Why create artificial languages? A Brief History of Artificial Languages

For or against artificial languages?

Learning an artificial language has one big drawback - it is practically impossible to use it in life. This is true. In a note entitled "Artificial Languages", published in the Bolshoi Soviet Encyclopedia it is stated that: “The idea of ​​an artificial language common to all humanity is in itself utopian and unrealizable. Artificial languages ​​are only imperfect surrogates of living languages; their projects are cosmopolitan in nature and therefore flawed in principle.” This was written in the early 50s. But even in the mid-60s, the same skepticism was characteristic of some scientists.

Author of the book "Principles of Language Modeling" P.N. Denisov expressed his disbelief in the possibility of implementing the idea of ​​a universal language as follows: “As for the possibility of decreeing the transition of humanity to a single language created at least like the Esperanto language, such a possibility is a utopia. The extreme conservatism of the language, the impossibility of leaps and sudden shocks, the inextricable connection of language with thinking and society and many other purely linguistic circumstances do not allow this kind of reform to be carried out without disorganizing society."

Author of the book "Sounds and Signs" A.M. Kondratov believes that all existing native languages ​​can never be replaced by “any artificially invented “universal” language.” He still admits the idea of ​​an auxiliary language: “We can only talk about an intermediary language, which is used only when talking with foreigners - and that’s all.”

Such statements apparently stem from the fact that not one of the individual projects of a universal, or world international, language has become a living language. But what turned out to be impossible in some historical conditions for individual idealists and groups of the same idealists cut off from the proletariat, from the popular masses, may turn out to be quite possible in other historical conditions for scientific groups and the masses who have mastered the scientific theory of language creation - with support of revolutionary parties and governments. The ability of a person to be multilingual - this phenomenon of linguistic compatibility - and the absolute primacy of the synchrony of language (for the consciousness of those who use it), which determines the absence of influence of the origin of the language on its functioning, opens up for all peoples and nationalities of the Earth the path on which the problem of their problems can and should be solved. linguistic community. This will give a real opportunity for the most perfect project of the language of the new humanity and its new civilization to develop on all continents and islands globe into a living, controlled developing language. And there is no doubt that it will not only be alive, but also the most tenacious of languages. The needs that brought them to life are diverse. It is also important that these languages ​​overcome the polysemy of terms that is characteristic of natural languages ​​and unacceptable in science. Artificial languages ​​make it possible to express certain concepts in an extremely concise form and perform the functions of a kind of scientific shorthand, economical presentation and expression of voluminous mental material. Finally, artificial languages ​​are one of the means of internationalization of science, since artificial languages ​​are united and international.

CONSTRUCTED LANGUAGES TODAY

1.
Considering the issue of artificial languages, I would like to note that at present more and more languages ​​are being created, and now anyone, having studied methodological literature, can easily create their own language to their taste and color. Or, another option, he can take any of the languages, be it artificial or natural, and change it at his discretion.

2.
The creation of languages ​​turns into a household craft, or into art, depending on the skill. It could be a homemade project created in one day by one person, or the work of hundreds of scientists working for many years.

3.
In this regard, one gets the impression that this activity is not serious, and that there is no practical benefit from it. In those days when only a few languages ​​were known, the attitude towards “Esperanto” was more serious, but now, when there are many languages, these creations of thought do not seem like something great, but look ordinary.

4.
There are many opinions regarding the future of the whole language. Groups of like-minded people have formed who speak and know at least one language. They don’t need to explain why this is necessary. I call them “intermen”.

5.
I think that the initial impulse that prompted the creation of a new language was never determined by the goal of creating a means of universal communication. This is, rather, an artist’s impulse, a surge of creative energy, and not a cold calculation based on the fact that it is necessary to make all of humanity happy, and at the same time become famous throughout the world. Already further, creating everything new and new project language, the creator directs himself in such a way that a universal language emerges, and not a toy for his own amusement.

6.
Roughly speaking, then everyone new language- it is a toy. Some have one kind of entertainment, others have another. What caused the need to create new languages?

7.
Speaking about myself, I have always been interested in the sound of the Russian language. Within the framework of secondary education, this was the most interesting thing for me. As a result, my certificate shows only one A - in Russian. Everything else is boring and boring. I started creating languages ​​late, this is due to the fact that there was no example, and no one suggested how exactly this could be done. As a result, it was only in 2001, when I was 27 years old, that my first language gradually began to emerge. According to its parameters, it could well pass for international. Creating more and more new projects and sketches, from time to time I created conlangs that would not pass for international. Knowing the method that I discovered for myself without outside help, I could have created something in 10 years. There was a desire.

8.
It is caused by the imperfection of the Russian language. Russian, like other languages, is imperfect. It is possible that its ancestor, the Thracian language, was much more elegant and interesting, but it has sunk into the oblivion of the past. I can name many shortcomings of the Russian language, and many others. But I think there is no need for this, since someone else could have already done it. There are also many shortcomings in “Esperanto” and “Lideple”.

9.
I would like to know where these 1000 languages ​​are located, and whether they can be found on the Internet. I was only able to find about a dozen languages. Having put in the search “all artificial languages”, I still did not find anything that would fit this definition.

10.
If we consider complex languages, where words from different languages ​​are lumped together, then we can note a couple of points. Usually the words there are chosen on the basis of their greatest prevalence in the world. this moment. If one word root appears in several languages ​​selected for merging, then it is selected. But, if the merging of languages ​​had not occurred artificially, but on its own, from the people, the choice of words could have been different. And not only could it, but in reality all the words are connected ARTIFICIALLY, not the way it would actually happen. This doesn’t bother some people at all, and they fearlessly lump together Chinese words with French ones, mixing in German, Hindi and Arabic. Everything looks good, and the high goal of uniting people gives inspiration.

11.
The end result is a product that looks like nothing. With exactly the same success, you can throw together not the most popular words, but arbitrarily, everything that comes across. The result will be exactly the same, and the sound of the language will not suffer from this. Strict discipline requires that there be some kind of algorithm in the selection of words, but this will not affect the final result. All rules exist for a practical purpose, but in this case it is a rule for oneself, an obligation to follow a strict algorithm so as not to lose a sense of self-importance.

12.
A language created using an algorithm “for purity of conscience” is considered successful, there are dozens of fans, they study it, they are crazy. But, on the other hand, will you be equally enthusiastic about a language in which words are collected without any system? The language is equally brilliant, but you do not accept it. So you don't agree that 1=1? A language, roughly speaking, is accepted only because it was worked on according to a single scheme. The work itself is recognized, not the end result. Language is no longer a work of art, like all natural languages, but is a simple convention. You and I agree that this is a LANGUAGE, and you undertake to admit that this is, yes, a real LANGUAGE. But in reality, it doesn’t matter who thinks what, who agreed on what, but what matters is only what exists. If the picture is drawn not under inspiration, but based on some thoughts, then it is not a work of art. And any complex language, where words from different languages ​​are combined into one, is, as it were, not a language at all. And it's a fake. A sensitive subject understands this, but the crowd does not. Tell them that this is art, and they will believe it.

13.
Feeling an urgent need to create something holistic, and not an arbitrary bunch of rules and words, experts created “interlingua”. Together with a number of other languages, this project seems like something holistic. Some combine Romance languages, others Germanic. It's starting to look like a tongue. But, nevertheless, as in the previous case, the problem is still the same - you cannot connect the incompatible. It can unite on its own if you simply mix peoples, but any artificial connection will be reflected in the external sound.

