Syntactic techniques for influencing readers' perception of texts. Moscow State University of Printing Arts
Paths,
Let us consider which specific language means are included in each group. Don’t be intimidated by the volume of theoretical material; I’m sure you are familiar with these concepts. It is only necessary to systematize knowledge on this topic.
TRAILS:
TROPES is a generalized name for stylistic devices that consist of using a word in a figurative meaning.
METAPHOR - a type of allegory, transfer of meaning from one word to another based on similarity of characteristics, a hidden comparison in which there is no comparative phrase. For example: The bird cherry tree is pouring snow. (snow is like blooming bird cherry brushes). The red sun rolled down like a wheel behind the blue mountains (the sun is like a wheel).
Value: Increases accuracy poetic speech and her emotional expressiveness.
METONYMY - replacement of one word or concept with another that has a causal or other connection with the first. For example: Here on new waves All flags will visit us. (the metonymy "all flags" replaces the verbose expression "ships of all countries flying different flags")
Meaning: short method expressive speech, saving lexical means.
IRONY (pretense) - the use of a word or expression in the opposite sense to the literal one, for the purpose of ridicule. For example: Ay, Moska, I know she is strong, That she barks at an elephant.
Meaning: creating a comic effect.
HYPERBOLE (exaggeration) - a figurative expression consisting of exaggeration of size, strength, beauty, etc. For example: ... the rocks trembled from their blows, the sky trembled from the menacing song.
Meaning: the imagery of satirical works is built on hyperboles. Hyperbolization is a source of humor, a means of ridicule.
PERSONIFICATION is a type of metaphor, the transfer of human properties to inanimate objects and abstract concepts. For example: Evening illuminated a star with a blue candle Above my road.
Meaning: increases the emotional expressiveness of the text.
SYNECDOCHE (generalization) - special case metonymy, designation of the whole through its part. For example: Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts.
Meaning: gives speech brevity and expressiveness, enhances the expression of speech and gives it a deep generalizing meaning.
LITOTA (simplicity) is a figurative expression that downplays the size, strength, or significance of the described object or phenomenon. For example: Your Pomeranian, a lovely Pomeranian, is no bigger than a thimble.
Meaning: the simultaneous use of litotes and hyperbole sharply and strongly emphasizes created image. Stylistic device of double negative. Serves as a means to create a satirical and humorous effect.
EPITHET - a figurative definition of an object or action. For example: On the shore of desert waves He stood full of great thoughts.
Meaning: Creates a visible image of an object, phenomenon, forms an emotional impression, conveys a psychological atmosphere, mood. Characterizes, explains some property, quality of a concept, object or phenomenon; the writer's worldview is embodied. An epithet in the description of nature as a means of expressing feelings, mood. An expression of a person's inner state.
ANTONOMASIA (renaming) – a trope consisting of the use own name in the meaning of a common noun, a type of metonymy. For example: in the Russian language, the use of the words Donquixote, Don Juan, Lovelace, etc. in a figurative sense has been established.
Meaning: This trope is often used in journalism. It is based on a rethinking of the names of historical figures, writers, literary heroes. In fiction it is used as a means of figurative speech.
ALLEGORY - an allegorical image of an object or phenomenon with the aim of most clearly showing its essential features (in fables, riddles). The expression of an abstract concept or idea in a specific artistic image. For example: in fables and fairy tales, stupidity, stubbornness are embodied in the image of a Donkey, cowardice - a Hare, cunning - a Fox. The allegorical meaning can receive an allegorical expression: “autumn has come” can mean “old age has come.”
Meaning: widely used in Aesopian language - a manner that reveals resourcefulness in the invention of reservations, omissions and other deceptive means. Used to bypass censorship. With the help of allegory, ideas of deep philosophical content are expressed figuratively.
PERIPHRASE or PERIPHRASE (descriptive expression) is a stylistic device consisting of replacing the usual one-word name of an object or phenomenon with a descriptive expression. For example: Leo is the king of beasts. It's a sad time, charm of the eyes (instead of “autumn”).
Meaning: essential aspects are emphasized, characteristic features object or phenomenon.
