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Types of relationships. The harmonious type of family relationships is divided into several types

Without precise knowledge of what a child is born with, without a deep understanding of the processes of his natural development according to biogenetic laws, it is difficult to recreate a complete and quite complex picture of the child’s development, and to build training and education on its basis.

People surrounding the baby help him in everything from birth. They provide physical care for the child’s body, teach, educate him, contribute to the acquisition of human psychological and behavioral traits, and adaptation to the conditions of social existence. Support for a child from parents and adults begins at birth and continues for at least a decade and a half until the child becomes an adult and is able to lead an independent, self-sufficient lifestyle. But a modern adult, in order to remain human and develop as a person, needs constant support from other people, communication and interaction with them. Without this, he would quickly degrade as a person.

At the same time, already at birth, a baby has a considerable supply of almost ready-to-use, complex sensory and motor abilities - instincts that allow him to adapt to the world and quickly progress in his development. From birth, for example, a newborn has many complex movements that develop mainly according to a genetically specified program in the process of maturation of the body, including reflex movements that occur immediately and without special education from the first hours of life under the influence of appropriate internal and external stimuli, coded as key in the development programs of these movements. At birth, the baby has sensations of all elementary forms of perception and memory, thanks to which its further cognitive and intellectual development becomes possible. They are genetically determined structures or blocks sensory systems, from which more complex cognitive structures are built directly or with minor intravital modification. Such basic elements of perception can include, for example, the mechanisms of visual, auditory and muscular concentration, tracking of objects, their comparison, localization in space, storage in memory, processing traces of their influences.

A baby who is only 1-2 days old from birth is already able to distinguish chemical substances taste. The sense of smell, as one of the oldest and most important sense organs, also begins to function immediately after birth. Elementary vision, movement and hearing have the same features.

In the first two months of life, the child demonstrates the ability to reflexively turn the head in response to the touch of any object to the corner of the mouth, strongly squeezes the palms when touching their surface, and makes general uncoordinated movements of the arms, legs and head. He also has the ability to visually track moving objects and turn his head in their direction. In maternity hospitals, children in the first days of their lives instinctively turn their faces towards the window from which daylight pours.

The baby is able to distinguish substances by taste. He definitely prefers sweet liquids over others and is even able to detect the degree of sweetness. The newborn senses odors, reacts to them by turning his head, changes in the frequency of heartbeat and breathing. These motor and physiological reactions similar to those observed in adults with increased attention and special interest in something.

One should also name a group of congenital processes that contribute to the self-preservation and development of the child’s body. They are associated with the regulation of digestion, blood circulation, breathing, body temperature, metabolic processes, etc. Undoubtedly, sucking, protective, orientation, grasping, musculoskeletal and a number of other reflexes are innate; all of them clearly appear already in the second month of a child’s life.

Readiness to function from birth is revealed not only by the basic sense organs, but also by the brain.

The number of nerve cells in the cerebral cortex of a newborn is almost the same as in an adult, but these cells are still immature, and the connections between them are weak. The maturation of the child’s brain and body, their transformation into the brain and body of an adult, occurs within several years after birth and ends only with entry into school. The maturation and development of the brain is directly influenced by many different external influences and impressions that the child receives from environment.

Studies have found that in the brain of a child, no more than a day and a half has passed since birth, it is possible to register various electrical potentials that arise in response to the effects of color stimuli on the organ of vision. By this time, the brain is already able to form conditioned reflexes.

In relation to an infant, it is important to know not only the innate forms of the psyche and behavior, but also the process of natural development of the body. Special meaning in the first months of life there is development of movements.

A baby who is only 1-2 days old from birth is already able to distinguish chemical substances by taste. The sense of smell, as one of the oldest and most important sense organs, also begins to function immediately after birth. Elementary vision, movement and hearing have the same features.

The baby is able to distinguish substances by taste. He definitely prefers sweet liquids over others and is even able to detect the degree of sweetness. The newborn senses odors, reacts to them by turning his head, changes in the frequency of heartbeat and breathing. These motor and physiological reactions are similar to those observed in adults with increased attention and special interest in something.

We should also name, recognizing as innate, a group of processes that contribute to the self-preservation and development of the child’s body. They are associated with the regulation of digestion, blood circulation, breathing, body temperature, metabolic processes, etc. Undoubtedly, sucking, protective, orientation, grasping, musculoskeletal and a number of other reflexes are innate; all of them clearly appear already in the second month of a child’s life.

Readiness to function from birth is revealed not only by the basic sense organs, but also by the brain. The number of nerve cells in the cerebral cortex of a newborn is almost the same as in an adult, but these cells are still immature, and the connections between them are weak. The maturation of the child’s brain and body, their transformation into the brain and body of an adult, occurs within several years after birth and ends only with entry into school. The maturation and development of the brain is directly influenced by the many different external influences and impressions that a child receives from the environment.

In relation to an infant, it is important to know not only the innate forms of the psyche and behavior, but also the process of natural development of the body. The development of movements in the first months of life is of particular importance.