14.
This is how the “simples” arose, or simplified languages. A simple is created from one language by simplifying it. But it should be noted that the same process of language simplification occurs in real life. But in real life, everything happens NATURALLY, and designing the language of the future is the same as designing the future itself. Not a single person, I think, is able to predict what our future will be like in 100 years. The same thing applies to the design of languages, in this case, symbols. I would not design a Russian simple, but would rather experiment with the Old Russian one. At the same time, one should not strive to recreate an ancient language, but to create something new, sharply distinguishable, it will be original.

26.
All languages ​​are becoming simpler. The Russian language in the future should lose all its cases, and there is no need to be horrified by this. Forms that disappear play no role in the expression of thoughts. Lost forms may be replaced by new parts of speech, and then the language will not become simpler, but many times more complex, allowing one to express complex thoughts swarming in one’s head smart people. The brain, so to speak, will begin to work better, assimilating complex concepts and categories. If these parts of speech do not arise by themselves, we will create them ourselves.

15.
I'm currently trying to create a zip-jazz language that will have 38 parts of speech. This is about three times more than in Russian. If someone doesn’t need them, he can ignore what he hears, understanding only the main meaning. Here the wolves will be well fed and the sheep will be safe. The same language serves both primitive and educated people. I would like zip-jazzik to become an international language.

16.
For my part, I would like to note that I prefer some of the other languages ​​I have created, for example, Grassonian. But the zip-jolzik is more phlegmatic than the others, and this should have approval among people who are themselves phlegmatic. Everything is thought out in such a way as to satisfy the most average person. Other languages ​​are more emotional and suit my personality better. Zip-jolzik is also as far removed from resemblance to anything national as possible. It can be noted that the Esperanto ending “-o” appeals more to Italians and Spaniards than to anyone else, and “Interlingua” actually resembles a variety of Italian.

17.
Zip-Jolzik, like a paralanguage, uses more intuition than logic. But the Arahau language, created by Ahanera, takes a different path. There, on the contrary, everything is subject to logic. Intuition is only 20%. Both are good. Language must be either a product of the brain, that is, logic, or a product of intuition. Zip-jolzik has 70% intuition and 30% logic. In other languages, logic and intuition are distributed approximately equally. It remains unclear whether it is possible to create a language 100% according to the laws of logic, and whether it will sound so successful that it will work as an international language? And it is absolutely clear that you cannot create a language based only on intuition, since such a person must have 100% perfection.

18.
The Arachau language is created in such a way that each of its words is decomposed into letters, thanks to which each word is a perfect product, and, moreover, can be comprehended. The price for this is the loss of external sound. For some, external sound is the main thing, and such people usually study natural language. More intuition is involved in paralanguages ​​and mutants, but intuition, as we know, is compressed logic. The brain performs thousands of logical operations per second to create each word in paralanguage. But some people think that since you did it yourself, it means it’s all a gag and not some kind of art. In fact, this is not a gag, but the work of the brain. Any brilliant painting by an artist is the same “gag”, where the author cannot logically justify every brush stroke. But we put up with it and accept the picture without asking for evidence.

19.
Separately, the tongue “hammer” can be noted. He belongs to the simple mutants. This is simplified Russian. The author did not stop at simplification alone, but used his own original ideas, which is why the language has become more perfect. The best of the mutant languages ​​could arise in the real world, if you know how to place people in such an artificial environment where a language with given parameters can arise. Everything here is like in jazz: based on one rhythm, various improvisations are possible, and all of them will be correct.

20.
Paralanguages, in turn, require skill and powerful intuition. If some paralanguage is clumsy, then we can remember natural languages ​​and find even more shortcomings.

21.
The Arachau language, created according to the laws of logic, is somewhat inferior in external sound, but it allows you to construct any words you want. This allows you to express the most complex thoughts and easily create terminology. At some point, an intellectual conversation in Arachau comes to the point where you stop hearing the language and words altogether, and only catch one movement of thoughts. I haven't tried it yet, but I think it's true. To equip the brain, you just need to give it a constructor language, and so that complex things can be expressed briefly. Brevity, in essence, is a way of expressing thoughts. When we need to express a long thought (in Russian), we simply refrain from doing so. If we need to speak a whole sentence, instead of one word, we choose silence. And in a number of cases, they simply do not understand us, having ignored the word indicating the context. The text is understood as if there were no indication of the desired meaning. Starting to speak simply and savagely (but understandably), we do not say anything smart, and we cannot prove the correctness of our views. Personal beliefs begin to seem like stupid stubbornness to your opponent. Therefore, the zip-jolzik also has tools for constructing more complex thoughts. At a minimum level.

22.
Imagining a future in which everyone knows Zip-Jolzik, I would prefer to speak both Russian and Zip-Jolzik in it. I do not exclude Russian from my vocabulary. Some will prefer to speak only one language - either Zip-Jolzik or Russian.

23.
At the moment, it is necessary for intermen to come over to my side and begin to promote zip-jolzik and speak it. Then everything will go easier. If it is decided that some other language should become international, and if this is a worthy project, then I will give up my developments and start studying this language. In this case, I will not need to completely create the zip-zip.

24.
If we consider that there are more than 1000 artificial languages, then among them there may well be a worthy candidate for the role of a world language. It seems strange to me that there is no site where all these languages ​​would be collected and divided into categories. I also don’t know if there are any other paralanguages ​​besides mine. Only the most popular languages ​​are widely known. But it may turn out that some little-known language is the best. The little-known should not be overlooked, but should be considered together with the popular.

25.
It may also happen that aliens will give us an international language. Their technology has developed over millions of years, and there may be some kind of language suitable for us. If so, even better. At least, I can say for sure that complex languages ​​are only the first stage of evolution, and a dead-end one at that. In the future, interest in complex languages ​​and simple symbols should dry up. Both of them are the 20th century, the stone era of interlinguistics. Now the time is different, and we need to look forward.

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE MOSCOW REGION

State educational institution of higher professional education

Moscow State Regional University

Institute of Linguistics and Intercultural Communication

Faculty of Linguistics

CourseworkJob

Bydiscipline " LinguisticsAndliterary criticism"

ontopic: " Causescreationartificiallanguages. StorycreationAndfunctioningVolapuk"

Work completed

student Zhigunova Elena Dmitrievna

Scientific supervisor: Art. Rev. Fedosova A.K.

Content

• Introduction
• 1.3 Examples of artificial languages ​​in literature and cinematography
• Chapter 2. Volapyuk
• 2.1 History of creation
• Conclusion
• Bibliography

Introduction

This topic course work is quite relevant at the moment, since in our time the creation of artificial languages ​​is quite common. After all, natural languages ​​mainly serve as the basis for artificial languages, although there are cases when new languages ​​are completely different from any of the existing languages.

The problem of creating artificial languages ​​has both positive and negative character, which is why I would like to consider this problem from both sides in order to find out why artificial languages ​​are created in the presence of thousands of natural ones.

Indeed, at the moment, not every natural language has a written language, there are quite a lot of dead languages ​​that no one speaks anymore, there are endangered languages ​​that are spoken by only a few people in the whole world, and this makes one cannot help but wonder why artificial languages attracted by why he speaks some artificial languages more people than on some that are considered endangered.

The main research method in this work was studying material on different artificial languages, conducting surveys about what artificial languages ​​people know and where they learned about them, writing short reviews about different languages ​​after the survey, studying material about natural languages ​​and problems of “language barrier" in modern world, and Negative consequences creation of artificial languages.

Chapter 1. Reasons for the creation of artificial languages

Since ancient times, people have experienced certain difficulties due to the fact that different nationalities speak different languages ​​and dialects, and accordingly, such a concept as a “language barrier” appeared.

Since then, people began to wonder how to overcome this “barrier”, because people needed to contact each other ever since states appeared, and there was a need for trade, establishing friendly ties between states and concluding treaties.