ARTISTIC SYMBOL - figurative words that replace the name of a life phenomenon, the concept of an object with its conventional designation, reminiscent of this phenomenon and giving it a new, deeper meaning. For example: Rain is a symbol of sadness and tears. The cuckoo is a symbol of a lonely, yearning woman. Birch is a symbol of Russia.
Meaning: gives the word a new, deeper meaning.
LEXICAL MEANS:
1. HOMONYMS are words that have different meanings, but are identical in pronunciation and spelling. For example, the water supply system systematically fails, and the repairmen do not have any system to work with.
Meaning: add liveliness and expressiveness to the language. They can give a comic coloring, ambiguity, and the nature of a pun. For example: A person with good command of the language is required to apply stamps.
2. SYNONYMS are words of the same part of speech that are close to each other in meaning. Synonyms form a synonymous series, for example, to feel fear, to be afraid, to be apprehensive, to be frightened, to be afraid, to be horrified, to be cowardly.
Meaning: indicate the richness of the language, serve to more accurately express thoughts and feelings.
3. ANTONYMS are words of the same part of speech that are opposite in meaning. For example, early - late, fall asleep - wake up, white - black.
Meaning: make speech bright, emotional. Serve to create contrast.
4. PARONYMS - words with the same root, similar in sound, but not the same in meaning. For example: imprints and typos (have different prefixes), unresponsive and irresponsible (have different suffixes).
5. COMMON VOCABULARY - words known to all speakers of Russian, used in all styles of speech, stylistically neutral. For example, spring, water, earth, night.
Meaning: denotes vital objects, actions, signs, phenomena.
5. DIALECTISM - these are words belonging to a specific dialect. Dialects are Russian folk dialects that contain a significant number of original words known only in a certain area. For example: kochet - rooster, gutarit - talk, beam - ravine.
Meaning: they evoke in the reader more vivid ideas about the place where the described events develop for the purpose of the character’s speech characteristics.
6. PROFESSIONALISM - these are words that are used in various fields of production, technology, etc. and which have not become generally used; terms - words that name special concepts of any sphere of production or science; professionalisms and terms are used by people of the same profession, in the same field of science. For example, abscissa (mathematics), affricates (linguistics); window - free time between lessons in the teacher's speech.
Meaning: used in fiction and journalism as an expressive means to describe a situation, create a production landscape, or verbally characterize a certain sphere of human activity.
7. JARGONISM - words limited in their use to a certain social or age environment. For example, they distinguish between youth (ancestors - parents), professional (nadomae - undershooting the landing sign), and camp jargon.
Meaning: slang used in works fiction for the purpose of speech characterization of characters and creating the desired flavor.
8. ARGO - a dialect of a certain social group people (originally the thieves' language - "Fenya"), created for the purpose of linguistic isolation (Argonisms are used as symbol, like an encrypted code so that people who do not belong to this group cannot understand the meaning of these words). For example: ballerina - master key; kipish - disorder, shu; nix - danger; raspberry - stash.
Meaning: used in works of fiction for the purpose of verbal characterization of a character or creating a special flavor.
9. EMOTIONALLY COLORED WORDS - words expressing attitudes towards objects, signs, actions, etc. For example: a nag (not just a horse, but a bad horse), to lie (not just to tell a lie, but to tell it brazenly), to crave (not just to desire, but to desire passionately).
Meaning: serve to express the speaker’s attitude to what he is talking about, as well as to characterize the speaker.
10. ARCHAISMS - obsolete words that have modern synonyms that have replaced them in the language. For example: young - young, gold - gold; eye - eye, mouth - lips, behold - see.
Meaning: used to create the flavor of antiquity when depicting antiquity. They perform a vivid stylistic role, acting as a means of creating civil-patriotic pathos of speech. They are the source of the sublime sound of speech.
11. HISTORISM - words that served as the name of disappeared objects. concepts, phenomena. For example: tivun - an official in ancient Rus', hryvnia - monetary unit Kievan Rus, footman - a person who served in rich houses.
