Developmental psychology determines what the duration of childhood depends on. The problem of childhood in developmental psychology. Childhood and adulthood. The period of early childhood is a sensitive period for...
Childhood is a term denoting the initial period of ontogenesis, from birth to adolescence. Childhood covers infancy, early childhood, preschool age and primary school age, i.e. lasts from birth to 11 years.
Surely, for some, childhood is associated with carelessness, carefreeness, games, pranks, study, while for others, childhood is a time of active development, change and learning. In fact, childhood is a period of paradoxes and contradictions, without which there can be no development. So, what characterizes this period?
It has been noticed that the higher the value Living being among animals, the longer his childhood lasts and the more helpless this creature is at birth. Undoubtedly, man is the most perfect creature in nature. This is confirmed by its physical structure, organization of the nervous system, types of activity and methods of its regulation. However, when a person is born, he is endowed with only the most basic mechanisms for maintaining life. He is helpless and cannot fend for himself; he requires care, which is carried out for a long time. This is one of the paradoxes of nature that predetermines the history of childhood.
Many scientists have paid attention to the history of childhood. Outstanding specialist in the field of children's and educational psychology D.B. Elkonin wrote: “Throughout all human history, the starting point of child development has remained unchanged. The child interacts with a certain ideal form, that is, with the level of cultural development achieved by society in which he was born. This perfect shape It develops all the time, and develops spasmodically, that is, it changes qualitatively” (D.B. Elkonin, 1995). His words are confirmed by the fact that people of different eras are not alike. Consequently, the development of the psyche in ontogenesis must also change radically.
Time does not stand still. With the development of scientific and technological progress, the life of society becomes more complicated and the child’s position in it changes accordingly. Previously, children mastered primitive tools by helping their parents cultivate the land; they learned this from adults by watching them and repeating their actions. With the development of scientific and technological progress and the emergence of new production relations, tools became more complex, and to master them, observing adults alone was not enough. Therefore, it became necessary to first study the process of mastering these tools and only then begin to use them. Consequently, the new stage of learning was due to the complexity of tools.
D.B. Elkonin connected the periods of child development with the periodization of the development of society (Table 1)
Table 1
Periods of child development according to D.B. Elkonin
Perhaps in the near future it will become mandatory for everyone to have a higher education for the development of society. This is primarily due to the development of computer technology. But it is impossible to endlessly expand the age limits of childhood, so pedagogical and developmental psychology will most likely be faced with the task of improving teaching methods in order to reduce the time to master the school curriculum.
It turns out that the duration of childhood is directly dependent on the level of material and spiritual development of society and even its individual layers. In many ways, the length of childhood also depends on the material well-being of the family: the poorer the family, the earlier children begin to work.
Complication ^^^^b
Rice. 2. Evolution and duration of childhood
changes in body structure. And the first among them was the transition to upright walking, which freed up the hands for the use of tools. The latter diversified the food they consumed, which in turn caused serious changes in the structure of the jaws, digestive organs and brain. The upright gait changed the structure of the larynx and opened up the possibility of
speech. The major changes that followed this in the reproductive system of women reshaped the structure of sexual relations. But not only that. A powerful superstructure was required in the form of social relations. The fact is that a more complex species of living beings, which was now “Homo sapiens,” gave birth to the most helpless babies. Their survival directly depended on how much the entire group helped in raising them. Thus, parallel to the institution of parenthood, an intra-group social structure is formed.
The weakness of human cubs was compensated by amazing flexibility and adaptability. A wolf, a rhinoceros or an elephant can only exist if climatic zone, in which they were born. Man could live anywhere. And all this thanks to the tough program instincts specifying one or two options for action, replaced the totality skills- a system of trained practical skills
knowledge acquired through knowledge transfer and practical training. It is not for nothing that many anthropologists define this culture- as a set of social skills and abilities.
Born without programmed behavior, people must renew themselves every time study how to interpret and respond to the world around us. Animals don’t need to do anything like that. Learning anew each time is hard work, to which all humanity was doomed from now on. After all, with each new generation, what was trained disappeared and the process had to be repeated all over again.
But again nature turned out to be not indifferent to people. This shortcoming was compensated by the fact that each new generation, forced to re-learn social knowledge, did so at a slightly higher level than the previous one. This is how knowledge accumulated and increased, and this is how it gradually developed and deepened. And here we need to talk about cultural and social progress humanity. Biological evolution has ended, cultural evolution has begun.
Biological evolution has given man a unique instrument - a brain capable of capturing the most incredible combinations of sounds, and a larynx capable of producing them. We are all familiar with the violin and piano, which are also wonderful instruments. Their trouble, by the way, is how
and the larynx of birds, is that they are tuned to a rather narrow range of possibilities. Thanks to its versatility speech capabilities 
man has created languages of the most varied complexity and the most different types. Language became a kind of vehicle of civilization: thanks to it, information was transmitted, created, recorded, duplicated, translated, etc.