A striking example is the Old Russian state and Byzantium. In 907 and 911, the first treaties were concluded between the Old Russian state and Byzantium. The first treaty of 907 was of a dubious nature and was, rather, preparatory to the treaty of 911. And the treaty of 911 determined the procedure for the ransom of prisoners, restored friendly relations between states, determined punishments for criminal offenses committed by Greek and Russian merchants in Byzantium, the rules of litigation and inheritance, created favorable trading conditions for Russians and Greeks, changed coastal law (owners of the coast should have assisted in the rescue of the beached ship and its property instead of seizing it).

People began to solve the problem of the “language barrier” in different ways. Some began to study other languages ​​in order to be able to speak them and understand others, others chose one language for international communication, for example, in ancient times it was Latin, and now in most countries people understand and speak English .

Also, pidgins began to emerge - peculiar “hybrids” of any two languages. An example of such a “hybrid” is a mixture of Ukrainian and Russian languages ​​- from the outside it seems as if a person speaks Russian, but uses Ukrainian words in his vocabulary, and it turns out that both Russians and Ukrainians understand him. Although Russian and Ukrainian are very similar, this “hybrid” is still useful for communication.

Since the seventeenth century, scientists have been thinking about creating a new, special language that would be quite easy to understand and learn, and which would become the language of international communication. After all, in natural languages, the languages ​​we speak from birth, there are quite a lot of exceptions and borrowed words, complex rules, and their structure depends on historical development, in which it is very difficult to understand the logic, for example, the formation of some grammatical forms and spelling. Artificially created languages ​​are usually called planned languages, since the word "artificial" can cause negative associations when translated into some languages.

The most famous and widespread of the artificial languages ​​is Esperanto, which was created by Ludwig Zamenhof in 1887. “Esperanto,” which means “hopeful,” was Zamenhof’s pseudonym, and subsequently the language he created was called by this name.

Zamenhof was born in Bialystok, in Russian Empire. Jews, Poles, Germans and Belarusians lived in the city - in a word, people of completely different nationalities, and relations between people of these nationalities were quite tense. Ludwik Zamenhof decided that the reason for this enmity between ethnic groups lay in misunderstanding, and even when he was studying at the gymnasium he made attempts to develop a “common” language based on the European languages ​​​​that he studied. He needed to create a language that was also neutral. The structure of Esperanto was created quite simple for ease of learning and memorizing the language. The roots of the words were borrowed from European and Slavic languages, as well as from Latin and ancient Greek.

There are many organizations that devote their activities to disseminating Esperanto; books and magazines are published in this language, broadcasting channels have been created on the Internet, and songs have been written. There are also versions of many popular programs in the language, such as Office applications OpenOffice.org, browser Mozilla Firefox, and there is also an Esperanto version in search engine Google. The language also enjoys the support of UNESCO.

In addition to Esperanto, there are quite a few other artificially created languages, both widely known throughout the world and some less widespread. Many of them were created with the same goal - to develop the most convenient means for international communication: Ido, Interlingua, Volapuk and others.

Some other artificial languages, for example, Loglan, were created for research purposes; linguists specially developed new artificial languages ​​in order to conduct experiments, experiments, identify patterns, etc. And languages ​​such as Na'vi, Klingon and Sindarin were developed so that characters in books and films could speak them.

We all know the “Lord of the Rings” trilogy, in which elves, gnomes, goblins, and orcs spoke languages ​​that were completely different in sound and writing, and each of the languages ​​had its own history, as did the peoples speaking them . Also, the Na'vi language was specially developed, which was spoken by the heroes of the film "Avatar", the film's director James Cameron specifically asked the linguist to develop and create an artificial language for the fictional world. After the film was released, there were a lot of people who wanted to learn the fictional language, which became one of the means of communication between fans of the film and the book.

Unlike natural languages, which developed throughout the history of mankind, separated over time from any parent language and died, artificial languages ​​are created by people specifically for relatively a short time. They can be created based on the elements and structure of existing natural languages ​​or "constructed" entirely.

Authors of artificial languages ​​disagree on which strategy best meets their goals - neutrality, ease of learning, ease of use. After all, it is impossible to guess which of these parameters will make the language the most popular and spread so much as to become universal. And therefore, many believe that the creation of artificial languages ​​makes no sense at all, since they will never spread enough to serve as a universal interethnic language. Even a language such as Esperanto is now known to few, and English is most often used for international negotiations.

Learning artificial languages ​​is complicated by many factors. Firstly, there are no native speakers, since these are completely made-up languages ​​that have never been spoken by anyone since ancient times. The structure may change periodically as scholars often argue about how to make the language better, which rules to keep and which should be replaced. And, as a result of disagreements between theorists, an artificial language can be divided into two variants, since some decide that one variant is more acceptable, and others decide that it should be done differently - for example, Lojban was separated from the Loglan language, Ido from Esperanto .

However, supporters of artificial languages ​​still believe that in conditions modern globalization What is needed is a language that can be used by everyone without being associated with any particular country or culture, and linguistic research and experimentation continues.

1.1 Negative aspects of creating artificial languages

As it turned out, artificial languages ​​began to be created in the 17th century in order to overcome the “language barrier.” But is it right to create a language in which all people can communicate? Of course, it is good if people can communicate with each other without any problems and do not experience any difficulties when traveling to other countries.

After all, if there is one universal language interethnic communication, then you will not need to learn other languages ​​almost from infancy, there will be no difficulties with incorrect pronunciation of words in another language, you will not need to buy dictionaries just to go on vacation with your family to another country. Ignorance of another language and another country will no longer be a problem for vacationers, travelers and tourists.

If you look from this point of view, if a universal language of interethnic communication is ever created, then over time, after centuries, people will simply no longer need their native languages. But why, if there is one that everyone knows and understands? Now there is no “language barrier”, no translation difficulties, you can freely communicate with anyone anywhere in the world!

People of different nationalities will speak neutral, simple, fictional language which Not It has stories. But each of the languages, natural languages, is unique. Carries with him a whole historical era, the spirit of the people, because it is part of the ethnic group. Will he just be forgotten? Because people simply don’t want to learn other languages ​​in order to contact other, equally unique ethnic groups with their own history.

Perhaps the creation of an artificial universal language so that people of different nations can communicate is simply an act of laziness? Many people, if possible, go abroad and receive higher education there, the opportunity to communicate with people of another country, to learn a language, is refused, and only because they simply do not want to learn another language seems savage to me.

Moreover, if there is only one language, after centuries, maybe even millennia, people will simply forget their native languages, they will become for them like Latin is for us now - a dead language that now exists only as echoes of that great language, that existed before.

What will be left for linguists? Now there are thousands of languages ​​that are spoken, written, and they can all be studied, many dialects, neologisms, incomprehensible exceptions to the rules of languages ​​- all this gives linguists work, knowledge, scientific discoveries, the creation of new dictionaries, and the like.

But if all this does not exist, if there is only one language, linguists will have no choice but to delve into history and study dead languages ​​that were once great, or create new ones for their research purposes.

1.2 Positive aspects of creating artificial languages

The creation of artificial languages ​​also brings benefits. Undoubtedly, creating a universal language for communication is a great idea for overcoming the language barrier, because if one can be created, then most likely there will be no strife between people due to misunderstandings. In some cases, an artificial language as a means of interethnic communication is urgently needed.

For example, in Papua New Guinea there are a huge number of languages ​​spoken, and the authorities there are literally “hanging themselves” because even neighboring villages find it very difficult to communicate with each other due to the large difference in dialects or language in general. Problems also arise with the media, because if a country does not have a national language, then it becomes unclear how to present information to people, in what language the information should be disseminated through radio, television, newspapers and magazines so that it reaches all residents.

Also, India has about 17 accepted national languages ​​and it is very difficult to communicate with so many differences in word meanings. In China, people also experience difficulties, since the Chinese language has a huge amount of various characters and from this in Chinese quite a few dialectal branches that are understandable only to those people who use them.