Meaning: serve to create the flavor of antiquity, of a bygone era, give the description of past times historical authenticity.
12.NEOLOGISM - new words that appear in the language. For example: video phone, airbus, Internet.
Meaning: serve to denote those new concepts. which appeared in connection with the development of social relations, science, culture, and technology. They are a kind of technique for enhancing expressiveness.
13. BORROWED WORDS - words that came into the Russian language from other languages. For example: charter, sail, cedar (from Greek); sandwich, sprats, landscape (from German); veil, coat, taxi (from French); tenor, opera, flute (from Italian); sailor, cabin, boat (from Dutch); basketball, coach, comfort (from English).
Meaning: source of dictionary replenishment.
14. OLD SLAVANisms - borrowings from a closely related language associated with the baptism of Rus' and the development of spiritual culture.
Peculiarities:
a) combinations RA, LA, LE, corresponding to the Russian ORO, OLO, ERE. For example: temper - temper, gate - gate, gold - gold, shore - shore, captivity - full.
b) a combination of ZhD, corresponding to the Russian Zh. For example: leader, clothes, need.
d) suffixes STVIE, CHY, YNYA, TVA, USH, YUSCH, ASH, YASCH. For example: action, helmsman, pride, battle, burning, carrying.
e) prefixes IZ, IS, NIZ. For example: go away, overthrow. Meaning: they recreate the flavor of the era, giving an ironic touch.
15. TRADITIONAL POETIC WORDS - a group of words that was formed at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries and was used mainly in poetry. Main source- Slavicisms. For example: breg, voice, right hand, forehead, cheeks, fire, bush, lily, roses, myrtle, hand, golden, mellifluous, tree, spring, star.
Meaning: in the past, highly expressive vocabulary, without which not a single poetic work could do. In modern language, ironic use, stylization.
16. FOLK POETIC WORDS - words characteristic of oral folk poetry. For example: baby, share, little road, azure, sad, mediocre, ant, dumushka.
Meaning: create an emotional impression, serve as a means of expressing the national Russian character.
17. CONVERSATIONAL VOCABULARY - these are words. which are used in everyday speech, have a casual character and therefore are not always appropriate in written and book speech. For example: soda (sparkling water), blond (blonde, person with very blond hair), bubblegum (chewing gum).
Meaning: in book speech, this context is given a colloquial tone. Used in works of fiction for the purpose of speech characterization of characters.
18. COLLAR WORDS - words. expressions characterized by simplicity, a touch of rudeness and usually serving to express harsh assessments. Colloquial words stand on the border literary language, are often not desirable even in normal conversation. For example: bashka (head), dreary (unpleasant), get confused (strengthen your consciousness).
Meaning: a means of speech characterization of heroes.
19. BOOK VOCABULARY - words that are used primarily in writing, are used in scientific works, official and business documents, journalism. For example: hypothesis (scientific assumption), genesis (origin), addressee (person to whom the letter is sent).
Meaning: a means of speech characterization of heroes and phenomena.
20. TERMS - words or combinations of words denoting special concepts used in science, technology, and art. For example: leg, hypotenuse, morphology, conjugation, verb.
Meaning: serve for an accurate, strictly scientific definition of scientific and special concepts. Used to characterize the depicted environment and language.
21. PHRASEOLOGISTS - stable combinations of words that usually have a holistic meaning. For example: work with your sleeves rolled up, take care of it like the apple of your eye, put a spoke in your wheel.
Meaning: add brightness and expressiveness to speech.
22. WINGED WORDS - bright and apt expressions of writers, scientists, public figures, and folk proverbs and sayings. For example: Not for horse feed. How little has been lived, how much has been experienced.
Meaning: as a figurative means of revealing the inner appearance of a character, characteristics of his speech manner.
23. EMOTIONAL-EXPRESSIVE VOCABULARY - words that are evaluative in nature (as opposed to neutral vocabulary). For example: words with a positive connotation - valiant, radiant; words with a negative connotation - upstart, nonsense.
Meaning: the use of emotionally expressive vocabulary is associated with a specific task, a certain stylistic orientation of the text.