So, we call socialization the lifelong process of assimilating cultural norms and mastering social roles. By social role, as we already know, is meant a model of behavior of an individual that corresponds to the status he occupies (position in society) and seeks to put into practice the rights and responsibilities that are prescribed to this status. The concept of cultural norms is somewhat narrower than the term “social role” and presupposes some form of stylized education (acceptance of the rules of etiquette behavior), but for our purposes it is suitable like nothing else. With its help, we consolidate the connection that exists between two processes - socialization and education. But we have not lost the broader phenomenon - the social role - since it is organically included in the social role. Not to lose anything, but only to gain as we learn new things and expand life experience - this is not only the motto of sociological knowledge, but also the essence of the socialization process.
You can only learn something theoretically. Norms are learned. Roles are mastered through practice; mastering is a set of practical actions. Role - dynamic response status, or a model of behavior, when you master a role, you get used to this model of behavior.
Learning cultural norms can be called a process of socialization. Final goal socialization- achieving conformity with the expectations of others. Naturally, what is the environment, so are we ourselves. By and large, we are educated by the nearest social environment, and not by distant social institutions and abstract moral principles. Boys and girls brought up in a small provincial town acquire provincial manners of behavior characteristic of a closed territorial community. Faced with mores and norms big city, they feel awkward and completely disoriented.
True, socialization as a lifelong process of adjusting to the expectations of “significant others” is never complete: none of us achieves one hundred percent compliance with the norms and requirements of the environment. There always remains a certain gap - the degree of deviation (cultural deviation), showing the level of independence of our opinions, views, thoughts and behavior from the thoughts and views of “social loved ones”, due to which people are diverse and unpredictable in their actions. It should be noted that this unpredictability applies rather to specific, private actions and does not apply to behavior in general. The latter is largely predictable. Behavior that deviates slightly from the average standard is called diverse, strongly deviating behavior is called deviant or nonconformist, and behavior that is simply extraordinary is called extravagant.
Socialization is a mutually beneficial process. Without it, an individual will not be able to live in society, study, start a family, work, or even love. But society cannot live without it. And it is unknown who needs it more. After all, through socialization, society conveys to a person the most important things - its values, norms of behavior, laws, traditions, language. How else can it transplant the collective onto individual soil? By socializing an individual, society simultaneously - in one package with socialization - imposes its will on him, manipulates his consciousness, and controls his behavior. In a word, he does whatever he wants with him, but the person has nowhere to go, because it is impossible to live in society and be free from society, as one classic said.
Socialization is necessary for a person due to the following irremovable reasons:
He is devoid of instincts, and therefore must learn everything through training;
Has an extremely long period of childhood when he is dependent on adults and needs their care;
Cannot exist at any stage of its life cycle without communication or interaction with other people.
So figure out after this how much of each of us is from Nature(biology), and how much from Nurture(education) 8.
Dichotomy "Nature vs. Nurture", representing a very successful play on words, is the most common motif in sociology textbooks, both American and European, concerning the sections “Personality” and “Socialization”.
There is still no consensus of opinion on what stages, stages or phases the process of socialization goes through, either in domestic or foreign literature. Some believe that a person goes through two stages of socialization (ethnicization) - primary (upbringing in the family) and secondary (conscious entry into society). Or in another formulation: primary socialization (the first half of a person’s life) and secondary (the second half of life). At N.V. Andreenkova has three phases: 1) primary socialization, or socialization of the child; 2) marginal socialization - teenager (intermediate); 3) sustainable, i.e. conceptual - 17-18 - 23-35 years old. And other authors distinguish three stages of socialization, but in accordance with life cycles: childhood, adolescence, maturity. Each stage corresponds to a certain level of assimilation social norms and values. At the first stage, the leader of socialization is the family, at the second - school, at the third - production. The third group of researchers divides the entire process of socialization into three stages: 1) pre-pubertal (up to 12 years); 2) teenage (12 - 16-18 years old); 3) adult - after 18. G.M. Andreeva identifies three main stages (stages) of socialization: pre-labor, labor and post-labor. At the pre-labor stage, these include the family, preschool institutions, schools, and universities. She considers the production team to be the main institution of socialization at the labor stage. As for the post-labor stage, the question, according to the scientist, remains open.
