include feelings of self-respect, satisfaction from achieving results, a sense of content and significance of one’s work, “the luxury of human communication” that arises in the process of performing work, and others. They can also be called moral incentives. External reward is what is provided by the company in exchange for work performed: wages, bonuses, career growth, symbols of status and prestige, praise and recognition, various benefits and incentives. They can also be called monetary and material-social incentives.

Labor incentive system:

Material monetary incentives

Money is the most obvious and most used way that an organization can reward employees.

Material and social incentives

These include:

- Creation necessary conditions highly productive labor. Such conditions include: optimal organization of the workplace, absence of distracting noise (especially monotonous), sufficient lighting, pace, work schedule, etc.

– the opportunity to move away from a monotonous to a more interesting, creative, meaningful work process. By monotony, some understand an objective characteristic of the labor process itself, while others understand only the mental state of a person, which is a consequence of the monotony of work.

– stimulation with free time. As a result of the lack of free time, many workers work with a feeling of chronic fatigue and experience constant neuro-emotional overload.

– improving relationships in the team.

The internal conditions for creating a psychological microclimate in a team that has a beneficial effect on the state of workers include the authority and personality traits of the leader, his leadership style, the compatibility of team members in terms of character, value orientations, emotional and other properties, the presence of influential leaders in informal groups and the attitude of these leaders to production tasks facing the team, etc.

Career advancement.

One of the most effective incentives, because firstly, the salary increases; secondly, the range of powers expands and, accordingly, the employee becomes involved in the adoption important decisions; thirdly, the degree of responsibility increases, which forces a person to work more efficiently and avoid mistakes and errors; fourthly, it increases access to information. 3.

Moral and psychological incentives.

These incentives are focused on motivating a person as an individual, and not just a mechanism designed to perform production functions. In contrast to the incentives described above, moral ones are internal incentives, i.e. They cannot directly influence a person.

Humanization reflects the social nature of management and the role of the human factor as an object of management.

Humanization concerns the ethics of activity, nature and mechanisms of influence as one of the sides social activities person. With the help of the humanization function, the company’s culture and management culture are formed and developed.

Corporate – new feature management includes activities to shape the atmosphere of the company, its socio-psychological climate.

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Management by purpose is an impact on the system (managed subsystem - control object) to maintain it in the established mode, quality, condition or transfer it to another.

The main types of systems are biological, technical, social. Spheres of society, institutions, organizations - social systems. Their main feature is that they are communities of people. This determines the essence of managing them – managing people’s behavior.

In systems formed by people and serving people, there are always elements of psychology and pedagogy. The complex of psychological and pedagogical factors in management includes two groups:

1) internal control loop, i.e. inherent in the organization itself:

a) psychological: characteristics of people working in it, their professional activities (actually pursued goals, motives, etc.), management activities, team psychology;

b) pedagogical: features of education, training, good manners, development of employees of the organization, individual groups, management, team;

2) external control loop: psychological and pedagogical characteristics of people, teams and the activities of other organizations with which this organization comes into contact and which it influences when solving its problems. This is a functioning environment that has public, departmental, regional and local characteristics.

When managing, all these factors must be taken into account, properly assessed, and, if necessary, changed.

Theory and practice know different approaches to building management:

1) According to the degree of authority of the governing body or leader: authoritarian, democratic and liberal management.

2) According to the degree of stability of factors that are given priority in management: organizational and situational management.

3) According to the qualitative characteristics of the factors: administrative management (constant orders from management), “classical” management (“Taylor system” - material conditions for maximum labor productivity), normative management (using regulations, laws, regulations, instructions)

In practice, management combines different types of management. However, current social, scientific and technological progress requires the worldwide development of truly democratic governance.

Functions of a manager in the management system:

1) Implementation of the main tasks of management (psychological and pedagogical): creating such psychological and pedagogical conditions in the organization that encourage and teach each employee to work conscientiously and professionally.