It is for such cases that the creation of a single language so that people can communicate, at least within their own country, is very important, because this can lead to strife and difficulties in people’s interaction with each other and life in general.

Also, artificial languages ​​are very interesting factor for fans of science fiction, books and films in general, as many writers create their own own world, in which they create their own language. These languages ​​are, as it were, native to the characters in books or films, since the authors create not only the language itself, but also think through its history, not the story of creation, or the idea that came to the author’s mind, and he decided to create the language, but the story that goes deep into that fictional world, about which the author writes.

1.3 Examples of artificial languages ​​in literature and cinema

The Klingon language spoken by humanoid warriors from the planet Khonosh in the fictional universe of the series " Star Trek", was invented by linguist Marc Okrand for Paramount Studios. The language has a detailed grammar, syntax, vocabulary and even a regulatory organization - the Klingon Language Institute, which promotes Klingon culture and translations classical literature, including the Bible and Shakespeare in Klingon.

In addition to Klingon, in the Star Trek universe there are about 10 languages ​​of varying degrees of development, including Vulcan, Borg, Rihannsu, Andorian, Orion, Tamarian, Ferengi, Bayoran, etc.

By J.R. R. Tolkien is known not only as a writer and author of "The Hobbit" and "The Lord of the Rings", but also as a linguist and inventor of many artificial languages.

Even as a child, Tolkien and his friends invented secret languages ​​to communicate with each other. This passion remained with him throughout his life. He developed the grammar and vocabulary for a whole family of 15 Elvish languages, which he continued to work on from 1910 until his death in 1973. This group includes Proto-Elven, Common Eldarin, Quenya, Goldogrin, Telerin, Sindarin, Ilkorin, Nandorin, Avarin.

In the film "The Fifth Element" the main character Lilu speaks the so-called ancient Divine language (The Divine Language), which, according to prehistory, was spoken by the entire Universe before the beginning of time.

Designed by Luc Besson and Milla Jovovich, the language has just over 400 words. As the actress claimed, she and the director even wrote letters to each other in it for language practice. Some time after the film's release, Besson's inspired fans collected all the phrases from the film and compiled a dictionary.

In the world of A Song of Ice and Fire, created by George R.R. Martin, there are many various languages. In Westeros the so-called mutual language, languages ​​of Valyria, Dothraki and others that differ from it are also known (dialects Free Cities, language Quart, Ghiscari, language Lhazaryan, Asshai, trade language, language Summer Islands Andetc.). Most of these languages ​​are rendered in English in the books of the saga.

We will focus on Dothraki, which Daenerys Targaryen had to learn. This language was developed in more detail especially for the Game of Thrones series, and its creator was David J. Peterson from the Language Creation Society. The books didn't have many guidelines for language development, just a few nouns and dozens of names. They set the vector for its development.

The new language received grammatical and phonetic borrowings from Russian, Turkish, Estonian, and Inuktitut (language residents extreme north Canada) and Swahili.

Several fictional languages ​​are mentioned in the world of Harry Potter, including Gobbledook, Runic, the language of the merpeople, and Parseltongue or "serpentine." This magical language, according to JK Rowling's narrative, is owned by parsel-mouth magicians who speak with snakes. Those around cannot understand the conversation between the parselmouth and the snake, since they only hear a hiss. This innate and extremely rare gift is passed on by inheritance or along with magical powers. Typically, tongue is associated with the Dark Arts, but some good wizards also possessed this gift.

The most famous Parselmouth was Salazar Slytherin, one of the four founders of Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. That is why the symbol of the Slytherin house is a snake.

The language consists of various hissing sounds and rough letters, and words are pronounced on the exhale with hissing and imitation of snake sounds. Most sentences are very short and consist of only a subject, an object and a verb. The rest of the meaning must be figured out by the listener, based on their knowledge and context. In addition, the language does not have a written form, and the Latin alphabet is very difficult to convey its sound. The version of Parseltongue used in the films was developed by Francis Nolan, professor of phonetics and specialist in Finnish and Estonian at the University of Cambridge.

Universe " Star Wars"is also filled with a kind of different languages, of which the saga mentions Galactic High, Droid Binary, Duros, Hutt, Yuuzhan Vong, and many others. Fictional languages Star Wars, unlike Klingon or Sindarin, have no real grammatical system. For example, Wookiee growls or droid signals mostly convey intonation and emotion. The language most often used in the films, Galactic Basic, is identical to modern English and is only slightly supplemented by fictitious idioms and individual words. Other languages ​​are also similar to existing human ones, although unfamiliar to most viewers.

One of the original languages ​​of the film saga is bokke , an artificial language used by space travelers, which consists of the languages ​​of several races.

According to the narrative, the language originated in the Baobab trade ftol as a means of communication between the pilots, crew, and support staff, who belonged to a variety of races. Although the language is not widely used, any experienced pilot and space traveler knows a few phrases in Bokke to communicate with other pilots.

Chapter 2. Volapyuk

2.1 History of creation

Volapyuk (Volapьk: vol - “world” + pьk - language) is the first international language of artificial origin in history. It was created by the German priest Johann Schleyer back in 1879. As the author himself stated, one day the Lord appeared to him in a dream and offered to create a new language capable of uniting all peoples.

A disclaimer should be made here that in fact the first project to create an artificial international language was Universalglot, created in 1868 by the French linguist Jean Pirro. However, he had no success at all. Volapyuk managed to advance a little further.

Schleyer's creation was based on the classic German, from which the author excluded the sound r, considering it too complex for several nationalities, but left the original German umlauted vowels d, c, ь.

Unlike the deliberately simplified Esperanto, Volapük had a complex grammatical and word-formation system. There were several thousand forms of verbs alone in it. In addition, this language, like its ancestor, made it possible to combine an unlimited number of roots in one complex word, which led to the appearance of such monsters as klonalitakipafablеdacifalоpasekretan (“secretary of the chandelier factory management”). Unfortunately, it was precisely this complexity that caused the rapid decline of Volapük.

Volapuk artificial language international

2.2 Functioning of Volapük in modern society

Over the course of twenty years since its creation, this language has been actively gaining popularity. By 1889, over 210 thousand people had studied it in the most different countries, relevant literature was created, periodicals were published. But in the same year there was a conflict between Schleyer and reformers who wanted to somewhat simplify Volapuk for general use. The priest forbade any changes to his creation, and fans of artificial international languages ​​switched their attention to Esperanto, created two years earlier.

And although in 1929 it was still somewhat transformed into Volapuk, total number its carriers today do not exceed 30 people. This is definitely not enough for the language to develop and spread normally.

Conclusion

Thus, we can conclude that artificial languages ​​were mainly created in order to facilitate intercultural communication for people, since people need to overcome the “language barrier” and speak freely among themselves without quarreling due to misunderstandings.

It also turned out that a lot of artificial languages ​​were created in connection with books and films, which have their own fictional world and, accordingly, need a language to make this world look like the real one. As it turns out, these fictional languages ​​are very popular among people because people are interested in worlds and their languages, and after the release of films or books, there are a lot of followers of trilogies or series of books or films. This is why some man-made languages ​​eclipse endangered languages ​​in popularity.

Also, artificial languages ​​are created by linguists themselves, sometimes for research purposes, to observe processes, compare an artificially created language with a natural one, or develop a language for a tribe that only has a written language.

Bibliography

1. Current problems of modern interlinguistics: Sat. in honor of the 75th anniversary of academician. P.A. Ariste. (Interlinguistica Tartuensis - 1). Tartu, 1982.