Three phases and three factors of socialization
The famous psychiatrist Harry Sullivan 9 highlighted six phases V development human personality:
infancy, ending with the appearance of articulate speech, even if meaningless;
childhood with a need for adult playmates;
9 Sullivan H. S. The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. N.Y., 1953.
young age with his need for real playmates, like himself;
teenage years with the need for a close relationship with a friend or bosom friend of the same sex;
youth with a need for a close partner of the opposite sex;
maturity, when feelings for a chosen one of the opposite sex prevail over feelings for oneself (from which it follows that real maturity, or growing up, is much less common than we think).
One of the first and most recognized is the attempt of Erik Erikson to identify eight stages of human life from birth to old age.
1. Basic sense of trust-mistrust. From birth to 18 months.
2. Autonomy - shame, doubt. From 18 to 36 months.
3. Initiative (enterprise) - guilt. From 3 to 5 years.
4. Hard work is inferiority. From 6 to 11 years.
5. Identity is role confusion. From 11 to 18 years old.
6. Intimacy - isolation. Early adulthood. From 18 years to early middle age.
7. Productivity is stagnant. Adulthood.
8. Integrity - despair, hopelessness. Late adulthood, maturity.
He drew attention to the development of the human “I” in the process of socio-genesis, to changes in personality in relation to the social environment and to oneself, including both positive and negative aspects 10. The American psychoanalyst created a theory about the age-related phases of psychosocial development, or, more simply, about what basic personality qualities are formed at what age and in what sequence, what age-related crises and stages a person goes through and what he must learn at each stage in order to become fully independent personality.
According to an even earlier theory of biogenesis by E. Haeckel, individual development (ontogenesis) is an abbreviated development of the human race (phylogeny), i.e. In the process of personality formation, a person (child), repeating the history of mankind in his development, must survive all these stages. Ontogenesis is based on the identification of a number of universal age-related processes: growth, maturation, development, aging, as a result of which the corresponding individual age properties(differences). Both in psychology are generalized in the concept of age stages (phases, stages, periods), in sociology - stages of socialization(childhood, youth, maturity, old age, etc.). Developing these ideas further, A.N. Teslenko 11 believes that age periodization involves more than just a formal life span, denoting only the chronological framework of individual existence in a specific space and time, regardless of its content, and is subordinate to known patterns life cycle. Many biological and social age-related processes are indeed cyclical; starting from successively changing phases of ontogenesis and ending with a repeating generation-
](Erickson E. Childhood and society. Obninsk, 1993.
Eslenko A.N. Cyclic patterns in the process of socialization and personality development ( http://wwv.lpur.tsu.ru).
generation of a certain set of social roles (labor, family, etc.). Cyclicality also characterizes the change of generations in society, where the younger (children) first learn from the elders, then, in parallel with them, self-realize as individuals and socialize their children, and later, moving to the descending phases of development, “fall into childhood” (weakening of conscious self-control, change time perspective, sexual impotence, etc.).
According to Samara sociologist prof. E.F. Molevich 12, it is necessary to distinguish 3 stages of the process of intensive socialization: primary (preschool), secondary (school) and final (“post-school”, associated with obtaining a specialty). If the initial stage of socialization is associated with the social institution of the family, namely with the acquisition of skills colloquial speech, upright walking, basic counting skills, writing, etc., then the middle stage of socialization is largely determined school organization and a great team, like those special structures which are created by society in order to give children the necessary preparation for social life And professional figure 
ness. It is during this period that the individual enters the social institution of education, which performs functions different from the institution of the family. And how the process of socialization of an individual goes at school largely determines his self-image and his future social position in society.
E. Giddens reduces the number of phases life path person. Among them he distinguishes: childhood, adolescence, young adults, maturity and old age. For each phase, human culture develops its own models and niches of behavior. Moreover, the culture itself of a particular society is characterized by the predominance of the influence of the role of value systems of any of the generations 13 .
In his theory of activity mediation A.V. Petrovsky 14 identified three stages of socialization: adaptation, individualization and integration. Successful completion of these stages in this order ensures a person’s success in society. At the adaptation stage a person assimilates those norms, moral principles, and values that prevail in his work team. On stages of individualization the need to be an individual is formed. And on integration stage, if the previous two are passed with a “+” sign, the individual and the team become one.
12 Molevich E.F. General sociology. Lecture course. Ed. 2nd. M., 2003.
13 See: Giddens E. Sociology. M., 1999. Ch. 3.
14 Petrovsky A.V. Personality. Activity. Team. M., 1982.
Consulting experts are convinced that the stage of placing new employees in an organization is followed by the stage of adaptation of new employees to the conditions of their activities, and the adaptation process represents the first phase of socialization. Social psychologists internalization is included in the independent phase of socialization. Political scientists have their own approach. So, they talk about the phases of democratic socialization, stages political socialization. Management sociologists introduce the concept of organizational socialization, highlighting such phases of socialization as selection, recruitment and placement, cultural adaptation (fogging), reward and promotion, identification and loyalty.