SYNTACTIC MEANS
Rhetorical appeal- a conditional address to someone within the framework of a monologue. This request does not open a dialogue and does not require a response. In reality, this is a statement in the form of an address. So, instead of saying, “My city is mutilated,” a writer might say, “My city! How they mutilated you!”
This makes the statement more emotional and personal.
Syntactic means can be divided into 2 groups:
1. related to repetitions
multi-union,
asyndeton,
syntactic parallelism,
gradation
2. not related to repetitions
a rhetorical question,
rhetorical exclamation
rhetorical appeal
parcellation,
inversion,
paraphrase,
LEXICAL-SYNTACTIC MEANS
1. Oxymoron is a technique when one concept is defined through its impossibility. As a result, both concepts partially lose their meaning, and a new meaning is formed. The peculiarity of the oxymoron is that it always provokes the generation of meaning: the reader, faced with a blatant impossible phrase, will begin to “complete” the meanings. Writers and poets often use this technique to say something briefly and succinctly. In some cases, the oxymoron is striking (“The Living Corpse” by L. N. Tolstoy, “Hot Snow” by Yu. Bondarev), in others it may be less noticeable, revealing itself upon a more thoughtful reading (“ Dead Souls"N.V. Gogol - after all, the soul has no death, the “dead green branches” of Pushkin’s anchar - after all, the green foliage of a tree is a sign of life, not death).
2. Catachresis is a deliberately illogical statement that has an expressive meaning. “Yes, she’s a fish! And her hands are kind of white, like fish.” It is clear that a fish cannot have arms; the metaphor is based on catachresis.
3. Antithesis - a sharp opposition of something, emphasized syntactically. A classic example of antithesis is Pushkin’s characterization of the relationship between Lensky and Onegin:
They got along. Wave and stone
Poetry and prose, ice and fire
Not so different from each other.
Let us note that in Pushkin the emphasized antithesis is partially removed by the next line, which makes the situation ambiguous.
Secondly, analyze the list of terms listed in the task. Group them:
Mark the trails with the letter "T"
lexical means - "L",
syntactic means - "C".
Here's what we came up with (list of terms from the 2013 demo project):
1. anaphora - C
2. metaphor - T
3. hyperbole - T
4. professional vocabulary - L
5. parcellation - C
6. lexical repetition - C
7. opposition - C
8. epithets - T
9. contextual synonyms - L
Thus, the search area for the specified language tool has narrowed noticeably.
The assignment says that the first 3 means are paths.
There are 3 of them in the list: metaphor, hyperbole, epithets.
All we have to do is place them in in the right order.
We recall the definitions of these linguistic means and re-read the examples indicated in brackets.
We compare definitions with examples.
We arrange the numbers in the correct order: 2,8,3.
It remains to determine the last linguistic means. It is not specified which group it belongs to. Therefore, we exclude only trails from the list, because... There should be no repetition of numbers.
We have 6 concepts left. Let's re-read the examples again. The situation becomes clearer when we turn to these proposals. This is about language means at number 6.
Mission accomplished!
2. Find the words in the text of the review: tropes, lexical means, syntactic means.
4. Group concepts.
5. Remember the definitions of these concepts and compare them with examples.
6. Arrange the numbers in the correct order.
- rhetorical questions, appeals, exclamations- they increase the reader’s attention without requiring him to respond;
- repetitions– repeated repetition of the same words or expressions;
- antitheses– oppositions;
Poetic phonetics
The use of onomatopoeia, sound recording - sound repetitions that create a unique sound “pattern” of speech.)
- Alliteration– repetition of consonant sounds;
- Assonance– repetition of vowel sounds;
- Anaphora- unity of command;
Composition of a lyrical work
Necessary:
Determine the leading experience, feeling, mood reflected in a poetic work;
Find out the harmony of the compositional structure, its subordination to the expression of a certain thought;
Determine the lyrical situation presented in the poem (the hero’s conflict with himself; the hero’s internal lack of freedom, etc.)
Define life situation, which presumably could have caused this experience;
Identify the main parts of a poetic work: show their connection (define the emotional “drawing”).