2) Organization of order and favorable conditions: distribution of rights, responsibilities, settlement of relationships, circulation of information, regime, control in such a way as to encourage employees to work clearly, coordinatedly, and responsibly.

3) Ensuring a favorable psychological climate in the team.

4) Providing conditions for satisfying interests, needs, personal growth and material well-being every employee.

Management is implemented in two types of activities: organization of the management system and current management. The first is to establish an organizational order in the functioning of the institution. At the same time high organization An “organizational gain” occurs in solving problems when they are solved better than in the absence of organization. The main psychological factors of organizational order include:

Psychological characteristics of individuals who work in an institution, enterprise, etc.;

Psychology of the collective, widespread social and psychological phenomena and relationships in it;

Targeted unity of personnel, organizational relations (as a consequence of the distribution of rights, duties, responsibilities, regulation of relations of subordination and interaction, etc.), information-psychological relations (the state of obtaining professional information and its exchange, its circulation within the organization, depending on the relationship); development of self-regulation in the team (self-sufficiency of management in departments, involvement of ordinary workers in management, activities of public organizations, self-government of each employee);

Personality, professional and psychological characteristics
preparedness, style and content of managerial activities
of management personnel and, above all, managers.

Organizational order is also related to pedagogical factors:

Education, training, good manners, development of the people who make up the work collective;

Professional and pedagogical preparedness of heads of services and departments;

Social and pedagogical influence of conditions in the organization;

The properties of the work collective as an educating, training and developing team;

Social and pedagogical influences of personality and managerial activities of the administrative apparatus and mainly the manager.

The reality of these factors and their influence require that management be carried out systematic psychological and ne dagogical work to strengthen organizational order, including:

professional psychological and pedagogical selection when hiring, placing personnel and especially promoting to managerial positions;

organizational training and education, implying a firm knowledge by each employee of duties, rights, responsibilities, and other organizational provisions, explaining and constantly reminding staff of the commonality of tasks and responsibilities, showing everyone’s dependence on coordinated work, accumulating experience in successful joint actions, suppressing non-business competitive relations, applying general criteria effectiveness of activities, joint reviews and summing up, taking measures to organize and activate democratic forms of self-government in individual aspects of the life of the team;

educational work: individual, with groups, a team and through a team, ensuring cohesion, working mood, conscientious work, mutual support, absence of conflicts. Its important task is to prevent professional deformation of the personality of workers, i.e., the appearance of personality defects under the influence of engaging in one activity. It happens to almost everyone: teachers, officials, lawyers, psychiatrists and others;

professional education, continuous improvement of employee professionalism;

solving organizational issues that find a positive psychological response among team members, positively influencing their education and development;

attracting ordinary workers and managers of grassroots structures to participate in managing the life and activities of the organization
nization, what improves the solution of her problems is significant for psychology
technical identification of the interests of all employees with the interests
organization, education of collectivism;

ensuring proper socio-psychological and social
but-pedagogical influence on staff example of behavior, action
personality, style, personal qualities of the leader, managers
services and departments, administrative staff.

There are two types of control pyramids: vertical and horizontal.

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Rice. A - general scheme. Rice. b – vertical pyramid. Rice. c – horizontal pyramid.

The choice of a vertical pyramid is determined by the manager’s desire to have no more than seven employees subordinate to him for better management. This type of pyramid is characteristic of the administrative-command type of management. It multiplies the number of leaders and the bureaucracy, makes its maintenance more expensive, and increases the contrast between the “tops” and the “bottoms.” The horizontal pyramid does not have these disadvantages. It ensures the involvement of employees in work in public formations that participate in the control and management of individual areas of the team’s work.

Current management has a cyclical nature. Management cycle in each of its links in three ways associated with issues of psychology and pedagogy:

It reveals the properties and qualities of the leader and other persons that were previously formed, including during the organization of management;

Each stage of the management cycle is filled with the dynamics of mental processes, states, difficulties that need to be taken into account and regulated;

Everything that happens in each cycle and their complex psychologically and pedagogically influences the leader and other persons, changing them.