The process of socialization and its development over time can be traced at the individual and group levels. Process individual Scientists describe socialization over time using two concepts - life cycle and life path.
Life cycle describes relatively closed, qualitatively isolated stages of a person’s life: childhood, working life, family life, retirement life. Each cycle is characterized by a special set of statuses and roles, a special set of institutions and agents of socialization.
Life path describes a continuous trajectory, a life line within a biography. It does not include cycles, but a sequence of important events that set the direction in life. They can take place in the form of qualitative leaps or shifts in development, which are called critical (or crisis) periods. TO important events include graduation from school, admission to university, marriage, military service, birth of children, choice of profession, retirement, death of a spouse, etc. Crisis periods include the so-called “midlife crisis,” when a 40-50 year old person begins to think over the meaning of life, evaluates the path traveled and weighs the remaining opportunities to change your life.
We adhere to the point of view that the process of socialization goes through phases that coincide with the stages of the human life cycle. This childhood, adolescence, adulthood And old age. Previously, preparation for adult life was short-lived: at the age of 14-15, a young man became an adult, and girls at the age of 13 got married and formed an independent family. That's how it was in traditional society. Even today, in those societies that have preserved the traditional way of life, there is an early termination of childhood.
It is necessary to distinguish from socialization adaptation(time-limited process of getting used to new conditions), education(acquisition of new knowledge), upbringing(targeted influence of socialization agents on the spiritual sphere and behavior of the individual), growing up(sociopsychological development of a person in a narrow age range from 10 to 20 years), manhood(physical and physiological process of strengthening the human body in adolescence and adolescence), finally, education - institutional form of training, education and socialization.
So, the process of socialization goes through phases, which are also called basic life cycle stages(Fig. 3):
Childhood and youth(from 1 years up to 18 years) - preparation for the active working period.
Maturity(18-60 years) - active working period.
Old age(60 years and older) - exit from the active working period.
Rice. 3. Socialization process, critical points and stages of the life cycle
In Fig. 3 identifies three crisis points in a person’s life: A - ending high school and preparation for entering a university or finding a job; IN- midlife crisis; C - retirement and transition to the passive part of socialization. This is a period of active socialization, limited to three crisis points.
The period between these three points, indicated by the figure ABC, represents the time of maximum human labor activity. It is preceded by a period of maximum educational activity - 11 years of schooling. For many, it continues later - until graduation, i.e. 22-23 years old.
Incl. A a person can, but does not know how to work, and in t. A person can no longer physically, but knows how to work. And only in t. In a person can, knows how and wants to work, i.e. all three parameters match.
Segment of life ABC exists to accumulate money, life experience, so that after that, reduce active leisure. A society that cannot provide a dignified old age for its citizens cannot be considered civilized.
According to the degree of completion, the socialization process can be divided into two large stages - beginning socialization exciting first half of a person's life, and ending, which refers to the second half of life. Beginning socialization is mainly the area of ascribed statuses, while ending socialization is the area of achieved ones.
Finding at the Beginning political(obtaining a passport and the right to vote, as well as to be elected), then economic(getting a job that can fully support a person) and social(marriage and creation of one’s own family, separation from parents and becoming a parent) independence means a qualitative boundary between two stages of socialization - beginning (early) and ending (late).
her). In traditional society there were no independent, qualitatively different stages of infancy, childhood, adolescence and youth. Childhood gained recognition in Europe in the Middle Ages, and adolescence only in the 20th century. More recently, and even then in developed industrial countries, adolescence (youth) was recognized as an independent stage of the life cycle. In industrial and post-industrial society, people sometimes continue their studies until they are 25 years old. In comparison with our ape-like ancestors, the period of preparation for life has increased at least 5 times.
In addition to the stages or phases of the socialization process, it is also necessary to highlight the concept of “content of socialization”. Interaction with others like you in the process of socialization, when alone social group teaches the “rules of life” to another, is called the formation of social "I". Contents of socialization- not only gaining social and economic independence, but personality formation.
The formation of a social “I” is possible only as a process of assimilation of the opinions of significant others about me, who serve as a mirror “I”. We can say it differently: at the socio-psychological level, the formation of the social “I” occurs through the internalization of cultural norms and social values. Internalization- transformation of external norms into internal rules of behavior.