A baby's motor skills from birth have a rather complex organization. It includes many mechanisms designed to regulate posture. A newborn often exhibits increased motor activity of the limbs, which has a positive effect on the formation of complex complexes of coordinated movements in the future.

The development of the child's movements during the first year of life proceeds at a very rapid pace, and the progress achieved in this respect in twelve months is amazing. From a practically helpless creature with a limited set of elementary general innate movements of the arms, legs and head, the child turns into little man, not only easily standing on two legs, but relatively freely and independently moving in Space, capable of, simultaneously with leg movements, performing complex manipulative movements with hands freed from locomotion (the function of ensuring movement in space) and intended for exploring the surrounding world.

During infancy, children's motor skills develop rapidly, especially complex, sensory-coordinated movements of the arms and legs. These movements subsequently play a very significant role in the formation of cognitive and intellectual abilities child. Thanks to the movements of the arms and legs, the child receives a significant part of the information about the world; through the movements of the arms and legs, he learns to see like a human eye. Complex manual movements are included in primary forms thinking and become an integral part of it, ensuring improvement intellectual activity person.

Greater impulsive activity in the child's hands is observed. Already in the first weeks of his life. This activity includes arm swinging, grasping, and hand movements. At 3-4 months, the child begins to reach for objects with his hand and sits with support. At 5 months, he already grasps stationary objects with his hand. "At 6 months the child sits on a chair with support and can grab moving, swinging objects. At 7 months he sits without support, and at 8 he sits down without assistance. At about 9 months the baby stands with support, crawls on his stomach, and at 10 sits with support and crawls, leaning on his hands and knees. At 11 months the child is already standing without support, at 12 he walks holding the hand of an adult, and at 13 he walks independently. This is the amazing progress of motor activity over the course of one year with the moment the child is born.

Of all the senses, vision is the most important for humans. It is the first to begin to actively develop at the very beginning of life. Already at one month old baby tracking eye movements can be recorded. At first, such movements are carried out mainly in the horizontal plane, then vertical tracking appears, and finally, by the age of two months, elementary curvilinear, for example circular, eye movements are noted. Visual concentration, i.e. the ability to fix the gaze on an object, appears in the second month of life. By the end of it, the child can independently move his gaze from one object to another.

Infants in the first two months of life most During their waking hours, they are engaged in examining surrounding objects, especially when they are fed and in a calm state. However, vision appears to be the least developed sense at birth (meaning the level of development that vision can reach in an adult). Although newborns are able to follow moving objects with their eyes, their vision is relatively weak until 2-4 months of age.

Enough good level The development of eye movements can be noted in a child by about three months of age. The process of formation and development of these movements is not completely predetermined genetically; its speed and quality depend on the creation of an appropriate external stimulating environment. Children's eye movements develop faster and become more perfect when there are bright, attractive objects in their field of vision, as well as people making a variety of movements that the child can observe.

From about the second month of life, the child has the ability to distinguish the simplest colors, and in the third or fourth months - the shapes of objects. At two weeks, the baby has probably already formed a single image of the mother’s face and voice. Experiments conducted by scientists have shown that a baby shows obvious anxiety if a mother appears before his eyes and begins to speak in a “not her own” voice, or when a stranger suddenly “speaks” in the mother’s voice (such an experimental situation with the help of technical means artificially created in a number of experiments with infants).

In the second month of life, the baby reacts to people in a special way, highlighting and distinguishing them from surrounding objects. His reactions to a person are specific and almost always strongly emotionally charged. At the age of about 2-3 months, the baby also reacts to a mother’s smile with a smile and a general increase in movements. This is called the revitalization complex. It would be wrong to “associate the emergence of a revival complex in a child with the visual perception of well-known faces. Many children who are blind from birth also begin to smile at about two to three months of age, having heard only the voice of their mother. It has been established that intense emotional communication between an adult and a child contributes, and rare and soulless prevents the development of the revitalization complex and can lead to a general delay psychological development child.

A smile on a child’s face does not appear and is maintained by itself. Its appearance and preservation is facilitated by affectionate address mother with a child or an adult replacing her. To do this, the adult’s facial expression must be kind, joyful, and his voice pleasant and emotional.

The first elements of the revitalization complex appear in the second month of life. These are freezing, concentration, smiling, humming, and all of them initially arise as reactions to an adult addressing a child. In the third month of life, these elements are combined into a system and appear simultaneously. Each of them acts as a specific reaction to the corresponding influences of an adult and serves the purpose of intensifying the child’s communication with an adult. At the final stage of its development, the revitalization complex is demonstrated by the child whenever the child has a need to communicate with an adult.