Analysis of a dramatic work
Diagram of analysis of a dramatic work
1. general characteristics: history of creation, life basis, plan, literary criticism.
2. Plot, composition:
The main conflict, stages of its development;
Character of the denouement /comic, tragic, dramatic/
Analysis of individual actions, scenes, phenomena.
4. Collecting material about the characters:
The hero's appearance, behavior, speech characteristics; content of speech /about what?/; - manner /how?/; style, vocabulary; self-characteristics, mutual characteristics of heroes, author's remarks; the role of scenery and interior in the development of the image.
5. CONCLUSIONS: Theme, idea, meaning of the title, system of images. Genre of the work, artistic originality.
Dramatic work
The generic specificity, the “borderline” position of drama (between literature and theater) obliges its analysis to be carried out in the course of the development of dramatic action (this is the fundamental difference between the analysis of a dramatic work and an epic or lyrical one). Therefore, the proposed scheme is of a conditional nature; it only takes into account the conglomerate of the main generic categories of drama, the peculiarity of which can manifest itself differently in each individual case precisely in the development of the action (according to the principle of an unwinding spring).
1. General characteristics of dramatic action(character, plan and vector of movement, tempo, rhythm, etc.). “Through” action and “underwater” currents.
2. Type of conflict. The essence of drama and the content of the conflict, the nature of the contradictions (two-dimensionality, external conflict, internal conflict, their interaction), “vertical” and “horizontal” plan of the drama.
3. System of actors, their place and role in the development of dramatic action and conflict resolution. Main and secondary characters. Extra-plot and extra-scene characters.
4. System of motives and motivational development of the plot and microplots of the drama. Text and subtext.
5. Compositional and structural level. The main stages in the development of dramatic action (exposition, plot, development of action, climax, denouement). Installation principle.
6. Features of poetics(the semantic key of the title, the role of the theater poster, stage chronotype, symbolism, stage psychologism, the problem of the ending). Signs of theatricality: costume, mask, play and post-situational analysis, role-playing situations, etc.
7. Genre originality(drama, tragedy or comedy?). The origins of the genre, its reminiscences and innovative solutions by the author.
9. Contexts of Drama(historical and cultural, creative, actually dramatic).
10. The problem of interpretation and stage history(required for universities, optional for schools, gymnasiums and lyceums).
Nomination important information comes first common property newspaper reports. For this purpose, news texts use various syntactic structures that are rarely found in everyday practice, for example, so-called inverted sentences. Instead of the line-by-line grammatical sentence “According to reliable sources, Libya was attacked by the US air force,” it is given: “Libya was attacked by the US air force.”
but by the US Air Force, reliable sources said"
With the help of grammatical analysis of the use of language in press texts, one can understand general direction messages from a specific journalist and the entire newspaper. The syntax of a sentence reflects the distribution of semantic roles of participants in an event: either by word order, or by various functional correlations of elements (subject, object), or by the use of active or passive forms. In the title “Police Kill Protester,” the word “police” comes first—the place of the subject of the subject—which indicates their active role. In the passive construction “Demonstrator killed by police,” the first place of the active subject is “demonstrator.” This indicates that the “police” have a lesser role here. Finally, the headline “Demonstrator Killed” completely obscures the role of the “police.” At the same time, the title becomes syntactically ambiguous: it can also be understood as a description of an event in which the killer was a demonstrator - this one or another (after all, when quickly scanning the text, the habitual perception of the subject, which comes first as an active subject, can play a role, i.e. perceived as “The demonstrator killed”), or generally associate the demonstrators with murder. An analysis of the syntax of newspaper reports showed that this is precisely the case: journalists try to use such “lowering” syntactic structures and phrases in order to obscure the negative role of the ruling elite.
In the same way, the focus of television news can be expressed by certain video frames filmed with sympathy either for the police or for their “opponents”, that is, for demonstrators, strikers. Research from the University of Glasgow's Mass Communication Research Group has focused on the underlying messages and the use of words such as 'strike' and 'riot'. In particular, a serious analysis of the phenomenon of “demonstration” itself and the various uses of words denoting participants in demonstrations is presented.