2. Akhmanova ABOUT. WITH, Bokarev E.A. International auxiliary language as a linguistic problem. - Questions of linguistics, 1956, No. 6, pp. 65-78.

3. Isaev M.AND. The problem of an artificial language of international communication. - In the book: Problems of interlinguistics. M.: Nauka, 1976.

4. http://london-moscow.ru/zachem_sozdavat_iskusstvennie_yaziki

5. http://whoyougle.ru/texts/artificial-languages/

6. https://ru. wikipedia.org

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Logic as the science of thinking. What does logic study as a science?

What does logic study as a science and why is it called formal?

The word "logic" comes from the Greek logos, which means “thought”, “word”, “mind”, “law”. In modern language this word is used, as a rule, in three meanings:

1) to indicate patterns and relationships between events or actions of people in the objective world; in this sense, they often talk about “the logic of facts”, “the logic of things”, “the logic of events”, “the logic of international relations”, “the logic of political struggle”, etc.;

2) to indicate the rigor, consistency, and regularity of the thinking process; in this case, the following expressions are used: “logic of thinking”, “logic of reasoning”, “iron logic of reasoning”, “there is no logic in the conclusion”, etc.

3) to designate a special science that studies logical forms, operations with them and the laws of thinking.

Object Logic as a science is human thinking. But thinking is a complex, multilateral process of a person’s general reflection of things, their properties and relationships of the world around him. This process is studied by many sciences, such as philosophy, psychology, genetics, linguistics, cybernetics, etc. Philosophy studies the origin and essence of thinking, its relationship to the material world and knowledge. Psychology studies the conditions of normal (in relation to pathology) functioning and development of thinking, and the influence of the socio-psychological environment on it. Genetics seeks to reveal the mechanism by which people inherit the ability to think. Linguistics is interested in the relationship between thinking and language. Cybernetics scientists are trying to construct technical models of the brain and human thinking. Logic studies the process of thinking from the point of view of its structure of thoughts, the correctness and incorrectness of reasoning, abstracting from the specific content of thoughts and their development.

Subject Logics are logical forms, operations with them and laws of thinking.

To better understand the subject of the study of logic, let us briefly consider the process of a person’s cognition of the world around him. Cognition is the process of obtaining knowledge about the world. There are two ways (sources) of acquiring knowledge:

1) sensory cognition - with the help of sense organs and instruments;

2)rational(ratio - mind) - cognition through abstract thinking.

The basis of the materialistic theory of cognition is the theory of reflection: things, phenomena of the objective world influence the human senses, force the entire system of transmitting information to the brain (as well as the brain itself), as a result of which a person creates images of these things and phenomena.Sensual images are knowledge about external properties, aspects of things and phenomena (visible, audible, tangible, etc.). Such, for example, is our knowledge that “it is rainy today”; “It’s half past four on my watch”; “this rose is red”; “Peter sits to the left of Paul,” etc.

Sensory cognition occurs in three main forms: sensation (reflection of individual properties of objects), perception (reflection of the object as a whole, this is a holistic image of the object) and representation (preserved image of objects).

But at the stage of sensory cognition, a person cannot knowessence things and phenomena, theirinternal properties. As the Little Prince said from the story of the same name by A. de Saint-Exupéry, “you cannot see the most important things with your eyes.” Therefore, the mind comes to the aid of the senses, or abstract thinking, which reflects reality in its main and essential properties and relationships.

In abstract thinking, knowledge of the world does not occur explicitly, but indirectly - without recourse to observation, practice, but with the help of additional reasoning about the properties and relationships of objects and phenomena. For example, a thermometer can tell you about the weather; Using the traces left by the criminal at the crime scene, you can recreate the picture of the crime and find the criminal, etc.

One of the most important features of abstract thinking is its relationship with language: every thought is formalized through words and phrases - “pronounced” using internal or external speech.

In the process of thinking, a person not only reflects the existing world, but can create new ideas, abstractions, predict and anticipate.

Rational or abstract thinking occurs in three main forms - concepts, judgments, and inferences.

Concept - a form of thinking with the help of which mental images are created about objects, their properties and relationships. In the process of creating concepts, a personanalyzes subjects that interest him,compares theirhighlights essential features,synthesizes their,abstracted from unimportantgeneralizes mentally objects according to these characteristics. As a result, mental images are created about objects, their properties and relationships. For example, abstracting from the diverse individual properties of students related to their nationality, gender, age, etc., and highlighting the main properties, we can say that a student is a student of higher educational institutions; student - one who receives education; and the person himself is the one who is able to work, think, speak.

Concepts play a big role in human cognitive activity. With their help, he can generalize, connect mentally what exists separately in life. In the objective world there is no student, disciple, or person in general; these generalized images can only exist in the ideal world, in a person’s head.

The formation of concepts makes it possible to have knowledge about phenomena based on the main, essential properties of a class of similar phenomena. Jonathan Swift eloquently talks about what would happen if people did not use concepts in communication with each other. One wise man, says the author of Gulliver's Travels, suggested using in conversation not concepts about objects, but the objects themselves to express thoughts. Many followed this “wise” advice. True, the interlocutors had to carry large bundles of things on their shoulders. When meeting on the street, they took the bags off their shoulders, opened them and, taking out the necessary things from there, carried on a conversation in this way. Of course, such a “conversation” could be extremely elementary, if it could take place at all.

Having concepts about objects, a person canjudge about them(make judgments) and doinferences. For example, having a concept about a person and knowing that all living things die sooner or later, we can make the judgment: “Every person is mortal.”

Judgment - a form of thinking in which something is affirmed or denied about the subject of thought. The following statements are also judgments: “Every student passes the exam,” “If a student does not pass the exams for the first year, he will not be promoted to the second year,” etc.

From judgments we can obtain new judgments. For example: based on the proposition “Every man is mortal,” one can assert that “Some mortals are men” or deny: “No man is immortal.” If we connect the judgment “Every man is mortal” with the judgment “Socrates is a man,” then we can purely mentally obtain a new judgment: “Socrates is mortal.” This relationship of judgments is calledconclusion:

Every man is mortal

Socrates is a man

Socrates is mortal.

In the process of constructing concepts, judgments and conclusions, a person can make conscious and unconscious errors. To avoid mistakes, you need to know the rules of thinking. Thinking built according to rules (and laws) is called correct.

Correct thinking - one in which from the original true knowledge (concepts, judgments and inferences) new true knowledge (new concepts, judgments, inferences) are always necessarily obtained. In incorrect thinking, both true and false new knowledge can be obtained from true knowledge.

For example, based on the judgments “If it rained, then the road will be wet” and “It was raining,” we can confidently say that “The road will be wet.” But it is incorrect to conclude: “If it rained, then the road will be wet” and “The road is wet,” therefore, “It was raining,” since the road could simply be watered. The reasoning will be incorrect when, of the two judgments, “If a person committed a theft, then he committed a crime” and “The person did not commit theft,” the conclusion is made “The person did not commit a crime,” since the person could have committed some other crime.

Question aboutcorrectness inferences are a question about the rules for their construction, about the rules for the interconnection of individual thoughts (concepts, judgments, conclusions). This is precisely what logic is interested in as the science of thinking. That is why it is called “formal logic”. Formal logic is abstracted from the specific content of thoughts and their development. But it takes into account the truth or falsity of the thoughts being studied (in two-valued formal logic, two meanings of every thought are taken into account - “true” and “false”; in multi-valued formal logic, other meanings are introduced, for example, “indefinite”). Sometimes correct thinking is called logical - after the name of the science that studies this aspect of the thinking process.