By the age of three to four months, children clearly show by their behavior that they prefer to see, hear and communicate only with familiar people, as a rule, family members. At about eight months of age, the baby shows a state of visible anxiety when a face comes into his field of vision. stranger or when he himself finds himself in an unfamiliar environment, even if at that moment there is someone next to him birth mother. Fear of strangers and unfamiliar surroundings progresses quite quickly, starting from eight months of age until the end of the first year of life. Along with it, the child’s desire to constantly be close to a familiar person, most often his mother, grows, and not allow long separation with him. This tendency to develop fear of strangers and fear of unfamiliar surroundings reaches its highest level at approximately 14-18 months of life, and then gradually decreases. Apparently, it manifests the instinct of self-preservation during that particularly dangerous period of life for a child, when his movements are uncontrollable and his defensive reactions are weak.

Infants of one year old or close to this age are characterized by a clearly expressed cognitive interest in the world around them and developed cognitive activity. They are able to focus their attention on the details of the images under consideration, highlighting contours, contrasts, simple shapes, moving from horizontal to vertical elements of the picture. Infants show an increased interest in flowers; they have a very pronounced indicative and exploratory reaction to everything new and unusual. Babies become animated when they perceive phenomena different from those they have encountered before.

By the end of the first year of life, the first signs of thinking in a child occur in the form of sensorimotor intelligence. Children of this age notice, assimilate and use the elementary properties and relationships of objects in their practical actions. The further progress of their thinking is directly related to the beginning of speech development.

INTRODUCTION

1. Chronological framework

4. CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION

The problem of communication between young children and adults is very relevant and topical. Research by outstanding Russian psychologists has proven that communication is the most important factor in a child’s mental development. They began studying this problem in the 50s. As you know, communication is the first human activity, arising at the dawn of the formation of human society.

Research by leading Russian psychologists has proven that the need for communication in children is the basis for the further development of the entire psyche and personality already in the early stages of ontogenesis. It is in the process of communicating with other people that the child learns human experience. Without communication, it is impossible to establish mental contact between people.

Without human communication, the development of a child’s personality is impossible, as evidenced by children - Mowgli. A lack of communication between an adult and a child, according to experts, leads to various disorders: in some cases to the occurrence of delayed mental development, in others to pedagogical neglect, and in more severe cases even to the death of children in the early stages of ontogenesis (in infancy and early age). Also, the lack of communication with children leads to the following results: as numerous facts testify, being deprived of communication with their own kind, the human individual, even if he, as an organism, is completely preserved, nevertheless remains a biological being in his mental development.

The mental development of a child begins with communication. This is the first kind social activity, which arises in ontogenesis and thanks to which the child receives the necessary for his individual development information.

Communication is one of the most important factors in the overall mental development of a child. Only in contact with adults is it possible for children to assimilate the socio-historical experience of humanity.

1. Chronological framework

The first stage is the newborn stage (up to 2 months). This stage is characterized, first of all, by the fact that the child is born with relatively highly developed sensory organs, organs of movement and a nervous system, the formation of which occurs during the prenatal period. The newborn has visual and auditory sensations, sensations of body position in space, olfactory, skin and taste sensations, as well as many elementary reflexes. The nervous system of a newborn, including the cerebral cortex, is generally already fully anatomically formed. But the development of the microscopic structure of the cortex has not yet been completed, in particular the myelination of motor and sensitive areas the crust is just beginning.

The lifestyle of a newborn differs little from its lifestyle during the prenatal period: at rest, the child retains the same embryonic position; sleep takes 4/5 of the total time; the child’s external activity is largely focused on satisfying his food needs; There are no manual or moving movements at all. Nevertheless, the newborn stage is the first stage at which behavior in the form of simple acts begins to form, and most importantly, the sphere of sensations is especially intensively formed. There is an early differentiation of taste and olfactory sensations that are related to the child’s nutrition. Skin sensations on the cheeks, lips, and mouth reach a high level of development. Visual perception of shapes is initially absent; the child reacts only to large or bright moving objects. At the same time, the development of indicative reactions occurs, such as calming down to sound, and especially to the mother’s whisper.

At three to four weeks of age, the baby begins to prepare for the transition to the next, higher stage of development. At this time, a peculiar complex reaction appears, expressed in the general revival of the child in the presence of a person. This reaction is called the “revival reaction” among researchers. The development of this reaction begins with the fact that in response to the approach talking man the child begins to smile and has a general positive orientation, which is not yet differentiated. That is, the child begins to show the first signs of objective perception.

Thus, the main characteristics of this stage are: myelination of nerve fibers; formation of simple behavioral acts and indicative reactions; the occurrence of a “revival” reaction.

Early infancy (2 to 6 months). At this stage of mental development, the child begins to operate with objects and his perception is formed. It all starts with attempts to grab or feel an object with simultaneous visual fixation on this object, which determines the formation of visual-tactile connections that underlie object perception. The child operates especially actively with objects (with simultaneous visual fixation) at the age of five to six months, so we can assume that at this age there is a rapid development of perception processes. Moreover, by this time the child can already sit independently, which provides him further development movements when reaching for objects. At the same time, the child begins to recognize people and things. Visual concentration and visual anticipation develop.

Thus, main feature This stage is the development of actions with objects and processes of object perception.