News texts do not consist of isolated sentences, therefore, following the development of the technique of rearranging words in sentences, a study of the structures of the sequence of sentences was undertaken to manipulate the perception of texts.
It turned out that the order of sentences affects the overall understanding of the text. So, if in the sequence of sentences they want to focus on the actions of the participants in the demonstration, then, accordingly, the word “demonstrators” is placed in the first place, the place of the subject. This may be followed by a passive sentence such as “They were beaten by the police,” rather than a sentence “The police beat them.” Thus, the biased point of view of the journalist is manifested “in complex” in the use of certain sentence structures and in the order of these sentences.
Poetic syntax is a combination of words in a sentence, syntactic method formation artistic speech. It is intended to convey the author's intonation, the artist's intensification of certain feelings and thoughts.
A rhetorical question is a poetic turn in which the emotional significance of the statement is emphasized by the interrogative form, although an answer to this question is not required.
A rhetorical exclamation is intended to enhance a certain mood.
Rhetorical appeal– not designed for direct response. Inversion- violation of the usual, natural for of this language, word order.
Syntactic parallelism is the identical or similar construction of adjacent fragments of a literary text.
Antithesis is a technique of opposition. Actively used in verbal art. Ellipsis is the omission of words, the meaning of which is easily restored from the context. Amplification is a method of stylistic strengthening of any emotional manifestation, the technique of “piling up” feelings: a) non-union – the technique of omitting conjunctions between members of a sentence or sentences. b) multi-union - a technique opposite to non-union. The repetition of one conjunction is used, with the help of which parts of the sentence are connected. c) pleonasm - a technique of verbosity that creates the impression of an excessive accumulation of one sign. d) gradation - a method of gradually increasing meaning.
Anacoluthon– acceptance of violation syntactic norm. Serves to create the speech of characters in order to convey excitement or satirically portray them as illiterate people.
Often used in literary arts repeat. There are: simple, anaphora (repetition of a word at the beginning of a phrase or verse), epiphora (repetition of a word at the end of a verse or phrase), anadiplosis (repetition of one or more words at the end of the previous verse and at the beginning of the next), prosapodosis (repetition of a word at the beginning and end of the line), refrain (a verse repeated after each stanza or a certain combination of them).
Poetic phonetics is the sound organization of artistic speech. Sound consistency manifests itself primarily in the combination of certain sounds. In verbal art, the techniques of assonance - repetition of vowel sounds and alliteration - repetition of consonant sounds are widely used. With the help of sound consistency, poets and writers enhance pathos - the “tonality” of the artistic content of a work. The field of phonics includes paronymy, or paronomasia - a play on words that sound similar. Artists make extensive use of onomatopoeia. Thus, poetic phonetics plays a certain role in the organization of the artistic whole. The position of phonics in poetry is especially significant.
Fine- means of expression Languages allow not only to convey information, but also to clearly and convincingly convey thoughts. Lexical means of expression make the Russian language emotional and colorful. Expressive stylistic means are used when an emotional impact on listeners or readers is necessary. It is impossible to make a presentation of yourself, a product, or a company without using special language tools.
The word is the basis of visual expressiveness of speech. Many words are often used not only in their direct lexical meaning. The characteristics of animals are transferred to the description of a person’s appearance or behavior - clumsy like a bear, cowardly like a hare. Polysemy (polysemy) is the use of a word in different meanings.
Homonyms are a group of words in the Russian language that have the same sound, but at the same time carry different semantic loads and serve to create sound game.
Types of homonyms:
- homographs - words are written the same way, change their meaning depending on the emphasis placed (lock - lock);
- Homophones - words differ in one or more letters when written, but are perceived equally by ear (fruit - raft);
- Homoforms are words that sound the same, but at the same time refer to different parts speeches (I'm flying on an airplane - I'm curing a runny nose).
Puns are used to give speech a humorous, satirical meaning; they convey sarcasm well. They are based on the sound similarity of words or their polysemy.