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In our opinion, socialization is a lifelong process of assimilating cultural norms and mastering social roles. Z. Bauman beautifully expressed the need to present socialization as a continuous process that continues throughout life: “...The examples given help us present in the most acute and dramatic form the problems caused by secondary socialization. Each of us faces less obvious problems almost every day; Most likely, we will experience something similar when we have to urgently change schools; if we, having entered the university, are forced to leave it; if we switch to new job, we will get married, buy our own home, move to a new place of residence, become parents, become pensioners, etc. It is probably more accurate to think of socialization as a continuous process rather than dividing it into two separate stages." 15 As we now know, a social role includes many cultural norms, rules and stereotypes of behavior; it is connected with other roles by invisible social threads - rights, responsibilities, relationships. And all this must be mastered. This is why the term “acquisition” rather than “learning” is more applicable to socialization. It is broader in content and includes training as one of the parts.
Bauman 3. Thinking sociologically: Textbook. allowance. M., 1996. P. 41.
Preparing for independent life is not only longer, but also more complex and expensive. Human society was able to provide a full-fledged education to everyone from any social class only in the 20th century. For tens of thousands of years it has been accumulating resources for this. Universal secondary education is a major achievement of our time. If all expenses are taken into account, then the state developed countries spends up to 30% of national income on education. Previously, there was nothing like this: in traditional society, learning occurred spontaneously (the elders passed on knowledge to the younger ones in the family).
Only a few had the opportunity to attend special institutions - schools, lyceums, gymnasiums, universities.
It is sometimes believed that the meaning of socialization is limited to just this: teaching children, preparing for adult life, learning basic rules public life. In fact, this is the narrow meaning this term. Sociologists use a broader interpretation. Socialization - the process of learning social roles and cultural norms that begins in infancy and ends in old age. Why are sociologists not satisfied with a narrowed understanding of socialization?
The fact is that school, university, industrial or any other training is just a technical event organized to acquire new knowledge. A young man listens to lectures, reads books, does homework and seminar assignments, goes through a period of practice and passes the exam. At the end, he receives a certificate certifying his qualifications in a certain field of knowledge. Such
This type of training can last 5 years, or maybe only 2 months. However, teaching a subject and teaching life are completely different things. No 
a teacher and no school can teach a person how to be a good wife or housewife, family man, business partner, professional athlete or writer. You have to learn this all your life, making mistakes and correcting them, but doing all this not in laboratory conditions, but in real conditions.
It is impossible to learn a social role from books or through a business game, although you can improve yourself in it in this way. A chief or king trains his successor for many years; The performer of this role is brought up by the environment, the practice of making managerial decisions, which has to be mastered by actually becoming a king or leader.
Since throughout our lives we have to master not one, but a whole variety of social roles, moving up the ladder of age and career, the process of socialization continues throughout our lives. Until a very old age, a person changes his views on life, habits, tastes, rules of behavior, roles, etc. The concept of “socialization” explains how a person turns from a biological being into a social being. No one biological species did not learn to “collapse” the stages of his development. Thanks to socialization, a weak human child does not have to completely go through this entire infinitely long path of development.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS FOR THE FINAL TEST IN THE PSYCHOLOGY COURSE
MODULE I
1. Man is the only creature capable of:
1. convey information about past and future events
2. use tools
3. live in communities
4. all answers are correct
2. Scientific method:
1. rationalistic
2. consists mainly of testing hypotheses
3. subjective
4. all answers are correct
3. The first psychological laboratory was created:
1. Wilhelm Wundt
2. in 1732
3. to study the functions of consciousness
4. all answers are correct
4. S-R diagram focuses on:
1. objective description of behavior
2. the uselessness of the concept of consciousness
3. correspondence between the response and the given stimulus
4. all answers are correct
5. Educational psychologist:
1. can provide psychological support to the student
2. conducts diagnostic tests and surveys
3. strives to introduce effective methods training
4. all answers are correct
6. The study of connections between the activity of the nervous system and behavior is mainly carried out by:
1. animal psychology
2. parapsychology
3. psychopharmacology
4. psychophysiology
7. Publication of a message about the results of the experiment:
1. necessary only if convincing results are obtained
2. must not contain a description of the method used
3. should not raise new questions
4. all answers are wrong
8. Choose words that denote mental phenomena:
Tears, nervous process, thinking, memory, sleep, laughter, running,
information, breath, will, fear, love, faith, knowledge, sensation,
heartbeat, instinct, brain biocurrents, analyzer, hearing, mind, perception,
mood, interest, pain, sympathy, envy, irritation,
sensitivity.
9. Divide this list into two groups of concepts characterizing material and ideal phenomena:
Forgetting, stimulation of the cerebral cortex, sensation, pride,
remembering, thinking, happiness, grief, judgment, inhibition of the nervous
impulse, instinct, defensive reflex, physiological processes
brain, receptor, aging of the body, heredity, genes,
subjective, cerebral hemispheres, mental process, book.
10. Build a series from these concepts so that each previous concept is generic (more general) in relation to the next one:
Psyche, knowledge, reflection, consciousness, psychological science, general
psychology.