Late infancy (from 6 to 12-14 months). In the second half of the first year of life, the child masters new actions, which is associated with a change in his attitude towards the world around him. At the seventh month of life, the child’s manual object movements are already well developed. He can take an object, bring it to his mouth, and push it away. In this case, the child can sit up independently and roll over from his stomach to his back; he begins to crawl, rises, trying to cling to surrounding objects. Thus, strengthening the musculoskeletal system leads to the development of the child’s range of motion, which in turn is a prerequisite for increasing the flow of information from the environment. All this leads to increased independence of the child. His relationships with adults are increasingly taking the form of joint activity, in which the adult most often prepares the child’s action, and the child performs the action himself. With the help of such interaction, it is already possible to establish communication with the child through objects. For example, an adult moves an object towards a child - the child takes it. The child moves the object away from him - the adult removes it.

Consequently, the child’s activity in this period of development is no longer controlled by perception. individual items or their totality, but by a complex relationship of its own objective action child and adult actions. On this basis, the child begins to develop his first understanding of objects. During the established “subject” contact, the child begins to develop speech. He increasingly begins to respond with action to the word of an adult. Somewhat later, the child begins to make gestures addressed to an adult, while the child’s actions are increasingly accompanied by sounds denoting something objective.

Other important difference of this age is that in a child, in the process of objective communication with an adult, non-impulsive imitation of adults becomes possible. As a result, the child begins to imitate the adult more consciously, which indicates that the child has the opportunity to master socially developed methods of action. This, in turn, ensures the appearance at the end of this stage of specifically human motor operations with objects. During these operations thumb is contrasted with the rest, which is characteristic only of humans. Gradually, the child begins to grasp and hold objects with his hand in an increasingly sophisticated way. By the end of the period, the child masters independent walking.

Thus, the main characteristics of this period are: a change in the relationship with the outside world based on objective communication; comprehension of objects and the appearance of the first signs of speech; the emergence of non-impulsive imitation by adults and the development of specifically human motor operations with objects; mastering independent walking.

2. Congenital forms of the baby’s psyche and behavior

The baby is able to distinguish substances by taste. He definitely prefers sweet liquids over others and is even able to detect the degree of sweetness. The newborn senses odors, reacts to them by turning his head, changes in the frequency of heartbeat and breathing. These motor and physiological reactions are similar to those observed in adults with increased attention and special interest in something.

The development of the child's movements during the first year of life proceeds at a very rapid pace, and the progress achieved in this respect in twelve months is amazing. From a practically helpless creature with a limited set of elementary general congenital movements of the arms, legs and head, the child turns into a small person who not only easily stands on two legs, but moves relatively freely and independently in Space, capable of performing complex manipulative movements simultaneously with the movements of the legs hands freed from locomotion (the function of ensuring movement in space) and intended for exploring the surrounding world.

During infancy, children's motor skills develop rapidly, especially complex, sensory-coordinated movements of the arms and legs. These movements subsequently play a very significant role in the development of the child’s cognitive and intellectual abilities. Thanks to the movements of the arms and legs, the child receives a significant part of the information about the world; through the movements of the arms and legs, he learns to see like a human eye. Complex manual movements are included in the primary forms of thinking and become its integral part, ensuring the improvement of human intellectual activity.

Greater impulsive activity in the child's hands is observed. Already in the first weeks of his life. This activity includes arm swinging, grasping, and hand movements. At 3-4 months, the child begins to reach for objects with his hand and sits with support. At 5 months, he already grasps stationary objects with his hand. "At 6 months the child sits on a chair with support and can grab moving, swinging objects. At 7 months he sits without support, and at 8 he sits down without assistance. At about 9 months the baby stands with support, crawls on his stomach, and at 10 sits with support and crawls on hands and knees. At 11 months the child is already standing without support, at 12 months he walks holding an adult’s hand, and at 13 he walks independently. This is an amazing progress in motor activity within one year from the moment of birth child.

Of all the senses, vision is the most important for humans. It is the first to begin to actively develop at the very beginning of life. Already in a one-month-old baby, tracking eye movements can be recorded. At first, such movements are carried out mainly in the horizontal plane, then vertical tracking appears, and finally, by the age of two months, elementary curvilinear, for example circular, eye movements are noted. Visual concentration, i.e. the ability to fix the gaze on an object, appears in the second month of life. By the end of it, the child can independently move his gaze from one object to another.

Babies in the first two months of life spend most of their waking hours looking at surrounding objects, especially when they are fed and in a calm state. However, vision appears to be the least developed sense at birth (meaning the level of development that vision can reach in an adult). Although newborns are able to follow moving objects with their eyes, their vision is relatively weak until 2-4 months of age.

A fairly good level of development of eye movements can be noted in a child by about three months of age. The process of formation and development of these movements is not completely predetermined genetically; its speed and quality depend on the creation of an appropriate external stimulating environment. Children's eye movements develop faster and become more perfect when there are bright, attractive objects in their field of vision, as well as people making a variety of movements that the child can observe.