Question abouttruth (falsity) of judgments is a question of the correspondence (inconsistency) of what is affirmed or denied in it with the objective world.True judgment - one that correctly reflects the state of affairs in objective reality (which corresponds to reality). For example: “Moscow is the capital of Russia”, “A criminal is a person who violates the legal and moral laws of society”, etc.False judgment one that is not true. For example: “St. Petersburg is the capital of Russia”, “A criminal is a righteous person”, etc. Questions about what truth is in general, how sensory knowledge and abstract thinking relate in the process of achieving the truth about objects are studied by another science - philosophy .

To better understand the subject of the study of logic and its role in human cognition and thinking, it is necessary to dwell in more detail on the consideration of the logical form and laws of thinking.

Logical form and laws of thinking

We have already said that the main forms of abstract thinking areconcept, judgment, inference. Each of these forms has its own specific internal structure and is subject to certain construction rules.

In the natural language of thoughtexpressed using words Andphrases, havespecific content (what they say). For example, you can express the concept of the first person in space as “The first cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin.” The outer shell of a simple judgment can be different linguistic expressions:snow is white etc.

To reveal the internal structure of concepts, let us compare concepts that are different in content, for example, “table”, “person”, “crime”.

They reflect different objects and are different in their content. But do they have anything in common?

Let's abstract from specific objects that are reflected in concepts and imagine them as classes of indefinite objectsX. In the first case, underX the class of all possible tables is understood, in the second - the class of people, in the third - the set of all possible criminal acts. Objects can be generalized into classes because they have some common properties. In the first case - the property of “being an object with a horizontal surface intended for some kind of human activity”, in the second - “the ability to think” and “the ability to work”, in the third - “to be an antisocial, illegal, guilty and punishable act”

You can ignore the specifics of these properties, combine them and denote them with the symbolA (sum of common characteristics). Then the connection between classes of objects and the class of general properties of these objects can be represented by the following formula:X A (X). It reads: “a class of such objectsX, which have characteristicsA". This connection between a class of objects and a set of characteristics islogical form of concepts. We can say that concepts about various objects (phenomena, processes, properties of objects, etc.) are formed in human thinking in the same way - objects are generalized into classes according to their essential characteristics.Logical form of concepts - a way of connecting the characteristics of objects with the objects themselves.

To reveallogical form of judgments, Let us consider judgments with different contents: “The table is furniture”, “A man walks on two legs” and “The crime must be punished”.

Do they have anything in common? Let's abstract from what is said in these judgments and replace the conceptstable, man Andcrime symbolS (subject), we get:

(1) S is furniture,

(2) S walks (is walking) on ​​two legs,

(3) S must be punished.

Now let's abstract from those properties that are attributed to the subject of thought, and replace the concepts expressing these properties with the symbolR (predicate). We obtain the same form of relationship between the subject and the predicate of the judgment:S is the essence of R. UnderS AndR one can think of any objects and properties, underessence - affirmative connection between subject and predicate. This formula for the connection between concepts about objects and concepts about the properties of objects islogical form of judgment. The connection between concepts in a judgment can be negative:S do not eatR. Logical form of judgments - a way of connecting concepts about an object, about the properties of objects or relationships between objects, expressed in the form of affirmation or negation. Fromsimple judgments can be formedcomplex judgments that have their own logical forms.

The logical form of inferences is more complex and varied. Consider the following conclusions:

(1) from the judgments “Every criminal must be punished” and “Petrov is a criminal” a new judgment “Petrov must be punished” necessarily follows. The conclusion is obtained because the initial judgments are connected by the common concept of “criminal” (denoted by the letterM - medium, average);

(2) from the propositions “Every man is mortal” and “Socrates is a man” one can obtain a new proposition “Socrates is mortal.”

If we abstract from the specific content of these inferences, we can establish a common logical form for them:

AnyM There isR

S There isM

S There isR.

Logical form of inference - a way of connecting judgments. The more complex the judgments that make up inferences, the more complex the logical form of inferences will be.

In the real process of thinking, the content and logical form of thought exist in inextricable unity. There are no pure, empty forms. However, for the purpose of special analysis, formal logic is abstracted from the specific content of thoughts, making their logical forms the subject of its study.

Logical forms of thoughts do not depend on what natural language a person thinks in. They are universal. Logical forms express relationships between things, which in human practice, repeated billions of times, are fixed in his consciousness by figures of logic.

The connections and relationships of things and phenomena are diverse, and therefore the logical forms of thoughts are also diverse. Not all of them are correct. For example, from practice we know that two things can have a connection with a third, but not be related to each other. Let's say we know that “Student Ivanov is an athlete” and “Student Petrov is an athlete.” But if we do not have some additional information about them, then these judgments do not provide grounds for new judgments. In our minds this reasoning is reflected in the form of an irregular form:

S 1 There isR

S 2 There isR

?

In reasoning that is incorrect in form, false conclusions can be obtained from true judgments. For example, from the true judgments “If a person has a high temperature, then he is sick” and “A person N. is sick,” the judgment “A person N. has a high temperature” is sometimes deduced, which may turn out to be false, since some diseases occur without an increase in temperature .

Correct logical forms are those in which new true judgments are always necessarily obtained from true judgments.

In correct reasoning, two conditions must be met: 1) the initial judgments must be true; 2) the way of connecting parts of thoughts must be correctly constructed. Some of the rules for constructing thoughts have the nature of laws of thinking.

Underlogical laws understand stable necessary connections between thoughts. Formal logical laws are the laws of the correct construction of thoughts.

Formal logic studies two types of laws:

1. Laws expressingnecessary general requirements, which concepts, judgments, inferences and logical operations with them must satisfy. These laws are calledbasic, because they express fundamental properties logical thinking: hiscertainty, consistency, consistency Andvalidity.

The requirements for thinking, expressed in the basic laws of logic, can be depicted as follows:

2. Laws expressinglogical forms (schemes, structures)Right constructed reasoning, conclusions, statements.

The second type of laws includescorrectly built statements in which the truth of some judgments withnecessity forces you to recognize the truth of others. With properly constructed thinking, we “feel compelled” to think one way and not another. For example, if we recognized the truth of the propositions “If a person committed a theft, then he committed a crime” and “The person committed a theft,” then we must necessarily admit that “The person committed a crime.”

To check whether a given statement is correctly constructed (i.e., a law), it is necessary, firstly, to identify its logical form and, secondly, to check whether the truth of the conclusion necessarily follows from the truth of the premises. We will talk about this in more detail in the topic “Inference”.

Violation of the requirements of the laws of logic leads to the fact that thinking becomes incorrect and illogical. In the practice of thinking, there are two types of errors associated with violation of the requirements of the laws of logic -sophistry Andparalogisms.

TOsophistry resort to those who consciously try to give incorrect reasoning the appearance of correctness by deliberately violating the rules and laws of thinking. For example, sophistry is a reasoning that substantiates the proposition “All students learn their lessons well”:

Everyone who is attentive learns their lessons well.

Some students are attentive.

All pupils learn well from their lessons.

The error in this argument is that the term “disciples,” taken in the second premise only in some part of its scope (“some students”), is taken in its entirety in the conclusion (“all students”).

Paralogism - This is a logical error made unintentionally, usually due to ignorance of the rules of logic.

Let's take a closer lookbasic laws of thinking.

1. Law of identity: every thought in the process of reasoning must be identical to itself. The law of identity can be expressed as a formula:R There isR ; r → r orr ≡ r, where underR any thought is understood, and the signs: “there is”,→ (replace conjunctions “if.., then...”),≡ (replaces the conjunctions “if, and only if.., then...”) - respectively express equality, following or identity.

The law expresses the requirement for certainty of thinking in the reasoning process: a thought must have a certain stable content and not be replaced by other thoughts. This requirement is due to the fact that in natural language there are many words that may be superficially similar to each other, but have different meanings (synonyms), and also due to the fact that different people, depending on their profession, life experience, etc. put different meanings into the same concepts. Thus, a lawyer understands “slander” as “the dissemination of knowingly false information that discredits the honor and dignity of another person or undermines his reputation,” and a person not associated with legal practice can understand any untruth as slander.