11. From the words indicated in brackets, select those that are
to this word in the same relation as in the given example:
a) Matter – ... (nature, substance, reflection, action).
Sample: brain - psyche.
b) Nervous process– ... (reflex, reflection, objective,
material, mental).
Sample: consciousness is subjective.
c) Consciousness – ... (physiological, real, ideal, active).
Sample: the brain is material.
d) Mental – ... (active, derivative, objective).
Sample: physical is primary.
12. From these concepts, construct several series so that each previous concept is generic (more general) in relation to the subsequent one in a specific series:
Consciousness, reflection, psyche, information, thought, irritability,
biological reflection, instinct, tropisms, concept.
13. Our perception of the world is connected:
1. with the culture to which we belong
2. with practice
3. with experience
4. with our individual characteristics
5. All answers are correct
14. Sensitivity threshold:
1. represents the sensitivity limit of the receptor
2. determined genetically
3. may change with age
4. all answers are correct
15. Binocular vision:
1. the only thing that allows you to perceive depth
2. ineffective at a distance of more than 15 meters
3. can be replaced by monocular signs
4. all answers are correct
16. According to V. Wundt, the differences between sensations and feelings are due to the fact that:
1. feelings relate to the subject
2. more sensations
3. sensations are simple, but feelings are complex
Answers to tests
13 – 4, 14 – 4, 15 – 3, 16 – 1.
17. When solving a problem, the preparation stage:
1. This is the first step in the solution process
2. may take several days
3. allows you to collect all the information related to the problem
4. all answers are correct
18. When we find a solution at random, it is:
1. result of random search
2. trial and error strategy
3. often leads to unintended consequences
4. all answers are correct
19. According to J. Piaget, the development of thinking is mainly related to:
1. with speech development
2. with the interaction of the body and the environment
3. with the fading of the assimilation process
4. all answers are wrong
20. According to behaviorists:
1. thought is internal dialogue
2. speech is a thought expressed out loud
3. thoughts are always accompanied by implicit movements
4. all answers are correct
MODULE II
The length of a person's childhood depends on...
a) the speed of its biological maturation;
b) Family socio-economic status;
c) the level of education he received;
G) level of development of the society in which he lives.
2. The end of childhood in human society is determined by...
A) physiological maturation of the body;
B) a person’s completion of his education;
IN) the acquisition by an individual of the ability to perform the functions of a member of society;
D) achievement of maturity of the “I”.
3. L.S. Vygotsky proposed these criteria for the periodization of childhood...
A) neoplasms, the leading type of activity;
B) neoplasms, dynamics of transition from one period to another;
C) the dynamics of the transition from one period to another, the social situation of development;
G) neoplasms, social development situation.
4. Introduction mental development, which occurs through adaptation (adaptation) of the individual to the surrounding social environment, belongs...
A) Z. Freud;
B) J. Piaget;
B) E. Erickson;
D) L.S. Vygotsky.
5. Among the main neoplasms of the infancy period...
A) first social smile;
B) crawling;
IN) act of grasping;
D) ability to learn.
6. In the first half of a child’s life, the development of sensory systems...
A) advances the development of the motor system;
B) lags behind the development of the motor system;
C) and the development of the motor system proceeds synchronously;
D) lags behind both the development of the motor system and the speech development of the infant.
7. The greatest developmental effect for the child early age possess...
A) unformed objects for play that allow for imagination;
B) real or reduced adult implements;
In computer games;
D) toys.
8. Period early childhood– a sensitive period for...
A) assimilation moral standards;
B) development of creative thinking;
B) development of arbitrariness;
G) speech development.
One of the main mechanisms of a child’s mental development after three years of age is
B) visual-figurative;
B) abstract-logical;
D) verbal-conceptual.
13. The leading activity of adolescence is D.B. Elkonin believed...
B) intimate and personal communication with peers;
B) educational and professional activities;
D) socially useful activities.
14. One of the emerging features of a teenager’s thinking is...
A) the ability to think about possibilities that are not immediately given;
B) mastering the principle of conservation (volume, quantity, etc.);
C) the ability to solve problems in a visual and figurative manner;
D) the ability to coordinate 2 points of view simultaneously.
Essay in the academic discipline "Psychology"
on the topic: "Age psychology"
Plan
1. Introduction.
2. Subject and tasks of developmental psychology.
3. Research methods in developmental psychology.
4. The meaning of the concept of “childhood” in different historical periods.
5. Conclusion.
6. List of references.
1. Introduction.
The history of the development of the personality of each individual person is the history of his passage through certain age stages. Each stage corresponds to its own set of actual human needs. For example, for a five-year-old, this is the improvement of motor skills and symbolic functions of thinking, which is facilitated, first of all, by play; For a twenty-five-year-old, the need to start a family and gain their own parenting experience is urgent. The transition from one age period to another is accompanied by a crisis - a time when the needs of the individual have already changed, and there are not yet enough ways to satisfy them. A person’s comfortable and psychologically prosperous existence is thus related to how successfully the age stages themselves proceed, as well as the crises that accompany their change.