In the second month of life, the baby reacts to people in a special way, highlighting and distinguishing them from surrounding objects. His reactions to a person are specific and almost always strongly emotionally charged. At the age of about 2-3 months, the baby also reacts to the mother’s smile with a smile and a general increase in movements. This is called the revitalization complex. It would be wrong to “associate the emergence of a revival complex in a child with the visual perception of well-known faces. Many children who are blind from birth also begin to smile at about two to three months of age, having heard only the voice of their mother. It has been established that intense emotional communication between an adult and a child contributes, and rare and soulless things hinder the development of the revitalization complex and can lead to a general delay in the child’s psychological development.

A smile on a child’s face does not appear and is maintained by itself. Its appearance and preservation is facilitated by the affectionate treatment of the mother with the child or an adult replacing her. To do this, the adult’s facial expression must be kind, joyful, and his voice pleasant and emotional.

By the age of three to four months, children clearly show by their behavior that they prefer to see, hear and communicate only with familiar people, as a rule, family members. At the age of about eight months, the child shows a state of visible anxiety when the face of an unfamiliar person appears in his field of vision or when he himself finds himself in an unfamiliar environment, even if his own mother is next to him at that moment in time. Fear of strangers and unfamiliar surroundings progresses quite quickly, starting from eight months of age until the end of the first year of life. Along with it, the child’s desire to constantly be close to a familiar person, most often his mother, and not allow a long separation from him grows. This tendency to develop fear of strangers and fear of unfamiliar surroundings reaches its highest level at approximately 14-18 months of life, and then gradually decreases. Apparently, it manifests the instinct of self-preservation during that particularly dangerous period of life for a child, when his movements are uncontrollable and his defensive reactions are weak.

Infants one year old or close to this age are characterized by a clearly expressed cognitive interest in the world around them and developed cognitive activity. They are able to focus their attention on the details of the images under consideration, highlighting contours, contrasts, simple shapes, moving from horizontal to vertical elements of the picture. Infants show an increased interest in flowers; they have a very pronounced indicative and exploratory reaction to everything new and unusual. Babies become animated when they perceive phenomena different from those they have encountered before.

3. Features of communication between a baby and adults

The first object that a child identifies from the surrounding reality is human face. Maybe this happens because this is the irritant that is most often with the child in the most important points satisfying his organic needs. The baby's eyes, which for the first time begin to converge on the mother's face, and the smile on the mother's face, serve as indicators of the selection of the object.

From the reaction of concentration on the mother's face, an important new formation of the newborn period arises - the revitalization complex. The revitalization complex is an emotionally positive reaction that is accompanied by movements and sounds. Before this, the child’s movements were chaotic and uncoordinated. The complex develops coordination of movements. The revival complex is the first act of behavior, the act of distinguishing an adult. This is also the first act of communication. The revival complex is not just a reaction, it is an attempt to influence an adult.

The revitalization complex is the main neoplasm of the critical period. It marks the end of the newborn and the beginning of a new stage of development - the stage of infancy. Therefore, the appearance of the revival complex represents a psychological criterion for the end of the neonatal crisis. Physiological criterion end of newbornhood - the appearance of visual and auditory concentration, the possibility of formation conditioned reflexes to visual and auditory stimuli. The medical criterion for the end of the neonatal period is that the child has acquired the original weight with which he was born, which indicates that physiological systems vital functions function normally.

The social situation of the inextricable unity of a child and an adult contains a contradiction: the child needs the adult as much as possible and, at the same time, does not have specific means of influencing him. This contradiction is resolved throughout the entire period of infancy. The resolution of this contradiction leads to the destruction of the social development situation that gave rise to it.

Social situation common life child and mother leads to the emergence of a new type of activity - direct emotional communication between the child and mother. As studies by D. B. Elkonin and M. I. Lisina have shown, specific feature of this type of activity is that the subject of this activity is another person. But if the subject of activity is another person, then this activity is communication. What is important is not what people do with each other, emphasized D. B. Elkonin, but that another person becomes the subject of activity. Communication of this type in infancy is very pronounced. On the part of the adult, the child becomes the subject of activity. On the part of the child, one can observe the emergence of the first forms of influence on the adult. Thus, very soon the child’s vocal reactions acquire the character of an emotionally active call, whining turns into a behavioral act aimed at an adult. This is not yet speech in the proper sense of the word, as long as it is just emotional and expressive reactions.

Communication during this period should be emotionally positive. Thus, the child creates an emotionally positive tone, which serves as a sign of physical and mental health.

Is communication the leading type of activity in infancy? Research has shown that a lack of communication during this period has a negative impact. Thus, after the Second World War, the concept of @hospitalism@ entered into psychology, with the help of which the mental development of children who lost their parents and ended up in hospitals or orphanages was described.