Failure to comply with the requirement of certainty of thinking leads to confusion, ambiguity, makes it difficult to clarify the essence of a conversation or dispute, and leads to a logical error, which is called “substitution of concepts.” Substitution of concepts means substitution of the subject of reasoning. Popular wisdom expressed this in a proverb: “One is about Thomas, the other is about Yerema.” This is what they say about those who, in a conversation seemingly on the same topic, talk or argue about different things.

Of course, it is not smart to argue about words. It is impossible to prohibit the use of this or that word. But it is important that interlocutors (or arguing people) use words in the same sense.

Of course, objects that exist in objective reality are constantly changing, but in the concepts of these objects something unchangeable stands out. In the process of reasoning, concepts cannot be changed without a special reservation.

Compliance with the requirements of the law of identity is of great importance in practical activities. It is no coincidence that the requirement to comply with the law of identity is enshrined, for example, in the Criminal Procedure Code of the Russian Federation.

2. Law of non-contradiction says that in reasoning, proof, theory there should be no contradictory thoughts about the same subject, taken at the same time and in the same relation. This law is formulated as follows:a statement and its negation (two contradictory statements) cannot be both true,” at least one of them is necessarily false. The law of non-contradiction is expressed by the formula: “it is not true thatR and not-R ", that is, two thoughts cannot be true together, one of which denies the other. For example, two contradictory propositions cannot be true at the same time: “N. guilty of committing a crime" and "N. not guilty of a crime."

Formal-logical contradictions in human reasoning should not be confused with dialectical contradictions, contradictions of “living life”, which reflect the contradictory aspects of objects and phenomena, opposite development trends and are expressed in scientific and everyday reasoning. Thus, Socrates’ famous statement “I know that I know nothing” hides a contradiction. Indeed, if Socrates knows that he knows nothing, then he does not know this either. The inconsistency of sensations can be expressed in the words: “the song is heard and not heard,” “the river moves and does not move.” The Russian proverb “A good fellow among sheep, but against a good fellow the sheep itself” speaks of different styles of behavior of one person (in relation to different people). But there is no logical contradiction in these judgments, since we can talk about different (opposite) features of objects or features recorded at different times. A logical contradiction occurs when opposing propositions are expressed.about the same sides objects, phenomena takenat the same time Andin the same respect.

Conscious use of the law of non-contradiction helps to detect and eliminate contradictions in one’s own and others’ reasoning (which, by the way, is the strongest argument against an opponent’s statements), and to develop a critical attitude towards all kinds of inaccuracies and inconsistency in thoughts and actions.

3. Law of the excluded middle reads:of two contradictory judgments about the same subject, at the same time, in the same respect, one is necessarily true, and the other - false, there is no third option. For example, such thoughts about a certain number as “this number is prime” and “this number is not prime”, or: “Moscow is the capital of Russia” and “Moscow is not the capital of Russia” cannot be considered simultaneously true. Of course, the question of which judgment is true and which is false is decided in practice, establishing the correspondence or discrepancy between judgments and objective reality.

The formal-logical law of non-contradiction only states that contradictory judgments about any objects or phenomena cannot be both true and false. One of them is true, the other is false, and no third, middle, statement is possible. The reasoning is carried out according to the formula:“either - or” (“either – or”).

This law is expressed by the formulas:“either p or not-p”; “either p or not-p” (either p or the negation of p is true). Thus, if the proposition “All lawyers are lawyers” is true, then the negation of this proposition “No lawyer is a lawyer” is false.

The law of the excluded middle also applies to the case when one of the statements denies something regarding the entire class of objects or phenomena, and another statement asserts the same thing regarding a part of the objects or phenomena of this class. Both such statements cannot be true at the same time. For example, if someone in a dispute first denies something regarding the entire class of objects: “beliefs do not exist,” and then suddenly recognizes the exact opposite as true regarding part of the objects of this class: “I am convinced of the truth of my opinion,” then it may be caught in a logical contradiction.

The law also expresses the requirement to clarify our judgments and questions in such a way that we can answer “yes” or “no” to the same question in the same sense, and not look for something in between, vague. For example: “Is this act a crime or is it not a crime?” If the concept of "crime" were not precisely defined, then in some cases this question would be impossible to answer. Since the concept of “crime” can be precisely defined as an antisocial, illegal, guilty and punishable act, then in each specific case it is possible to give an unambiguous answer to this question. A lawyer often has to decide a case in an “either-or” form: a given fact is either established or not established; the crime was committed or was not committed; the accused is either guilty or not guilty, the witness is lying or not lying, etc.

The desire to evade a clear and definite answer to a question, to find some kind of average solution that does not exist in reality, is characteristic of unprincipled people. People who change their point of view and avoid a direct answer are like a weather vane, turning one way or the other at the slightest change in the wind.

4. Law of Sufficient Reason states the following:every true thought must be justified (have sufficient grounds) by other thoughts, the truth of which has been proven. Formula of the law:“If there is q, then there is also its base p.”

The requirement for the validity of thinking reflects one of the fundamental properties of the material world: in nature and in society, every fact, every object, every phenomenon is prepared by previous facts, objects, phenomena. More than two hundred years ago, M.V. Lomonosov formulated the law of the objective world: “Nothing happens without a sufficient reason.” The lake freezes in winter as the ambient temperature drops; smoke rises upward because it is lighter than the atmosphere surrounding it, etc.

There is also a law in thinking: a sufficient basis for any thought can be any other thought that has already been tested and recognized as true, from which the truth of this thought necessarily follows. If the truth of any thought is accepted only on faith, then it cannot be considered justified.

The law of sufficient reason has important theoretical and practical significance: it helps to separate true judgments from false ones and requires considering as true only those judgments that have sufficient grounds and have been proven.

This law warns against the emergence of various prejudices and superstitions, which are usually built according to the scheme “after this, therefore, because of this” (walked along the road that a black cat ran across - expect misfortune, spilled salt - it means people will quarrel with each other, etc.). This law requires studying every phenomenon and finding its causes. He warns against unfounded judgments, “willful” decisions, and blind worship of authorities.

Lawslogic act in legal practice not only as laws of logical thinking, but also as legal requirements in legal thinking.

The language of logic. Natural and artificial languages

Since logic studies the forms of thinking, and thinking is inextricably linked with language, logic is also the science of language.

Language - This is any sign information system (a system of words or signs) that performs the function of generating, storing and transmitting information in the process of understanding reality and communication between people.

By origin, languages ​​are either natural or artificial.

Natural languages ​​- historically developed sound and graphic sign systems in society. Natural languages ​​arise spontaneously in the process of joint activity and communication between people and nations. Natural languages ​​include languages ​​of different nations, sign language, etc.

Constructed languages ​​- auxiliary sign systems created by groups of people specifically for more accurate transmission of specific information. Artificial languages ​​include musical notes, code system signs, ciphers, Morse code, “thieves’ language” used by criminals, etc.

There are also mixed languages, the basis of which is the natural (national) language, supplemented by symbols and conventions related to a specific subject area. This group of languages ​​includes the language of formal logic.

Certain signs act as symbols. Sign- any sensory perceived object that replaces or represents another object used in the process of cognition or communication as a representative of some object. The most typical are three types of signs: (1) index signs; (2) symbols-images; (3) signs-symbols.

Index signs are associated with the objects they represent as consequences with causes (symptoms, signs, instrument readings, etc.). So, smoke is a sign indicating the presence of fire; elevated temperature of a person - about a disease; height change mercury- about change atmospheric pressure etc.