Based on the foregoing, it is clear that the role of developmental psychology in the science of personality is difficult to overestimate. In addition, in our opinion, knowledge of the dynamics of the development of processes occurring in our psyche can be useful not only for psychologists, but also for every person for whom their own inner world. As well as the psychological well-being of his children, who cannot always independently recognize and, even more so, satisfy their needs characteristic of a particular age period.
As an independent field of knowledge, developmental psychology was formed relatively recently, having separated from child psychology closer to end of the 19th century century. However, by now there is quite complex structure, including a whole range of directions, concepts and theories. In addition, it includes several subsections, each of which was created in different time and studies small periods of human personality development within the framework of one, more significant one: prenatal psychology, child, school psychology, acmeology and psychogerontology.
Despite such a diverse and rich content of this branch of psychology, we tried to touch on the main aspects of its content, as far as possible, within the framework of this small work, paying the closest attention to one of its most developed and, in our opinion, important sections - child psychology.
2. Subject and tasks of developmental psychology.
Developmental psychology is a branch psychological science, studying the facts and patterns of human development as he grows and matures, the age-related dynamics of his psyche.
The subject of developmental psychology is age periods of development, mechanisms and reasons for their change and appearance, as well as general patterns, pace and direction of mental development in ontogenesis. In other words, this is the development of a person’s personality in its most diverse aspects.
Mental development is a clear sequence of irreversible and natural changes in the human psyche that occur over time. The reason for this is the process of growth and the biological changes accompanying it, which periodically leads a person to a contradiction with the external social environment and faces the need to resolve this conflict, that is, to make a transition from one method of self-expression to another. The result of this transition is a change in the quality of relationships with others, the formation of a new level of reflection of reality, as well as the attitude towards oneself.
The most important factor in mental development is maturation. This is a process of successive age-related changes in the body's systems, which imposes some restrictions and at the same time creates conditions for the birth and implementation of mental functions. Different parts and functions of the nervous system mature at different rates, reaching full maturity at appropriate stages of development. In this regard, normative and individual mental development are distinguished.
The tasks of developmental psychology can be divided into three types: applied, scientific, theoretical.
Among the theoretical tasks, the main one is the creation of a true theoretical model of development.
Scientific tasks are, first of all, the study of the sources and patterns of changes that constitute the essence of human mental development, as well as its periodization, research age development personality and determination of age-related norms of mental functions, which, along with identifying the resources and creative potential of the human psyche, forms the basis for solving applied problems in this branch of psychology.
Applied tasks include the construction of systems for age-related and clinical diagnostics, as well as systems for the correction of mental development, and the prevention of possible disorders of its course.
3. Research methods in developmental psychology.
The main research method in developmental psychology is observation. This can be observation of yourself or another person. The latter is most often realized through experiment. Due to the fact that the experiment makes it possible for the researcher to intervene in the activities of the subject, thus allowing the creation of conditions for the clear identification of a psychological fact, this makes it one of the main and most reliable methods for obtaining reliable information in research work with children.
The child is included in a certain experimental situation related to the leading type of activity, and, observing the reaction of the subject to the influencing stimuli, conclusions are drawn about which of the properties of his psyche are manifested and which are not, including the fact that he cannot verbalize during the survey.
A survey, along with testing, is one of the additional methods. It is carried out in writing or orally, as in individual work with the subject and when working with a group. It also has an important auxiliary value projective method which consists of analyzing drawings and other products creative activity subjects. TO additional methods Research also includes comparative studies: twin (explores the role of upbringing, heredity and environment), cross-cultural (allows us to identify the characteristics of the mental development of people in different cultures), the method of comparing norms and pathologies, and the biographical method.
In developmental psychology, there are two main strategies for conducting empirical research, the purpose of which is to study changes occurring over time.
The first method: the cross-sectional method, which is a simultaneous study of unrelated groups of people of the same age and comparison of the results with data obtained from a study of representatives of another age category; it allows you to collect information about norms, identifying typical age characteristics;
The second method: the method of longitudinal sections (longitude) is aimed at tracking age-related changes in the psyche of the same people over a long period of time; its use makes it possible to determine the range of age-related changes, as well as make a forecast of further mental development.