Most researchers (R. Spitz, J. Bowlby) noted that the separation of a child from his mother in the first years of life causes significant disturbances in the child’s mental development, and this leaves an indelible imprint on his entire life. R. Spitz described numerous symptoms of behavioral disorders in children and mental retardation physical development children raised in institutions. Despite the fact that the care, food, and hygienic conditions in these institutions were good, the mortality rate was very high. Many studies indicate that pre-speech and speech development suffers during hospitalization; separation from the mother affects the development of cognitive functions and the emotional development of the child. A. Jersild, describing emotional development children, noted that a child’s ability to love others is closely related to how much love he himself received and in what form it was expressed. Anna Freud, tracing the development of children who were orphaned during the war and raised in orphanages, discovered that as teenagers they were not capable of selective attitudes towards adults and peers. Many teenagers tried to establish such a close child-mother relationship with one of the adults that did not correspond to their age. Without this, the transition to adulthood became impossible.

Observing the development of children in modern closed children's institutions, the Hungarian pediatrician E. Pikler discovered new symptoms of hospitalism. She wrote that children in these institutions, at first glance, produce good impression. They are obedient, usually busy playing, walk in pairs on the street, do not run away, do not linger, and can be easily undressed or dressed. They do not touch what cannot be touched; they do not interfere with the organizing work of an adult with their demands. Although such a picture gives a feeling of satisfaction, such behavior, according to E. Pikler, seems extremely dangerous: these children completely lack volitional behavior and initiative, they only willingly reproduce and carry out tasks according to instructions. These children are characterized not only by a lack of volitional expression, but also by an impersonal attitude towards adults.

The most important moments of interaction between a child and an adult take place during the process of caring for the child. This is feeding, bathing, dressing, walking, etc. The peculiarity of contacts between an adult and a child is how the adult informs the child about his actions. At the same time, he can patiently and slowly wait for the child to show activity. So, for example, during feeding, the teacher first raises the spoon with food to the child’s eye level so that the child looks at this spoon. The child’s mouth reflexively opens, and the teacher calmly feeds the child. This example clearly shows the observance of the “golden rule of education”: the child must first be given the opportunity to orient himself, and then he himself begins to act. This rule applies to any, even the simplest, human actions. Unfortunately, E. Pikler believes, adults usually decide for themselves what a child should know, when and how he should act, and, helping the child, teach him without giving him the opportunity to actively navigate the conditions own action.

As J. Bruner's later studies showed, a child already develops a number of communication methods in the pre-speech period. According to J. Bruner, the baby initially uses a “demanding method” of communication. These are innate reactions of discomfort, cries with the nature of a demand, during which there are no pauses suggesting a response. Following them, a “begging method” appears - in this case, the screams are less urgent, and pauses appear while waiting for an answer. Starting from 5-6 months, the child’s vocalizations are included in a new structure - an “exchange mode” of communication appears for the first time. During this period, the child uses his vocalizations primarily to draw the mother's attention to the object and to his intention to participate in communication. The “exchange” method gradually turns into the fourth - “interacting” method. In joint activity with an adult, the separation of the positions of the speaker and the listener in the structure of communication is observed/

CONCLUSION

People surrounding the baby help him in everything from birth. They provide physical care for the child’s body, teach, educate him, contribute to the acquisition of human psychological and behavioral traits, and adaptation to the conditions of social existence. Support for the child from parents and adults begins from birth and continues for at least a decade and a half until the child becomes an adult and is able to lead an independent, self-sufficient lifestyle. But a modern adult, in order to remain human and develop as a person, needs constant support from other people, communication and interaction with them. Without this, he would quickly degrade as a person.

At the same time, already at birth, a baby has a considerable supply of almost ready-to-use, complex sensory and motor abilities - instincts, allowing him to adapt to the world and quickly progress in his development. From birth, for example, a newborn has many complex movements that develop mainly according to a genetically specified program during the maturation of the body, including reflex movements that arise immediately and without special training from the first hours of life under the influence of appropriate internal and external stimuli coded as key in programs. At birth, the baby has sensations of all modalities, elementary forms of perception, memory, thanks to which his further cognitive and intellectual development becomes possible.

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Without precise knowledge of what a child is born with, without a deep understanding of the processes of his natural development according to biogenetic laws, it is difficult to recreate a complete and fairly complex picture of the child’s development.

The child is born helpless, cannot independently satisfy any of his needs (he is fed, bathed, dressed). It has a relatively limited fund certainly reflexive forms behavior, adaptations to the external environment are hereditary mechanisms. These include reflexes regulating the course of various physiological functions: respiratory, sucking, defensive And indicative, protective etc. A child’s life in new conditions is ensured by innate mechanisms. He is born with a certain readiness of the nervous system to adapt the body to external conditions. So, immediately after birth, reflexes are activated, ensuring the functioning of the main systems of the body (breathing).

In the first days after birth, the child experiences: severe skin irritation (an injection, for example) causes protective withdrawal, flashing of an object in front of the face – squinting, and a sharp increase in light brightness – constriction of the pupil etc. These reactions – defensive reflexes.