Signs-images are those signs that themselves carry information about the objects they represent (drawings, maps, paintings, photographs), since they are in a relationship of similarity with the designated objects.

Signs-symbols do not resemble the designated objects (emblems, coats of arms, banners, artistic and graphic symbols, signal signs or cipher signs).

One type of sign is names. Name - This is a word or phrase that denotes an object. Since a name is a sign, it has meaning and meaning. The meaning of a name is the thing denoted by that name. The meaning of a name is the concept of an object. The relationship between a name, object meaning and meaning can be clearly expressed using a triangle, at the corners of which there are: name, concept, object.

This means that the name, concept and object do not coincide, but are closely interrelated: the name stands for subject andexpresses concept about the subject.

The relationship between thinking and language (concepts and words) does not mean that they are identical. The same concept can be expressed in different words. For example, words from different natural languages ​​or synonymous words in the same language. Synonyms - words that differ in sound, but are identical or similar in meaning: “labor” and “work”; "agreement" and "contract".

On the other hand, in any language there is homonyms - words that are identical in form and sound, but different in meaning and concept (for example, “key”, “braid”, “bor”, “world”).

Sometimes words lose their original meanings and express new concepts (for example, the word “ink” originally meant “that which inks,” but today “that which writes,” and we can talk about red ink).

The ambiguity of words often leads to confusion of concepts and, consequently, to errors in reasoning. Therefore, it is necessary to know exactly what concept a particular word expresses, and to use this word in a strictly defined meaning.

In scientific knowledge it is necessary to use unambiguous words and combinations. Such words are called terms. Term - a word or phrase that denotes a strictly defined concept and is characterized by unambiguity (at least within a given science or group of sciences).

Based on their composition, names are distinguished between simple ones (“state”) and complex ones, consisting of several words (“Earth satellite”, “Russian state”).

Names can also denote objects that do not exist in objective reality. For example, “centaur”, “mermaid”, “the most distant point of the Universe”, etc. These names are imaginary or empty.

Formal logic uses signs and symbols. There are no homonyms or unclear expressions in this language. This makes it possible to strictly record the course of reasoning and accurately resolve the issue of their correctness or incorrectness.

In logic, a distinction is made between the languages ​​of propositional logic and predicate logic. The language of propositional logic is used to describe the structure of statements, reasoning, and proposals. Under statements understands simple or complex abstract symbolic expressions denoting judgments. Simple statements combined into complex ones using connectives “and”, “or”, “if .., then”, etc., are called propositional statements, and the logic with which such statements are described is sometimes called propositional logic, or propositional calculus. Propositional logic can be classical (two-valued) or multi-valued.

Predicate Logic Language used to describe the internal structure of utterances. Alphabet of the language of predicate logic consists of the following characters:

A) a, b, c... - constant subject terms;

b) x,y,z...- variable subject terms;

V) R, Q, R ... - predicate terms (property names);

G) p , q, r ... - propositional terms (names of statements);

e) quantifiers: - all, - some;

e) - logical conjunctions, which read respectively: “and”, “or”, “if..., then...”, “if, and only if, then...” and are called the sign of negation, conjunction, disjunction, implications and equivalence;

g) technical symbols: , - comma; () - brackets.

Using the given alphabet, a formalized logical system called predicate calculus is constructed. Expressions in the language of predicate logic are called formulas. Formulas can be correctly constructed or incorrectly constructed.

There is a special science of signs - semiotics. This science has three sections - syntax, semantics and pragmatics, which is due to the presence of three aspects of language.

Syntax is a section of semiotics that studies the relationships between the signs themselves (the rules for constructing and transforming language expressions, etc.). In the process of this research, one is distracted from the meanings and meanings of signs.

Semantics is a section of semiotics that primarily studies the relationship of signs to the objects they represent, as well as the meanings of signs, since they are one of the means of establishing a connection between signs and their meanings.

Pragmatics studies a person’s attitude to signs, as well as relationships between people in the process of sign communication.

The language of formal logic allows us to avoid the ambiguity and ambiguity of natural language and reduce the process of checking the correctness of reasoning to “computation”.

The language was created by Canadian Sonia Lang and claims to be the simplest artificial language. There are only about 120 roots in his vocabulary.

Constructed languages ​​are those languages ​​in which vocabulary, phonetics and grammar have been developed for specific purposes. These are not real languages ​​invented by one person. Today there are already more than a thousand of them, and new ones are constantly being created. The reasons for creating an artificial language are: facilitating human communication, giving realism fiction and fictional worlds in cinema, linguistic experiments, language games, the development of the Internet and the creation of languages ​​understandable to all peoples of the planet.

1. Grammelot. A style of language used in the theater of humor and satire. This is a kind of gibberish with onomatopoeic elements along with pantomime and mimicry. The grammelot was popularized by the Italian playwright Dario Fo.
2. Esperanto. The most widespread artificial language in the world. Today it is spoken fluently by more than 100,000 people. It was invented by Czech ophthalmologist Lazar Zamenhof in 1887. Esperanto has a simple grammar. Its alphabet has 28 letters and is based on Latin. Most of vocabulary taken from Romance and Germanic languages. There are also many international words in Esperanto that are understandable without translation. 250 newspapers and magazines are published in Esperanto, 4 radio stations broadcast, and there are articles on Wikipedia.
3. Vendergood. It was developed by teenage prodigy William James Sidis based on Romance languages. Sidis knew about 40 languages ​​and translated fluently from one to another. Sidis created Vendergood in a book entitled The Book of Vendergood, which he wrote at the age of 8. The language is built on Latin and Greek vocabulary and grammar, and also contains elements of German, French and other Romance languages.
4. Aui. Created by John Weilgart. It is based on the philosophical concept of the formation of all concepts from a small number of elementary concepts, and the elementary concept of language. Its very name translates as “language of space.” Each sound in aui is associated with the concept it denotes. All vocabulary is built by combining basic concepts.
5. Nadsat. The fictional language spoken by teenagers in Anthony Burgess's novel A Clockwork Orange" In Nadsat, part of the vocabulary is English, part is fictitious, created by the author based on the Russian language. Most often, Russian equivalents are written in Latin and have some distortion. The grammar system is based on English language. In addition, there is slang from French and German, Malay and Gypsy, Cockney, and words invented by Burgess himself.
6. Leetspeak. Used in online games, chats, SMS and other electronic communication channels. The language was created as a cipher that could be read by users who knew the key to it. In the litspeak, numbers and symbols replace letters. They also make intentional mistakes, there are phonetic variations of words and neologisms.
7. Talossan. An artificial language created in 1980 by the 14-year-old founder of the virtual microstate of Talossa, Robert Ben-Madison. Talossan is built on the basis of Romance languages.
8. Klingon. Linguist Marc Okrand invented Klingon at the request of Paramount Pictures for the series and then the films of the Star Trek cinematic universe. It is spoken by aliens. In addition to them, the language was adopted by numerous fans of the series. Currently, in the United States there is a Klingon Language Institute, which publishes periodicals and translations of literary classics in Klingon.
9. Tokipona. The language was created by Canadian Sonia Lang and claims to be the simplest artificial language. There are only about 120 roots in his vocabulary. The names of animals and plants are missing. But in the unofficial dictionary there are designations for countries, nations, languages ​​that are written with a capital letter. Everything in Toki Pona is simplified: vocabulary, phonology, grammar and syntax.
10. Na'vi. This fictional language was developed by linguist Paul Frommer for the James Cameron Productions for the film Avatar. According to the scenario, native speakers of the Na’vi language are the inhabitants of the planet Pandora. Today there are more than 1000 words in his dictionary. Work on the Na'vi language continues. By the way, in its grammatical and lexical structure, Na’vi is reminiscent of Papuan and Australian languages.