Synonyms - describe the same concept from different sides, have different meanings and stylistic coloring. Without synonyms it is impossible to construct a bright and figurative phrase; speech will be oversaturated with tautology.
Types of synonyms:
- complete - identical in meaning, used in the same situations;
- semantic (meaningful) - designed to give color to words (conversation);
- stylistic - have the same meaning, but at the same time relate to different styles of speech (finger);
- semantic-stylistic – have different shade meanings relate to different styles of speech (do - bungle);
- contextual (author's) - used in the context used for a more colorful and multifaceted description of a person or event.
Antonyms – words have the opposite lexical meaning, refer to one part of speech. Allows you to create bright and expressive phrases.
Tropes are words in Russian that are used in a figurative sense. They give speech and works imagery, expressiveness, are designed to convey emotions, and vividly recreate the picture.
Defining Tropes
| Definition | |
| Allegory | Allegorical words and expressions that convey the essence and main features of a particular image. Often used in fables. |
| Hyperbola | Artistic exaggeration. Allows you to vividly describe properties, events, signs. |
| Grotesque | The technique is used to satirically describe the vices of society. |
| Irony | Paths that are meant to hide true meaning expressions through slight ridicule. |
| Litotes | The opposite of hyperbole is that the properties and qualities of an object are deliberately understated. |
| Personification | The reception in which inanimate objects attributes the qualities of living beings. |
| Oxymoron | Connection of incompatible concepts in one sentence (dead souls). |
| Periphrase | Description of the item. A person, an event without an exact name. |
| Synecdoche | Description of the whole through the part. The image of a person is recreated by describing clothes and appearance. |
| Comparison | The difference from metaphor is that there is both what is being compared and what is being compared with. In comparison there are often conjunctions - as if. |
| Epithet | The most common figurative definition. Adjectives are not always used for epithets. |
Metaphor is a hidden comparison, the use of nouns and verbs in a figurative meaning. There is always no subject of comparison, but there is something with which it is compared. There are short and extended metaphors. Metaphor is aimed at external comparison of objects or phenomena.
Metonymy is a hidden comparison of objects based on internal similarity. This distinguishes this trope from a metaphor.
Syntactic means of expression
Stylistic (rhetorical) - figures of speech are designed to enhance the expressiveness of speech and works of art.
Types of stylistic figures
| Name of syntactic structure | Description |
| Anaphora | Using the same syntactic constructions at the beginning of adjacent sentences. Allows you to logically highlight a part of the text or a sentence. |
| Epiphora | Using the same words and expressions at the end of adjacent sentences. Such figures of speech add emotionality to the text and allow you to clearly convey intonation. |
| Parallelism | Constructing adjacent sentences in the same form. Often used to enhance a rhetorical exclamation or question. |
| Ellipsis | Deliberate exclusion of an implied member of a sentence. Makes speech more lively. |
| Gradation | Each subsequent word in a sentence reinforces the meaning of the previous one. |
| Inversion | The arrangement of words in a sentence is not in direct order. This technique allows you to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Give the phrase a new meaning. |
| Default | Deliberate understatement in the text. Designed to awaken deep feelings and thoughts in the reader. |
| Rhetorical appeal | An emphatic reference to a person or inanimate objects. |
| A rhetorical question | A question that does not imply an answer, its task is to attract the attention of the reader or listener. |
| Rhetorical exclamation | Special figures of speech to convey expression and tension of speech. They make the text emotional. Attract the attention of the reader or listener. |
| Multi-Union | Repeated repetition of the same conjunctions to enhance the expressiveness of speech. |
| Asyndeton | Intentional omission of conjunctions. This technique gives the speech dynamism. |
| Antithesis | A sharp contrast of images and concepts. The technique is used to create contrast; it expresses the author’s attitude towards the event being described. |
Tropes, figures of speech, stylistic means of expression, and phraseological statements make speech convincing and vivid. Such revolutions are indispensable in public speaking, election campaigns, rallies, presentations. IN scientific publications and in official business speech, such means are inappropriate - accuracy and persuasiveness in these cases are more important than emotions.