In addition to defensive ones, one can detect reactions aimed at contact with an irritant. This orientation reflexes. Observations have established that already in the period from the first to the third day strong light source causes head rotation(the head turns towards the light). A child can easily evoke and food orientation reflexes. Touching the corners of the lips, the cheeks causes a hungry child search reaction: he turns his head towards the stimulus, opens his mouth.

In addition to those listed, the child exhibits several more congenital reactions: sucking reflex– the child immediately begins to suck the object placed in his mouth; clinging reflex– touching the palm causes a grasping reaction; repulsion reflex(crawling) - when touching the soles of the feet. Thus, the child is armed with a certain number of unconditioned reflexes, which appear in the very first days after birth.

The presence of innate reactions is necessary for the child to survive. They help him adapt to new conditions of existence. Thanks to these reflexes, it becomes possible for the child new type breathing and nutrition. After birth, the baby's body goes into pulmonary breathing and the so-called oral nutrition(through the mouth and gastrointestinal tract). This adaptation occurs reflexively. After the lungs are filled with air, an entire system of muscles is involved in rhythmic breathing movements. Breathing is easy and free. Feeding occurs through the sucking reflex. The innate actions included in the sucking reflex are, at first, poorly coordinated with each other: the child chokes when sucking, and his strength quickly runs out. Very great importance There is also the establishment of reflex automaticity of thermoregulation: the child’s body adapts better and better to temperature changes.

The newborn responds to most external influences with global, undifferentiated movements of the arms and legs. The cerebral cortex has not yet fully formed: nerve cells have almost no branches, the pathways are not covered with protective myelin sheaths. This leads to a wide irradiation of excitation and makes it difficult to form conditioned reflexes. Absence of a significant amount congenital forms behavior is not a weakness, but a child’s strength - he has almost limitless possibilities for learning new experiences, acquiring new forms of behavior inherent in a person.

The people who surround the baby help him in everything from birth. They provide physical care for the child’s body, educate and train him, contribute to the acquisition of human psychological and behavioral traits, and adaptation to the conditions of social existence.

Already at birth, a baby has a stock of complex sensory and motor abilities-instincts that are practically ready for use, allowing him to adapt to the world and quickly progress in his development. From birth, for example, a newborn has many complex movements that develop mainly according to a genetically specified program.

The social situation of development in infancy, according to L. S. Vygotsky, is that the entire life and behavior of an infant is mediated by an adult or realized in collaboration with him. So he called her "We"(a child cannot exist without an adult), which allows us to consider the child a social being, his attitude to reality is initially social.

Speaking about the social situation of development, the following should be noted. The baby is biologically helpless; he is completely dependent on adults to meet his needs. Reaction to an adult is not only the child’s first psychological reaction, but also his first social reaction. L. S. Vygotsky, speaking about the development of an infant, wrote that this is the most social creature, and in part this is true, because the child is completely dependent on the adult. The child himself could never survive; it is the adult, surrounding him with attention, care and care, who helps him to develop normally. At the same time, he is deprived of the main means social communication- speeches. Leading activity infancy - direct emotional communication. Emotional communication with an adult greatly affects good mood child. If the baby is capricious and does not want to play, then an adult approaching him with his very appearance lifts the child’s mood, and he can again be left alone and have fun with those toys that have ceased to interest him. TO four to five months communication with adults acquires electoral character. The baby begins to distinguish his own from strangers, he is happy with a familiar adult, but a stranger can cause him fear.

Need for emotional communication, which has a huge positive impact on the development of the child, Maybe, however, lead to negative manifestations. If an adult tries to constantly be with the child, then the child gets used to constantly demanding attention, is not interested in toys, and cries if he is left alone for even a minute.

At correct methods education, direct communication (communication for the sake of communication), characteristic of the beginning of infancy, soon gives way to communication about objects, toys, outgrowing V joint activities adult and child. Adult as if introduces the child to the objective world, attracts his attention to objects, clearly demonstrates all possible ways of working with them, often directly helps to kid perform an action, guiding his movements.

Communication There is condition of all other human activities as a social being. The baby does not yet speak speech - a means of social communication, but he develops an apparatus of subtle emotional sensitivity in relation to adults. The child’s contact with the outside world is carried out through an adult. The baby's dependence on adults leads to the fact that the child's attitude to reality and to himself is always refracted through the prism of relationships with another person. In other words, the child’s relationship to reality turns out to be a social, social relationship from the very beginning.

The baby is introduced very early into a situation of communication with adults. In communication, the direction of one person towards another is always manifested; interaction between the participants in communication occurs when the action of one presupposes the reciprocal action of the other and is internally designed for him. The need for communication is not innate, A arises under influence certain conditions. There are two such conditions.

First condition – the baby’s objective need for care and concern from others. Only thanks to the constant help of close adults can a child survive during a period when he is unable to independently satisfy his organic needs. However, such dependence of a child on an adult is not a need for communication. The infant does not yet address his signals to a specific person; there is no communication yet.