Each link of the management cycle can and should be optimized psychologically and pedagogically.

The first link - monitoring the situation, identifying and adopting solutions to current problems and issues. It is a well-known axiom: only those who own information can manage. The flow of information that needs to be tracked and used includes psychological and pedagogical information (about moods, intentions, interests, manifestations of good manners, etc.). If the situation that arises is fairly standard, then those whose responsibilities it is should respond to it. It is enough for the manager to make sure that the information has reached the Era address and a reaction will follow, as well as assess the preparedness of the responsible persons, decide on the need for assistance and control. Managers need to intervene and make current decisions only when problems arise. non-standard situations, when assessing them as extremely important.

The second link of the management cycle is studying the problem,taken for decision. It’s good when employees are involved in the study and groups of them are created. A problem is always the intersection of many causes and conditions. Among them there are usually both psychological and pedagogical.

Third link - development of solution options and choice of beamnone of them. You should always consider several solution options, evaluate the pros and cons of each and select the best one. The best option always correctly takes into account psychological and pedagogical aspects. It is useful to use the “brainstorming” method.

Fourth link - decision-making. Its essence is in detailing, specifying and improving the selected solution option, recognized as the best. At the same time, the purpose and objectives of the upcoming actions, their plan, timing, stages, means, methods, methods, calculation of forces and means, support, selection of performers, etc. are clarified. Decision-making is the prerogative of the manager, but when elaborating the decision, employees should be involved, especially those who will then carry it out. It is always important to assess how a decision will be perceived by employees and the team, to assess the possible psychological and pedagogical consequences, to think through psychological and pedagogical measures that will facilitate the implementation of the decision.

Fifth link - organization of implementation of decisions. A decision will be of little use if the manager thinks that his task is to make a decision and his subordinates to carry it out. In fact, the latter is also his job. It involves: selection of employees to implement the decision, their training, management of actions, control, and assistance.

The sixth link of the management cycle is summarizing. It contains considerable pedagogical potential, which is realized when the analysis of actions and their assessment are fair and competent, based on reliable data, include an assessment of the pros and cons, are accompanied by advice, are combined, if necessary, with classes, tasks for independent practice of some issues with subsequent verification of the results. There is little that can discourage an employee from working conscientiously than an unfair assessment by his boss.

Significant psychological and pedagogical role personalities,style, methods and techniques of current management activities manager and his staff.

Influence personalities head objectively determined by his position in the team. Employees and citizens are watching him closely, even meticulously. Literally everything in his personality and behavior is subject to evaluation and finds a completely different psychological and pedagogical response: his properties and qualities, attitude towards people, decisions made, even facial expression, speech patterns, manners, decisions made, posture, how he greets and shakes hands etc. All this, bit by bit, enters into the psychology and education of people and results not only in the attitude towards the leader, towards his orders, but also into all behavior in the organization.

The psychological and pedagogical influence is clearly manifested management style. Set by a top-level manager, it spreads in a chain reaction down the management pyramid, copied by department heads subordinate to him. Its product is the atmosphere of socio-psychological and socio-pedagogical working conditions in the organization, a certain type of motivation of employees and their mental states, moral and psychological, educational, training and developmental consequences.

To every leader today need to become civilizednom, democratic style management. To do this, you should cultivate in your work features of this style: progressive social orientation, citizenship, humanity, efficiency, legality, democracy (the right combination of centralization-decentralization, unity of command and collegiality, delegation of managerial powers “downwards”, etc.).

Thus, managing an organization with all its components has a broad and strong psychological and pedagogical impact on staff. It exists, regardless of whether the manager, the employee of the administrative apparatus understands it, whether he wants to take it into account or not. However, being outside of conscious control, evaluation and competent improvement, it is, to put it mildly, often far from the best. It is a mistaken idea that you can work with people, train and educate them only at special events. This happens directly in the management process, but gives a full-fledged result when it is carried out psychologically and pedagogically competently.