4. The meaning of the concept of “childhood” in different historical periods.
Having emerged as child psychology, developmental psychology has long been limited to the study of the processes of mental development of a child, and therefore now this section is the most developed. It is currently known that it is during childhood that those processes take place in the psyche that, being the basis, the foundation for the formation of the personality of an adult, continue to exert their influence throughout his life, which is why we highlight the study of child psychology as the most important section of the scientific field in question. In this regard, of particular interest is one of his key concepts- the concept of “childhood”.
Childhood is a period lasting from birth to full social and, therefore, psychological maturity; its result is the formation of the individual as a full-fledged member of human society. Trying to define the boundaries of this age period, we inevitably encounter the difficulty that for different cultures V different periods their development, the “official” age of growing up is different due to the fact that the path leading to the final formation of personality in them is not the same. P. P. Blonsky, defining childhood as a time of development, wrote that it is not an eternal, but a changing phenomenon: it is different at a different stage of development of the animal world, it is different at each stage historical development humanity. To confirm his words, one can recall an example from the book of Douglas Lockwood, who describes his trip to Western Australia and meeting with the Pintubi aborigines. The entire way of life of the inhabitants of this tribe was so primitive that it could be compared to the Stone Age. People in it did not wear clothes, did not build houses, and to keep warm at night they lit fires. There were three small children in the tribe, but none of them cried, and the two-year-old girl herself made a fire, fanned it and threw branches to keep it burning. By her age, she was already virtually included in adult life, from which it follows that in primitive society such a phenomenon that could now be designated by the concept of “childhood” did not exist at all. Concerning medieval Europe, then there, until the age of 6-7, children were treated like babies, and after that - like little adults, accustoming them to adult conversations, food, dressing them in adult clothes, and so on...
L. S. Vygotsky emphasized that there is no “eternally childish,” but only “historically childish,” since the duration of childhood directly depends on the level of material and spiritual culture of both society as a whole and its individual layers. For example, still on turn of XIX-XX centuries, most children whose parents belonged to the working class worked from the age of 6-8 years.
In his study A.V. Tolstykh gave the following picture of the changes in this age period that took place in Russia throughout the twentieth century.
In 1930, in connection with the introduction of compulsory primary education for all children, the duration of childhood was the first 12 years of life;
In 1959, the length of childhood increased to 15 years thanks to the adoption of a new law on junior high school;
In our time, the duration of childhood covers the period from birth to 17 years, within this period all children's ages are represented and clearly differentiated.
In the modern world, the general rights and age of children are regulated by the Convention on the Rights of the Child, adopted by UNESCO in 1989. and ratified by most countries of the world. It proclaims the milestone of childhood when a person reaches the age of 18.
Since childhood is a socio-cultural phenomenon, it is historical in nature and has its own history of development.
Let's look at three main historical periods childhood.
1. Quasi-childhood (primitive childhood). Characteristic of the early stages of human history, when the children's community was not isolated, but was directly included in the community with adults labor activity.
2. Undeveloped childhood (childhood in the Middle Ages and Modern times) - the children's community is isolated and is faced with the task of integration into the adult community. Role-playing game emerges as a way of modeling the activities of adults.
3. Developed childhood (modern childhood). Its occurrence is associated with the complication modern world, in which the motives and meanings of adult behavior are no longer self-evident. Currently, children are faced with the task of creatively mastering culture as an open multidimensional structure.
5. Conclusion.
In this work we tried to give general review mental development sciences human personality. This area of knowledge is relatively young, many problems (such as the crisis of secondary education, in modern schools, psychological support in old age, detailed study human psyche in the prenatal period, including with the aim of improving the process of obstetric care) it has yet to be solved. However, the discoveries she made shed light on many features in the behavior of children, as well as the reasons that gave rise to them. The discoveries made it possible to approach the upbringing of a person more meaningfully and made it possible to make this process effective in terms of the formation of a holistic self-concept. And also more alive, filled with creativity and capable of bringing mutual joy to both parties taking part in it. The discoveries of developmental psychology have also expanded the possibilities of psychotherapy in working with adults, making it possible to correct disorders that have arisen in the psyche, both in the current time and in earlier periods of life.
This work deciphers the basic concepts with which developmental psychology operates, among which “childhood” occupies a special place, which, as it was established, had various characteristics and features throughout the history of all mankind.
6. List of references.
1. E.B. Usova. Developmental psychology - Minsk: MIU Publishing House, 2010.
2. V.T. Kudryavtsev - M.: Institute of Psychology named after L.S. Vygotsky Russian State University for the Humanities, 1999.
3. Kudryavtsev V.T. Developed childhood and developmental education: a cultural-historical approach / V.T. Kudryavtsev. - Part I, II. - Dubna, 1997.
4. Erickson E. Childhood and society / E. Erickson. - 2nd ed. - St. Petersburg, 1996.
5. L.F. Obukhova. Child psychology: theories, facts, problems M., Trivola, 1995.