Second condition - behavior of an adult towards a child. From the first days of a child's birth, an adult treats him as if he could engage in communication. The adult talks to the baby and tirelessly looks for any response sign by which one can judge that the child has joined in communication.

Emotional contacts with children aged two, three, four months show what deep delight arouses in them the affectionate conversation of an adult who has never fed or swaddled any of them, but now, bending over, smiles and gently strokes them.

Initially, the child is drawn into communication by the mother, later he has a need for contact, and the means to be included in communication with other people are developed. The most important means communication in infancy are expressive actions(smiles, active motor reactions). The baby, in turn, needs a selective set of means of communication offered by adults: not all means existing in human culture have emotional significance for him from the first weeks and months of life.

Observations have shown that attempts to organize communication with a three-month-old baby on the basis of purely verbal influences from an adult are fruitless - the child “takes” only the expressive side of speech. Long monologues irritate one-year-old children, in much the same way as patting them on the head; At this age, children’s communication with people around them is based on joint objective activities.

Thus, a baby, in the process of his own activities and in communication with adults, develops a certain “integral mental education, as if centralizing his mental life and mediating his behavior in response to influences external environment”, education, subjectively expressed in an emotionally charged sense of self.

The main neoplasms of this age are:

1) instinctive mental life , which is characterized by: the inability to isolate oneself and other people from the general situation; the emergence of feelings in connection with one’s condition.

2) formation of autonomous speech, which is characterized by: inconstancy and polysemy of words, etc.

TO At 2–3 months the child begins to smile as a reaction to an adult as an expression of joyful experience. The child fixes his gaze on the mother's face, throws up his arms, moves his legs quickly, makes loud noises, and smiles. This violent emotional-motor reaction is called "revival complex". The revitalization complex is a kind of dominant, since other needs for the child lose their importance. When an adult approaches him, he freezes, and then begins to vigorously move his legs and arms, doing everything to attract the adult’s attention.

"Revival Complex"- this is a specific act of behavior of an infant in relation to an adult, this is the first simplest form interaction of the child with the outside world. It marks the emergence of the first social need - needs for cognition and communication.

"Revival Complex" includes 3 components:

1) smile: the first smiles can be recorded in the 1st week of the 2nd month of life. The first smiles are light, with a stretching of the mouth, but without opening the lips. Gradually, the child begins to smile calmly, with serious, calm facial expressions. In a developed “animation complex” the smile is lively, wide, with an opening of the mouth and with animated facial expressions;

2) vocalizations: the child walks, hums, babbles, screams towards the adult;

3) motor reactions, revival: the “revitalization complex” opens by turning the head, squinting the eyes at the adult, and weakly moving the arms and legs. Gradually, the child begins to raise his arms, bend his legs at the knees, and turn on his side with his back arched. In the developed complex, energetic repeated bending of the back with emphasis on the back of the head and heels (“bridges”) with equally energetic straightening is noted, as well as walking movements of the legs, throwing up, swinging and lowering of the arms.

According to M.I. Lisina, the systematic emotional and verbal influence of an adult, starting from 2.5 months, has positive influence to increase the child’s overall activity, significantly affects his development cognitive activity aimed at familiarizing with subjects.

The “revitalization complex” goes through 3 stages: 1) smile; 2) smile + hum; 3) smile + vocalism + motor animation (by 3 months). In addition, the beginning of the “revitalization complex” is associated with the generalized attraction of any adult, the end is characterized by the appearance of selective communication. Thus, already a 3-month-old child distinguishes his mother from his environment, and by 6 months he begins to distinguish his own from strangers. From 8-9 months, the child will be active, starting the first games with adults (not because of the game itself, but because of the pleasure of communicating with an adult), and by 11-12 months, children already know how to not only observe adults, but also contact them for help. A child always imitates only a person.

Until about 5 months, the “revival complex” develops and remains as a whole, and by 6 months it dies off as a single complex reaction, but its components begin to transform: smiling into facial expressions, humming into speech, motor revival into grasping.

So, in infancy main role the mother plays in the child’s life, she feeds, looks after, gives affection, care, as a result of which the child develops basic trust in the world. The mother's confidence in her actions is very important for the child. If the mother is anxious, neurotic, if the situation in the family is tense, if the child is given little attention (for example, a child in an orphanage), then basic distrust of the world, persistent pessimism. A pronounced deficit in the child’s emotional communication with his mother, if he is limited in contact with adults, then profound physical and mental retardation develops, called hospitalism. Its manifestations are: delayed development of movements, especially walking, a sharp lag in mastering speech, emotional impoverishment, meaningless movements of an obsessive nature (swaying the body, etc.). It was revealed that the cause of hospitalization is dissatisfaction of basic socio-psychological needs: in a variety of stimulation, in cognition, in primary socio-emotional connections (especially with the mother), in self-actualization. Hospitalism occurs not only as a result of isolation or separation of a child, but also in situations of emotional indifference to him, lack of friendly attention from close adults.

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